The form of government of the Formation of the German Democratic Republic (GDR)

The Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic that arose in the post-war period on German soil for forty years, as it were, personified two socio-economic and political systems, two ways of life - capitalist (FRG) and socialist (GDR). Each of them, in its own way, "worked" for the authority of the corresponding system.

However, this economic competition ended up not in favor of the socialist model. So, in the late 1980s, labor productivity in the GDR was much lower than in West Germany and a significant part of the enterprises in the country were unprofitable, but it must be borne in mind that this was based not only on institutional reasons, but also on the political pressure of the West.

The starting conditions after the war were similar, the political split of Germany led to the economic disintegration of countries, to the split of a single economy. But the main disproportions arose between the relatively developed manufacturing industry on the territory of the GDR and the extremely insufficient coal-metallurgical raw material and energy base, which remained in the West. The war did more damage to the eastern part of Germany, where the main fighting took place. Here, 45% of industrial funds were destroyed, including 30% of the capacities of energy facilities, transport was completely disorganized, industrial development was not provided with coal, oil, iron ore, and non-ferrous metals. There was no basis for heavy industry, historically established in West Germany.

Given the almost complete absence of foreign currency loans (the USSR provided them, but not in such volumes as the United States under the "Marshall Plan" for the FRG), the burden of reparations (the FRG paid to a lesser extent) and the costs of maintaining Soviet troops (they were limited to 5% annual budget of the GDR only after 1953), the economic achievements of the GDR in the 1950s can be called phenomenal. If the FRG (and its growth rates were many times higher than those of Great Britain and France) increased from 1950 to 1958. industrial output by 210%, then the GDR - by 241%. The average annual increase in industrial production in the GDR in 1950-58. was 10%, and in Germany - 8.5%. In 1957, the GDR surpassed the FRG in terms of industrial growth in comparison with 1936. If we take the level of this year as 100%, then in 1957 the industrial potential of the GDR increased 2.4 times, and the FRG - 2.26 times. Moreover, the starting positions of both countries in 1950 were approximately the same: the GDR - 110.6% of the 1936 level, the FRG - 110.9%. However, these impressive figures masked serious structural problems in the GDR economy.

By developing heavy industry and contriving to avoid inflation and a state budget deficit, the government of the GDR had to seriously limit the growth in the production of consumer goods. The unrest of the population in June 1953 was largely due not only to an increase in the already high production rates, but also to interruptions in the supply of certain products, as well as high prices in state trade for meat, butter, fabrics, clothes, leather shoes and utensils. As a result, the government of the GDR made a massive redistribution of investments from heavy industry in favor of industries that directly satisfied the needs of the population. However, the new direction of the state's investment policy made it impossible to radically re-equip the fixed assets of the fairly outdated industry of East Germany. Most of its enterprises remained at the technological level of 1939, while in the FRG the equipment in the industry (and so much less affected by the war than the industry of the GDR) was upgraded twice after 1945.

And if initially the redistribution of funds in favor of the light and food industries was justified, then in the specific conditions of the industrially developed GDR it dragged on too long. The country still objectively could not feed and clothe itself at the expense of internal resources. Consequently, it was necessary to increase exports, and the main export commodities of East Germany have always been industrial equipment and products of the chemical industry. But since these industries did not receive sufficient funds, their products became morally obsolete and every day became less and less competitive in the West. Accordingly, foreign exchange earnings were reduced, which could be used to purchase food and high-quality consumer goods, many of which (for example, coffee and chocolate traditional for consumption in Germany) could not be supplied from the countries of the socialist camp. It turned out that the West Germans by the mid-50s were already getting a taste of the so-called. southern fruits (i.e. bananas, pineapples, etc.), while there was still not enough good coffee for the inhabitants of the GDR. Moreover, it is very interesting that these problems were well understood in the USSR, although for many it seemed insignificant. But if the Soviet workers and peasants in the 1950s were unpretentious in the choice of consumer goods, and the absence of certain things was not perceived by them as hardships and hardships, then the Germans traditionally had a higher culture of consumption. The lack of coffee was very sensitive for them. In addition, the GDR had before it the example of the FRG, and the survival of the German workers' and peasants' state really depended on whether it could provide its citizens with at least a standard of living comparable to that of the FRG. From year to year, the GDR was forced to import (mainly from the USSR) a significant part of the food consumed in the country. 25% of grain, 11% of meat, 7% of butter and 8% of eggs were bought abroad.

It is clear that in the GDR they formed the same economic structure as it was in the USSR, which entailed the processes of nationalization and stateization. In 1952, production cooperatives began to be created in the villages, with the use of both economic and administrative pressure. The peak of forced collectivization in the GDR came in 1960. During this year, as much agricultural land was collectivized as in all the previous eight years. By the end of 1960, more than 80% of the agricultural land in the GDR had been nationalized. Similarly, the policy was built in the industrial sector, and if in the early 1960s the socialist industrial sector produced 85% of the total social product, then by the beginning of the 70s the share of people's (state) enterprises in industrial production was already 94.9%.

In Germany, by the mid-1950s, after a slight slowdown in economic growth, a new upsurge began, caused by an influx of capital, a significant renewal of technical production, and government measures to revive heavy industry. In 1953-56, the annual increase in industrial output was 10-15%. In terms of industrial production, Germany ranked third in the world after the United States and Great Britain, and surpassed Great Britain in some types of production. At the same time, small and medium-sized businesses formed the basis of the rapidly growing economy: in 1953, enterprises with less than 500 employees provided more than half of all jobs in the economy, unemployment had a steady downward trend (from 10.3% in 1950 to 1.2% in 1960).

By the beginning of the 1960s. In terms of industrial production and exports, Germany was second only to the United States. It accounted for more than 60.5% of coal production, about half of steel production, about 40% of exports and 35% of imports of the EEC ("Common Market"). Agriculture also flourished. For example, in 1934–1938, the average annual wheat yield in the country was 22.3 centners per hectare, while in 1967 and 1968 it was 41.2 and 42.3 centners per hectare, respectively. A special mention deserves the agrarian reform, which betrayed the bulk of the land to small and medium-sized owners.

Among the factors that contributed to such a successful development of the German economy, the following should be mentioned:

the western part of Germany has historically been formed as the industrial center of the country, where the most qualified labor force is concentrated;
significant initial assistance in the initial period of the restoration of the national economy under the Marshall Plan (3.9 billion dollars), especially the supply of industrial equipment, which contributed to the inclusion of the FRG in the scientific and technological revolution;
state support for entrepreneurial activity, stake on the creation of medium-sized enterprises. Already in 1953, more than half of all employees worked at enterprises with up to 500 people;
rooting in all branches of the national economy of the latest achievements of scientific and technological revolution;
minimum military spending: until 1955-1957 they were limited only to financing the occupying forces, which cost the country 2–2.5 times cheaper than maintaining its own army;
a multimillion-dollar influx of refugees from the Soviet occupation zone, which became an additional source of labor. For the economy of the FRG, refugees from the GDR gave a lot, so the cost of human capital transferred from the GDR was 2.6 billion marks annually in the FRG in the 50s (savings in education and training of personnel). In 1960, the share of refugees and migrants (not only from the GDR, but also from other countries of Eastern Europe) amounted to 30.7% of all wage laborers in the FRG;
maintaining "class" peace in the country thanks to a reasonable social policy of the state.

The fact that as early as 15 years after the Second World War, Germany came out on top in Europe in terms of economic development, having outstripped its winners in economic terms, speaks of the high efficiency of the reforms at the turn of the 1940s-1950s, which became a reliable launching pad for the development of the West German economy. For the socio-economic model of the GDR, all the shortcomings characteristic of the command-administrative system of state socialism were inherent. Thus, the planned economy largely deprived the citizens of the GDR of personal initiative and independence, the middle stratum of society was completely eliminated as the basis for economic development, entrepreneurship and labor activity were paralyzed. As a result, the productivity of the economy was relatively low compared to Western countries. In 1979 it was 46% of the Western level and by 1989 it had fallen to 30-40%.

Today, many Germans fundamentally do not want to divide the country into West and East and prefer to forget about the remnants of the past. However, even more than twenty years after the unification, significant economic and institutional differences remain between the two parts of the country, not in favor of the eastern region of Germany.

The German Democratic Republic, or GDR for short, is a country located in the Center of Europe and marked on maps for exactly 41 years. This is the westernmost country of the socialist camp that existed at that time, formed in 1949 and became part of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1990.

German Democratic Republic

In the north, the border of the GDR ran along the Baltic Sea, on land it bordered on the FRG, Czechoslovakia and Poland. Its area was 108 thousand square kilometers. The population was 17 million people. The capital of the country was East Berlin. The entire territory of the GDR was divided into 15 districts. In the center of the country was the territory of West Berlin.

Location of the GDR

On a small territory of the GDR there was a sea, mountains and plains. The north was washed by the Baltic Sea, which forms several bays and shallow lagoons. They are connected to the sea by straits. She owned the islands, the largest of them - Rügen, Usedom and Pel. There are many rivers in the country. The largest are the Oder, Elbe, their tributaries Havel, Spree, Saale, as well as the Main - a tributary of the Rhine. Of the many lakes, the largest are Müritz, Schweriner See, Plauer See.

In the south, the country was framed by low mountains, significantly cut by rivers: from the west, the Harz, from the south-west, the Thuringian Forest, from the south, the Ore Mountains with the highest peak Fichtelberg (1212 meters). The north of the territory of the GDR was located on the Central European Plain, to the south lay the plain of the Macklenburg Lake District. South of Berlin stretches a strip of sandy plains.

East Berlin

It has been restored almost completely. The city was divided into occupation zones. After the creation of the FRG, its eastern part became part of the GDR, and the western part was an enclave surrounded on all sides by the territory of East Germany. According to the constitution of Berlin (Western), the land on which it was located belonged to the Federal Republic of Germany. The capital of the GDR was a major center of science and culture of the country.

The Academies of Sciences and Arts, many higher educational institutions were located here. Concert halls and theaters hosted outstanding musicians and artists from all over the world. Many parks and alleys served as decoration for the capital of the GDR. Sports facilities were erected in the city: stadiums, swimming pools, courts, competition grounds. The most famous park for the inhabitants of the USSR was Treptow Park, in which a monument to the liberator soldier was erected.

Big cities

The majority of the country's population was urban dwellers. In a small country, there were several cities with a population of more than half a million people. The large cities of the former German Democratic Republic, as a rule, had a rather ancient history. These are the cultural and economic centers of the country. The largest cities include Berlin, Dresden, Leipzig. The cities of East Germany were badly destroyed. But Berlin suffered the most, where the fighting went literally for every house.

The largest cities were located in the south of the country: Karl-Marx-Stadt (Meissen), Dresden and Leipzig. Every city in the GDR was famous for something. Rostock, located in northern Germany, is a modern port city. The world-famous porcelain was produced in Karl-Marx-Stadt (Meissen). In Jena, there was the famous Carl Zeiss factory, which produced lenses, including for telescopes, famous binoculars and microscopes were produced here. This city was also famous for its universities and scientific institutions. This is a city of students. Schiller and Goethe once lived in Weimar.

Karl-Marx-Stadt (1953-1990)

This city, founded in the 12th century in the land of Saxony, now bears its original name - Chemnitz. It is the center of textile engineering and textile industry, machine tool building and mechanical engineering. The city was completely destroyed by British and American bombers and rebuilt after the war. There are small islands of old buildings left.

Leipzig

The city of Leipzig, located in Saxony, before the unification of the GDR and the FRG was one of the largest cities in the German Democratic Republic. 32 kilometers away is another major German city - Halle, which is located in Saxony-Anhalt. Together, the two cities form an urban agglomeration with a population of 1,100,000 people.

The city has long been the cultural and scientific center of Central Germany. It is known for its universities as well as fairs. Leipzig is one of the most developed industrial regions in East Germany. Since the late Middle Ages, Leipzig has been a recognized center of printing and bookselling in Germany.

The greatest composer Johann Sebastian Bach lived and worked in this city, as well as the famous Felix Mendelssohn. The city is still famous for its musical traditions. Since ancient times, Leipzig has been a major trading center; until the last war, the famous fur trades were held here.

Dresden

The pearl among German cities is Dresden. The Germans themselves call it Florence on the Elbe, as there are many baroque architectural monuments here. The first mention of it was recorded in 1206. Dresden has always been the capital: since 1485 - the Margraviate of Meissen, since 1547 - the Electorate of Saxony.

It is located on the Elbe River. The border with the Czech Republic passes 40 kilometers from it. It is the administrative center of Saxony. Its population is about 600,000 inhabitants.

The city suffered greatly from the bombing of US and British aircraft. Up to 30,000 residents and refugees perished, most of them elderly, women and children. During the bombardment, the castle-residence, the Zwinger complex, and the Semperoper were badly destroyed. Almost the entire historical center lay in ruins.

In order to restore architectural monuments, after the war, all the surviving parts of the buildings were dismantled, rewritten, numbered and taken out of the city. Everything that could not be restored was cleared away.

The old city was a flat area on which most of the monuments were gradually restored. The government of the GDR came up with a proposal to revive the old city, which lasted almost forty years. For residents, new quarters and avenues were built around the old city.

Coat of arms of the GDR

Like any country, the GDR had its own coat of arms, described in Chapter 1 of the constitution. The coat of arms of the German Democratic Republic consisted of a golden hammer superimposed on each other, embodying the working class, and a compass, personifying the intelligentsia. They were surrounded by a golden wreath of wheat, representing the peasantry, intertwined with ribbons of the national flag.

Flag of the GDR

The flag of the German Democratic Republic was an elongated panel consisting of four equal width stripes painted in the national colors of Germany: black, red and gold. In the middle of the flag was the coat of arms of the GDR, which distinguished it from the flag of the FRG.

Prerequisites for the formation of the GDR

The history of the GDR covers a very short period of time, but it is still being studied with great attention by German scientists. The country was in strict isolation from the FRG and the entire Western world. After the surrender of Germany in May 1945, there were occupation zones, there were four of them, since the former state ceased to exist. All power in the country, with all management functions, formally passed to the military administrations.

The transitional period was complicated by the fact that Germany, especially its eastern part, where the German resistance was desperate, lay in ruins. The barbaric bombardments of the British and American aircraft aimed to intimidate the civilian population of the cities that were liberated by the Soviet army, to turn them into a heap of ruins.

In addition, there was no agreement between the former allies regarding the vision of the future of the country, which subsequently led to the creation of two countries - the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic.

Basic Principles for the Reconstruction of Germany

Even at the Yalta Conference, the main principles for the restoration of Germany were considered, which were later fully agreed upon and approved at the conference in Potsdam by the victorious countries: the USSR, Great Britain and the USA. They were also approved by the countries that participated in the war against Germany, in particular France, and contained the following provisions:

Complete destruction of the totalitarian state.
Complete ban on the NSDAP and all organizations associated with it.
The complete liquidation of the punitive organizations of the Reich, such as the SA, SS, SD services, as they were recognized as criminal.
The army was completely liquidated.
Racial and political laws were abolished.
Gradual and consistent implementation of denazification, demilitarization and democratization.

The decision of the German question, which included a peace treaty, was entrusted to the Council of Ministers of the victorious countries. On June 5, 1945, the victorious states promulgated the Declaration of the Defeat of Germany, according to which the country was divided into four occupation zones controlled by the administrations of Great Britain (the largest zone), the USSR, the USA and France. The capital of Germany, Berlin, was also divided into zones. The decision of all issues was entrusted to the Control Council, it included representatives of the victorious countries.

Party of Germany

In Germany, in order to restore statehood, the formation of new political parties that would be democratic in nature was allowed. In the eastern sector, emphasis was placed on the revival of the Communist and Social Democratic Party of Germany, which soon merged into the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (1946). Its goal was to build a socialist state. It was the ruling party in the German Democratic Republic.

In the western sectors, the CDU (Christian Democratic Union) party formed in June 1945 became the main political force. In 1946, the CSU (Christian-Social Union) was formed in Bavaria according to this principle. Their basic principle is a democratic republic based on market economy based on the rights of private property.

Political confrontations on the issue of the post-war structure of Germany between the USSR and the rest of the coalition countries were so serious that their further aggravation would lead either to a split of the state or to a new war.

Formation of the German Democratic Republic

In December 1946, Great Britain and the United States, ignoring numerous proposals from the USSR, announced the merger of their two zones. She was abbreviated as "Bizonia". This was preceded by the refusal of the Soviet administration to supply agricultural products to the western zones. In response to this, transit shipments of equipment exported from factories and plants in East Germany and located in the Ruhr region to the USSR zone were stopped.

At the beginning of April 1949, France also joined the Bizonia, as a result of which Trizonia was formed, from which the Federal Republic of Germany was subsequently formed. Thus, the Western powers, having entered into an agreement with the big German bourgeoisie, created a new state. In response to this, at the end of 1949, the German Democratic Republic was created. Berlin, or rather its Soviet zone, became its center and capital.

The People's Council was temporarily reorganized into the People's Chamber, which adopted the Constitution of the GDR, which passed a nationwide discussion. 09/11/1949 the first president of the GDR was elected. It was the legendary Wilhelm Pick. At the same time, the government of the GDR was temporarily created, headed by O. Grotewohl. The military administration of the USSR transferred all functions of governing the country to the government of the GDR.

The Soviet Union did not want the division of Germany. They were repeatedly made proposals for the unification and development of the country in accordance with the Potsdam decisions, but they were regularly rejected by Great Britain and the United States. Even after the division of Germany into two countries, Stalin made proposals for the unification of the GDR and the FRG, provided that the decisions of the Potsdam Conference were observed and that Germany was not drawn into any political and military blocs. But the Western states refused to do so, ignoring Potsdam's decisions.

The political system of the GDR

The form of government of the country was based on the principle of people's democracy, in which a bicameral parliament operated. The state system of the country was considered to be bourgeois-democratic, in which socialist transformations took place. The German Democratic Republic included the lands of the former Germany of Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, Thuringia, Brandenburg, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern.

The lower (people's) chamber was elected by universal secret ballot. The upper chamber was called the Land Chamber, the executive body was the government, which consisted of the prime minister and ministers. It was formed by appointment, which was carried out by the largest faction of the People's Chamber.

The administrative-territorial division consisted of lands, consisting of districts, divided into communities. The functions of the legislature were carried out by the Landtags, the executive bodies were the governments of the lands.

The People's Chamber - the highest body of the state - consisted of 500 deputies, who were elected by the people by secret ballot for a term of 4 years. It was represented by all parties and public organizations. The People's Chamber, acting on the basis of laws, made the most important decisions on the development of the country, dealt with relations between organizations, observing the rules for cooperation between citizens, state organizations and associations; adopted the main law - the Constitution and other laws of the country.

Economy of the GDR

After the partition of Germany, the economic situation of the German Democratic Republic (GDR) was very difficult. This part of Germany was very badly destroyed. The equipment of plants and factories was taken to the western sectors of Germany. The GDR was simply cut off from the historical raw material bases, most of which were in the FRG. There was a shortage of such natural resources as ore and coal. There were few specialists: engineers, executives who left for the FRG, frightened by the propaganda about the cruel reprisal of Russians.

With the help of the Union and other countries of the commonwealth, the economy of the GDR gradually began to gain momentum. Businesses were restored. It was believed that centralized leadership and a planned economy served as a deterrent to the development of the economy. It should be taken into account that the restoration of the country took place in isolation from the western part of Germany, in an atmosphere of tough confrontation between the two countries, open provocations.

Historically, the eastern regions of Germany were mostly agricultural, and in its western part, rich in coal and deposits of metal ores, heavy industry, metallurgy and engineering were concentrated.

Without the financial and material assistance of the Soviet Union, it would have been impossible to achieve an early restoration of industry. For the losses suffered by the USSR during the war years, the GDR paid him reparation payments. Since 1950, their volume has been halved, and in 1954 the USSR refused to receive them.

Foreign policy situation

The construction of the Berlin Wall by the German Democratic Republic became a symbol of the intransigence of the two blocs. The eastern and western blocs of Germany were building up their military forces, provocations from the western bloc became more frequent. It came to open sabotage and arson. The propaganda machine worked at full power, using economic and political difficulties. Germany, like many Western European countries, did not recognize the GDR. The peak of the aggravation of relations occurred in the early 1960s.

The so-called "German crisis" also arose thanks to West Berlin, which, legally being the territory of the Federal Republic of Germany, was located in the very center of the GDR. The border between the two zones was conditional. As a result of the confrontation between the NATO blocs and the Warsaw bloc countries, the SED Politburo decides to build a border around West Berlin, which was a reinforced concrete wall 106 km long and 3.6 m high and a metal mesh fence 66 km long. She stood from August 1961 until November 1989.

After the merger of the GDR and the FRG, the wall was demolished, only a small section remained, which became the Berlin Wall memorial. In October 1990, the GDR became part of the FRG. The history of the German Democratic Republic, which existed for 41 years, is intensively studied and researched by scientists of modern Germany.

Despite the propaganda discrediting of this country, scientists are well aware that it gave Western Germany a lot. In a number of parameters, she surpassed her Western brother. Yes, the joy of reunification was genuine for the Germans, but it is not worth belittling the importance of the GDR, one of the most developed countries in Europe, and many in modern Germany understand this very well.

Germany

The division of Germany into the FRG and the GDR

The geopolitical results of World War II were disastrous for Germany. It lost its statehood for several years and its territorial integrity for many years. Was torn off 24% of the territory Germany occupied in 1936, including East Prussia, divided between Poland and the USSR. Poland and Czechoslovakia received the right to evict ethnic Germans from their territories, as a result of which a stream of refugees moved into Germany (by the end of 1946, their number amounted to about 9 million people).

By decision of the Crimean Conference, the territory of Germany was divided into four zones of occupation: Soviet, American, British and French. Similarly, Berlin was divided into four sectors. At the Potsdam Conference, the main principles of the occupation policy of the Allied states (demilitarization, denazification, decartelization, democratization of Germany) were agreed upon. However, the lack of firm agreements with the German problem led the administrations of the occupation zones to apply the Potsdam principles at their own discretion.

The leadership of the Soviet military administration in Germany immediately took steps to form an obedient regime in its zone. The local committees spontaneously created by the anti-fascists were disbanded. To solve administrative and economic issues, central departments were created. The main role in them was played by the Communists and Social Democrats. In the summer of 1945, the activities of 4 political parties were allowed: the Communist Party of Germany (KPD), the Social Democratic Party (SPD), the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) and the Liberal Democratic Party of Germany (LDP). Theoretically, all permitted parties enjoyed equal rights, but in practice the Soviet government frankly preferred the KKE.

Based on the notion that Nazism was a product of capitalism and denazification implies a struggle against capitalist influence in German society, the Soviet government in the first months of the occupation seized "commanding heights" in the economy. Many large enterprises were nationalized on the grounds that they belonged to the Nazis or their supporters. These enterprises were either dismantled and sent to the Soviet Union as reparations, or continued to operate as Soviet property. In September 1945, a land reform was carried out, during which more than 7,100 estates with an area of more than 100 hectares were expropriated free of charge. About 120 thousand landless peasants, agricultural workers and migrants received small allotments from the created land fund. The reactionaries were dismissed from the civil service.

The Soviet administration forced the SPD and the KPD to unite into a new party called the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED). In subsequent years, control by the communists became more and more severe. In January 1949, the SED conference decided that the party should become a Leninist "party of a new type" along the lines of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Thousands of socialists and communists who disagreed with this line were expelled from the party in a purge. In general, the same model was used in the Soviet zone of occupation as in other Eastern European countries. She meant the Stalinization of the Marxist party, the deprivation of the independence of the “middle class” parties, further nationalization, repressive measures and the virtual elimination of the competitive electoral system.

The Western states acted in Germany as authoritarianly as the Soviet administration in its own zone. The anti-fascist committees were disbanded here as well. Land governments were established (in the American zone during 1945, in the British and French in 1946). Appointment to posts was carried out by a strong-willed decision of the occupying authorities. In the western occupation zones, the KKE and SPD also resumed their activities. The CDU was created, with which it established relations of the "commonwealth"; the Christian Social Union (CSU) was created in Bavaria; this party bloc began to be called the CDU / CSU. The liberal democracy camp was represented by the Free Democratic Party (FDP).

Soon the United States and Great Britain came to the conclusion that the revival of the German economy was vital to the recovery of Western Europe. The Americans and the British moved to concerted action. The first steps towards the unification of the western zones were made at the end of 1946, when the American and British administrations agreed to unite the economic management of their zones from January 1, 1947. The so-called Bizonia was formed. The Bizonia administration received the status of parliament, i.e. acquired political rice. In 1948, the French also annexed their zone in Bizonia. The result was Trizonia.

In June 1948, the Reichsmark was replaced by the new "Deutsche mark". The healthy tax base created by the new currency helped Germany join the Marshall Plan in 1949.

Monetary reform led to the first clash between West and East in the Cold War was beginning. In an effort to isolate their occupation zone from the influence of the Western economy, the Soviet leadership rejected both Marshall Plan assistance and the introduction of a new currency in their zone. It also relied on the introduction of the German mark in Berlin, but the Western Allies insisted that the new currency become legal tender in the western sectors of the city. In order to prevent the penetration of the new brand into Berlin, the Soviet administration impeded the transport of goods from the west to Berlin by rail and road. On June 23, 1948, the supply of Berlin by rail and road was completely blocked. The so-called Berlin Crisis emerged. The Western powers organized an intensive air supply ("air bridge"), which provided everything necessary not only for the military garrisons of Berlin, but also for its civilian population. On May 11, 1949, the Soviet side admitted defeat and ended the blockade. The Berlin crisis is over.

The strengthening of the confrontation between the USSR and the countries of the West made it impossible to create a single German state. In August 1949, general parliamentary elections were held in West Germany, which brought victory to the CDU / CSU party, and on September 7, the creation of the Federal Republic of Germany was proclaimed. In response, on October 7, 1949, the German Democratic Republic was proclaimed in the east of the country. So, in the fall of 1949, the split of Germany received legal formalization.

1952 The United States, Britain and France signed an agreement with the FRG, which ended the formal occupation of West Germany, but their troops remained on German territory. 1955 between the USSR and the GDR was signed an agreement on the full sovereignty and independence of the GDR.

West German "economic miracle"

In the parliamentary (Bundestag) elections of 1949, two leading political forces were determined: the CDU / CSU (139 mandates), the SPD (131 mandates) and the “third force” - the FDP (52 mandates). The CDU/CSU and the FDP formed a parliamentary coalition, allowing them to create a joint government. Thus, in Germany, a “two-half” party model has developed (in contrast to the two-party model in the USA and Great Britain). This model was kept in the future.

The first chancellor (head of government) of the FRG was the Christian Democrat K. Adenauer (he held this position from 1949 to 1963). A characteristic feature of his political style was the desire for stability. An equally important circumstance was the implementation of an exceptionally effective economic course. Its ideologist was the permanent Minister of Economics of Germany L. Erhard.

The social market economy model created as a result of Erhard's policy was based on the concept of ordoliberalism (from German "Ordung" - order). Ordoliberals defended the free market mechanism, not in spite of, but thanks to state intervention. They saw the basis of economic well-being in strengthening the economic order. At the same time, key functions were given to the state. Its intervention was supposed to replace the action of market mechanisms, but to create conditions for their effective functioning.

The difficult period of economic reform fell on 1949-1950, when the liberalization of pricing caused an increase in prices with a relative decrease in the level of incomes of the population, and the restructuring of production was accompanied by a surge in unemployment. But already in 1951 there was a turn to the side, and in 1952 the rise in prices stopped, and the unemployment rate began to decline. In subsequent years, there was an unprecedented economic growth: 9-10% per year, and in 1953-1956 - up to 10-15% per year. The Federal Republic of Germany took second place among Western countries in terms of industrial production (and only at the end of the 60s was pushed aside by Japan). Large exports made it possible to create a significant gold reserve in the country. The German currency has become the strongest in Europe. In the second half of the 1950s, unemployment practically disappeared, and real incomes of the population tripled. Until 1964, the gross national product (GNP) of the FRG increased 3 times, and it began to produce more products than all of pre-war Germany. At that time, they started talking about the German "economic miracle".

The West German "economic miracle" was due to a number of factors. The economic system chosen by Erhard proved its effectiveness, where liberal market mechanisms were combined with a targeted tax and credit policy of the state. Erhard succeeded in getting firm anti-monopoly legislation passed. A significant role was played by revenues from the Marshall Plan, the absence of military spending (before the FRG joined NATO), as well as the influx of foreign investment ($350 billion). In German industry, which was destroyed during the war years, there was a massive renewal of fixed capital. The introduction of the latest technologies that accompanied this process, combined with the traditionally high efficiency and discipline of the German population, caused a rapid increase in labor productivity.

Agriculture developed successfully. As a result of the agrarian reform of 1948-1949, carried out with the assistance of the occupying authorities, land property was redistributed. As a result, most of the land fund passed from large owners to medium and small ones. In subsequent years, the share of those employed in agriculture steadily decreased, however, extensive mechanization and electrification of peasant labor made it possible to ensure a general increase in the production of this sector.

The social policy, which encouraged direct relations between entrepreneurs and workers, turned out to be very successful. The government acted under the motto: "Neither capital without labor, nor labor without capital can not exist." Pension funds, housing construction, the system of free and preferential education, and vocational training were expanded. The rights of labor collectives in the field of production management were expanded, but their political activity was prohibited. The wage system was differentiated depending on the length of service at a particular enterprise. In 1960, the “Law on the Protection of the Rights of Working Youth” was adopted, and since 1963, a minimum leave was introduced for all workers. The tax policy encouraged the transfer of part of the wage fund into special "people's shares", which were distributed among the employees of the enterprise. All these government measures made it possible to ensure an adequate growth in the purchasing power of the population in the conditions of economic recovery. Germany was in the grip of a consumer boom.

In 1950, Germany became a member of the Council of Europe and began to take an active part in negotiations on European integration projects. In 1954, Germany became a member of the Western European Union, and in 1955 joined NATO. In 1957, Germany became one of the founders of the European Economic Community (EEC).

In the 1960s, a regrouping of political forces took place in Germany. The FDP supported the SPD and, forming a new coalition, the two parties formed a government in 1969. This coalition lasted until the early 1980s. During this period, the social democrats W. Brandt (1969-1974) and G. Schmidt (1974-1982) were chancellors.

A new political regrouping took place in the early 80s. The FDP supported the CDU/CSU and withdrew from the coalition with the SPD. In 1982, the Christian Democrat G. Kohl became chancellor (he held this post until 1998). He was destined to become chancellor of a united Germany.

German unification

During the forty post-war years, Germany was divided by the Cold War front into two states. The GDR was losing more and more to West Germany in terms of economic growth and living standards. The Berlin Wall, built in 1961 to prevent the flight of citizens of the GDR to the West, became a symbol of the Cold War and the split of the German nation.

In 1989, a revolution began in the GDR. The main demand of the participants in the revolutionary uprisings was the unification of Germany. In October 1989, the leader of the East German Communists E. Honecker resigned, and on November 9 the Berlin Wall fell. The unification of Germany became a practical task.

It was no longer possible to contain the process of German unification. But in the West and East of the country, different approaches to the future unification have been formed. The Constitution of the FRG provided for the reunification of Germany as a process of joining the lands of East Germany to the FRG, and assumed the liquidation of the GDR as a state. The leadership of the GDR sought to unify through a confederal union.

However, in the elections in March 1990, the GDR defeated the non-communist opposition led by the Christian Democrats. From the very beginning, they advocated the speedy reunification of Germany on the basis of the FRG. On June 1, the German mark was introduced into the GDR. On August 31, the Treaty between the FRG and the GDR on the establishment of state unity was signed.

It only remained to agree on the unification of Germany with 4 states - the USSR, the USA, Great Britain and France. To this end, negotiations were held according to the "2 + 4" formula, that is, between the FRG and the GDR, on the one hand, and the victorious powers (USSR, USA, Great Britain and France), on the other. The Soviet Union made a fundamentally important concession - it agreed to the retention of the membership of a united Germany in NATO and the withdrawal of Soviet troops from East Germany. On September 12, 1990, the Treaty on the Final Settlement with regard to Germany was signed.

On October 3, 1990, 5 lands restored in East Germany became part of the FRG, and the GDR ceased to exist. December 20, 1990 was formed the first Spilnonimets government headed by Chancellor G. Kohl.

Economic and social achievements, problems of the 90s

Contrary to optimistic forecasts, the socio-economic consequences of German reunification turned out to be ambiguous. The hopes of the East Germans for the miraculous economic effect of the unification did not come true. The main problem was the transfer of the command-administrative economy of the 5 eastern lands to the principles of a market economy. This process was carried out without strategic planning, by trial and error. The most "shocking" version of the transformation of the economy of East Germany was chosen. Its features include the introduction of private property, a decisive denationalization of state enterprises, a short transition period to a market economy, etc. Moreover, East Germany received socio-economic and political forms of organization of society immediately and in finished form.

The adaptation of the economy of the eastern lands to the new conditions was quite painful and led to a reduction in industrial production in them to 1/3 of the previous level. The German economy emerged from the state of crisis caused by the unification of the country and negative trends in the world economy only in 1994. However, the restructuring of industry, adaptation to the new conditions of a market economy caused a sharp increase in unemployment. In the mid-90s, it covered more than 12% of the workforce (more than 4 million people). The most difficult situation with employment has developed in East Germany, where the unemployment rate exceeded 15%, and the average wage lagged significantly behind the "old lands". All this, as well as the influx of foreign workers, caused growing social tensions in German society. In the summer of 1996 mass protests broke out, organized by trade unions.

G. Kohl called for comprehensive savings. The government had to go for an unprecedented increase in taxes, which accounted for more than half of total earnings, for a drastic reduction in government spending, including economic support for the eastern lands. All this, as well as G. Kohl's course towards a further reduction in social programs, ultimately led to the defeat of the ruling conservative-liberal coalition in the next parliamentary elections.

The rise to power of the Social Democrats

The 1998 elections brought victory to a new coalition formed by the SPD (received 40.9% of the vote) and the Green Party (6.7%). Before the official entry into the coalition, both parties have developed a large, well-done government program. It provided for measures to reduce unemployment, revise the tax system, close 19 nuclear power plants, the remaining ones, etc. The government of the "pink-green" coalition was headed by the Social Democrat G. Schroeder. In the context of the economic recovery that began, the policy of the new government proved to be very effective. The new government did not abandon the savings in public spending. But these savings were achieved not by curtailing state social programs, but mainly at the expense of land budgets.

At the beginning of the 21st century, Germany, with its 80 million population, became the largest state in Western Europe. In terms of industrial production, the level of economic development, it ranks third in the world, second only to the United States and Japan.

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Brief history of the GDR

1949 October 7
GDR, Germany. The People's Council, operating in the Soviet occupation zone and transformed into the People's Chamber, proclaimed the introduction of the constitution of the German Democratic Republic (GDR). Wilhelm Pick became the first president of the GDR, and Otto Grotewohl became the first prime minister.

1949 October 10
East Germany, Germany, USSR. The transfer by the Soviet government to the government of the GDR of the management functions that belonged to the Soviet military administration in Germany.

1950 July 6
The GDR, Poland The GDR and Poland concluded an agreement in Zggozelec, according to which the border between the two states should run along the Oder-Neisse. The German government and the Bundestag refused to recognize this border line as the state border between Poland and the GDR.

1952 July 9 - 12
GDR. The second conference of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED), created by uniting the communist and social democratic organizations of East Germany, at the suggestion of the general secretary of the party, Walter Ulbrecht, adopted a resolution on the systematic "building of socialism" in the GDR.

June 17, 1953
GDR. The strike of construction workers that began in East Berlin grew into an uprising, which was crushed by Soviet troops.

1953 August 22
GDR, USSR. The signing in Moscow of the Soviet-German Communique and the Protocol on the termination of the collection of German reparations.

1955
GDR, USSR. The Soviet Union handed over to East Germany the collection of the Dresden Gallery, captured in 1945.

February 19, 1955
GDR, USSR. A regular railway connection Moscow - Berlin was opened.

September 20, 1955
GDR, USSR. The signing of the Treaty on Relations between the USSR and the GDR.

1956 January 18
GDR. The GDR adopted a law establishing a national People's Army and a Ministry of National Defence. The army is formed from parts of the people's militia, naval and air armed forces.

1960 August 29
The GDR announced the restriction of transport links between East and West Berlin.

1961 August 13
The GDR erected a wall on the demarcation line between eastern and western parts of Berlin to prevent the flow of refugees from the GDR.

1971 May 3
GDR. After the resignation of Walter Ulbrecht, Erich Honecker was elected First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED).

June 30, 1976
GDR. A meeting of 29 European communist and workers' parties ended in East Berlin.

1984 August 1
GDR. The leadership of the GDR called for detente in relations between the two German states.

1987 May 29
GDR. As a result of a two-week meeting of the Political Consultative Committee of the States Parties to the Warsaw Pact, a document "On the Military Doctrine of the States Parties to the Warsaw Pact" was signed.

February 25, 1988
East Germany, Czechoslovakia. The export of Soviet operational-tactical missiles from Czechoslovakia and the GDR began. Even before the entry into force of the Soviet-American treaty on the elimination of intermediate-range and shorter-range missiles, Moscow has pledged to remove missile weapons from these countries.

1988 October 10
GDR. In Berlin, 80 people were arrested for protesting against state interference in the affairs of the evangelical press.

1989 October 18
GDR. Under pressure from the mass protest movement of democratic forces, Erich Honecker, after 18 years of rule, was removed from the posts of chairman of the State Council of the GDR and general secretary of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (expelled from the party in December). His successor was 52-year-old Egon Krenz.

November 10, 1989
GDR. On the night of November 9-10, the leadership of the GDR opened the borders with the FRG and West Berlin. The dismantling of the Berlin Wall began.

1989 December 3
GDR. The leadership of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany, headed by Egon Krenz, resigned in full force.

1989 December 8
GDR. Gregor Gysi has been elected as the new chairman of the Socialist Unity Party.

1989 December 22
GDR, Germany. By agreement between German Chancellor Helmut Kohl and GDR Prime Minister Hans Modrow, the Brandenburg Gate is open to citizens of the GDR and the FRG.

1990 March 18
GDR. In the first free elections in the GDR, the "Alliance for Germany" (Christian Democratic Union, German Social Union and Democratic Movement) won with 48% of the vote.