Variably humid forests. natural areas

Natural zones of the Earth

A comprehensive scientific study of nature allowed V. V. Dokuchaev in 1898 to formulate the law of geographical zonality, according to which climate, water, soil, relief, flora and fauna in a certain area are closely interconnected and should be studied as a whole. He proposed dividing the Earth's surface into zones that naturally repeat themselves in the Northern and Southern hemispheres.

Different geographical (natural) zones Earth are characterized by a certain combination of heat and moisture, soils, flora and fauna and, as a result, by the features of the economic activity of their population. These are zones of forests, steppes, deserts, tundra, savannas, as well as transitional zones of forest-tundra, semi-deserts, forest-tundra. The names of natural areas are traditionally given according to the prevailing type of vegetation, which reflects the most important features of the landscape.

The regular change of vegetation is an indicator of a general increase in heat. In the tundra, the average temperature of the warmest month of the year - July - does not exceed + 10 ° С, in the taiga it fluctuates between + 10 ... + 18 ° С in the strip of deciduous and mixed forests + 18 ... + 20 ° С, in the steppe and forest-steppe +22 ... + 24 ° С, in semi-deserts and deserts - above +30 ° С.

Most animal organisms remain active at temperatures from 0 to +30°C. However, temperatures from + 10 ° C and above are considered the best for growth and development. Obviously, such a thermal regime is characteristic of the equatorial, subequatorial, tropical, subtropical, and temperate climatic zones of the Earth. The intensity of vegetation development in natural areas also depends on the amount of precipitation. Compare, for example, their number in the zone of forests and deserts (see map of the atlas).

So, natural areas- These are natural complexes that occupy large areas and are characterized by the dominance of one zonal type of landscape. They are formed mainly under the influence of climate - the features of the distribution of heat and moisture, their ratio. Each natural zone has its own type of soil, vegetation and wildlife.

The appearance of the natural zone is determined by the type of vegetation cover. But the nature of vegetation depends on climatic conditions - thermal conditions, moisture, illumination, soils, etc.

As a rule, natural zones are elongated in the form of wide strips from west to east. There are no clear boundaries between them, they gradually pass into one another. The latitudinal location of natural zones is disturbed by the uneven distribution of land and ocean, relief, distance from the ocean.

General characteristics of the main natural zones of the Earth

Let us characterize the main natural zones of the Earth, starting from the equator and moving towards the poles.

Forests are located on all continents of the Earth, except for Antarctica. Forest zones have both common features and special features that are characteristic only of the taiga, mixed and broad-leaved forests or tropical forests.

The common features of the forest zone include: warm or hot summers, a fairly large amount of precipitation (from 600 to 1000 or more mm per year), large full-flowing rivers, and the predominance of woody vegetation. The equatorial forests, which occupy 6% of the land, receive the greatest amount of heat and moisture. They rightfully hold the first place among the forest zones of the Earth in terms of the diversity of plants and animals. 4/5 of all plant species grow here and 1/2 of all land animal species live.

The climate of the equatorial forests is hot and humid. Average annual temperatures are +24... +28°С. The annual amount of precipitation is more than 1000 mm. It is in the equatorial forest that you can find the largest number of ancient animal species, such as amphibians: frogs, newts, salamanders, toads or marsupials: opossums in America, possums in Australia, tenrecs in Africa, lemurs in Madagascar, loris in Asia; ancient animals are also such inhabitants of the equatorial forests as armadillos, anteaters, pangolins.

In the equatorial forests, the richest vegetation is located in several tiers. Many species of birds live in the crowns of trees: hummingbirds, hornbills, birds of paradise, crowned pigeons, numerous species of parrots: cockatoos, macaws, Amazons, Jacos. These birds have tenacious paws and strong beaks: they not only fly, but also climb trees beautifully. Animals that live in the crowns of trees also have tenacious paws and a tail: sloths, monkeys, howler monkeys, flying foxes, tree kangaroos. The largest animal that lives in the crowns of trees is the gorilla. In such forests, many beautiful butterflies and other insects live: termites, ants, etc. Various types of snakes. Anaconda - the largest snake in the world, reaches a length of 10 m or more. The high-water rivers of the equatorial forests are rich in fish.

The equatorial forests occupy the largest areas in South America, in the Amazon River basin, and in Africa - in the Congo River basin. The Amazon is the deepest river in the world. Every second it carries 220 thousand m3 of water into the Atlantic Ocean. The Congo is the second largest river in the world. Equatorial forests are also common on the islands of the Malaysian archipelago and Oceania, in the southeastern regions of Asia, in northeastern Australia (see the map in the atlas).

Valuable tree species: mahogany, black, yellow - the wealth of equatorial forests. The harvesting of valuable wood species threatens the preservation of the Earth's unique forests. Space images have shown that in a number of areas of the Amazon, forest destruction is proceeding at a catastrophic pace, many times faster than their restoration. At the same time, many species of unique plants and animals are disappearing.

Variable wet monsoon forests

Variably humid monsoon forests can also be found on all continents of the Earth, except for Antarctica. If it is summer all the time in the equatorial forests, then three seasons are pronounced here: dry cool (November-February) - winter monsoon; dry hot (March-May) - transitional season; humid hot (June-October) - summer monsoon. The hottest month is May, when the sun is almost at its zenith, the rivers dry up, the trees shed their leaves, the grass turns yellow.

The summer monsoon comes at the end of May with gale-force winds, thunderstorms, and heavy rains. Nature comes to life. Due to the alternation of dry and wet seasons, monsoon forests are called variable wet.

The monsoon forests of India are located in the tropical climate zone. Valuable species of trees grow here, distinguished by the strength and durability of wood: teak, sal, sandalwood, satin and ironwood. Teak wood is not afraid of fire and water, it is widely used for building ships. Sal also has a durable and strong wood. Sandalwood and satin wood are used in the manufacture of varnishes and paints.

The fauna of the Indian jungle is rich and varied: elephants, bulls, rhinos, monkeys. Lots of birds and reptiles.

Monsoon forests of tropical and subtropical regions are also characteristic of Southeast Asia, Central and South America, northern and northeastern regions of Australia (see the map in the atlas).

Temperate monsoon forests

Temperate monsoon forests are found only in Eurasia. The Ussuri taiga is a special place in the Far East. This is a real thicket: the forests are multi-tiered, dense, intertwined with lianas and wild grapes. Cedar, walnut, linden, ash and oak grow here. Rough vegetation is the result of an abundance of seasonal rainfall and a rather mild climate. Here you can meet the Ussuri tiger - the largest representative of its species.
The rivers of the monsoon forests are rain-fed and flood during the summer monsoon rains. The largest of them are the Ganges, Indus, Amur.

The monsoon forests are heavily cut down. According to experts, in Eurasia only 5% of the former forests remained. Monsoon forests suffered not so much from forestry, but also from agriculture. It is known that the largest agricultural civilizations appeared on fertile soils in the valleys of the Ganges, Irrawaddy, Indus and their tributaries. The development of agriculture required new territories - forests were cut down. Farming has adapted over the centuries to alternating wet and dry seasons. The main agricultural season is the wet monsoon period. The most important crops - rice, jute, sugarcane - are dated for it. In the dry cool season, barley, legumes, and potatoes are planted. In the dry hot season, agriculture is possible only with artificial irrigation. The monsoon is capricious, its delay leads to severe droughts and the death of crops. Therefore, artificial irrigation is necessary.

temperate forests

Temperate forests occupy significant areas in Eurasia and North America (see map in the atlas).

In the northern regions - this is the taiga, to the south - mixed and broad-leaved forests. In the forest zone of the temperate zone, the seasons of the year are pronounced. Average temperatures in January are negative everywhere, in some places up to -40°С, in July + 10 ... + 20°С; the amount of precipitation is 300-1000 mm per year. Vegetation of plants in winter stops, for several months there is a snow cover.

Spruce, fir, pine, larch grow both in the taiga of North America and in the taiga of Eurasia. The animal world also has a lot in common. The bear is the master of the taiga. True, in the Siberian taiga it is called a brown bear, and in the taiga of Canada it is called a grizzly bear. You can meet red lynx, elk, wolf, as well as marten, ermine, wolverine, sable. The largest rivers of Siberia - the Ob, Irtysh, Yenisei, Lena - flow through the taiga zone, which are second only to the rivers of the equatorial forest zone in terms of flow.

To the south, the climate becomes milder: mixed and broad-leaved forests grow here, consisting of such species as birch, oak, maple, linden, among which there are also conifers. Typical for the forests of North America are: white oak, sugar maple, yellow birch. Red deer, elk, wild boar, hare; from predators - a wolf and a fox - representatives of animal world of this zone known to us.

If the northern taiga is classified by scientists-geographers as a zone slightly modified by man, then mixed and broad-leaved forests have been cut down almost everywhere. Their place was taken by agricultural areas, such as the "corn belt" in the United States, in this zone many cities and highways are concentrated. In Europe and North America, the natural landscapes of these forests have been preserved only in mountainous regions.

Savannah

Savannah is a natural zone of low latitudes in the subequatorial, tropical and subtropical zones of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. It occupies about 40% of the territory of Africa (south of the Sahara), distributed in South and Central America, Southeast Asia, Australia (see the map in the atlas). The savannah is dominated by herbaceous vegetation with isolated trees or groups of trees (acacia, eucalyptus, baobab) and shrub thickets.

The fauna of the African savannas is surprisingly diverse. To adapt to the conditions of endless dry spaces, nature endowed animals with unique properties. For example, the giraffe is considered the tallest animal on Earth. Its height exceeds 5 m, it has a long tongue (about 50 cm). All this is necessary for a giraffe in order to reach the high branches of acacias. Crowns of acacias begin at a height of 5 m, and giraffes have practically no competitors, calmly eating tree branches. Typical animals of the savannas are zebras, elephants, ostriches.

steppes

Steppes are found on all continents of the Earth, except for Antarctica (in the temperate and subtropical zones of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres). They are distinguished by an abundance of solar heat, low rainfall (up to 400 mm per year), as well as warm or hot summers. The main vegetation of the steppes is grasses. The steppes are called differently. In South America, the tropical steppes are called pampas, which in the language of the Indians means "a large expanse without a forest." Animals characteristic of the pampa are the llama, the armadillo, the viscacha, a rodent that looks like a rabbit.

In North America, the steppes are called prairies. They are located in both temperate and subtropical climatic zones. The "kings" of the American prairies have long been bison. By the end of the 19th century, they were almost completely exterminated. Currently, through the efforts of the state and the public, the number of bison is being restored. Another inhabitant of the prairies is the coyote - the steppe wolf. On the banks of the rivers in the bushes you can meet a large spotted cat - a jaguar. The peccary is a small boar-like animal also typical of the prairies.

The steppes of Eurasia are located in the temperate zone. They are very different from the American prairies and African savannas. It has a drier, sharply continental climate. It is very cold in winter (average temperature - 20°С), and very hot in summer (average temperature + 25°С), strong winds. In summer, the vegetation of the steppes is sparse, but in spring the steppe is transformed: it blooms with many varieties of lilies and poppies, tulips.

The flowering time does not last long, about 10 days. Then a drought sets in, the steppe dries up, the colors fade, and by autumn everything takes on a yellow-gray color.

The most fertile soils of the Earth are located in the steppes, so they are almost completely plowed up. The treeless expanses of the steppes of the temperate zone are distinguished by strong winds. Here, wind erosion of soils is very intensive - dust storms are frequent. To preserve soil fertility, forest belts are planted, organic fertilizers and light agricultural machinery are used.

desert

Deserts occupy vast spaces - up to 10% of the Earth's land mass. They are located on all continents and in different climatic zones: temperate, subtropical, tropical and even polar.

There are common features in the climate of the deserts of the tropical and temperate zones. Firstly, the abundance of solar heat, secondly, the large amplitude of temperatures in winter and summer, day and night, and thirdly, a small amount of precipitation (up to 150 mm per year). However, the latter feature is also characteristic of the polar deserts.

In the deserts of the tropical zone, the average summer temperature is +30°C, winter + 10°C. The greatest tropical deserts of the Earth are located in Africa: Sahara, Kalahari, Namib.

Desert plants and animals adapt to dry and hot climates. So, for example, a giant cactus can store up to 3000 liters of water and “not drink” for up to two years; and the Welwitschia plant, found in the Namib Desert, is able to absorb water from the air. A camel is an indispensable helper of a person in the desert. He can be without food and water for a long time, storing them in his humps.

The largest desert in Asia, Rub al-Khali, located on the Arabian Peninsula, is also located in the tropical zone. The desert regions of North and South America and Australia are located in tropical and subtropical climatic zones.

The deserts of the temperate zone of Eurasia are also characterized by a low amount of precipitation and a large amplitude of temperatures, both annual and daily. However, they are characterized by lower winter temperatures and a pronounced flowering period in spring. Such deserts are located in Central Asia to the east of the Caspian Sea. The fauna here is represented by various species of snakes, rodents, scorpions, turtles, lizards. A typical plant is saxaul.

polar deserts

Polar deserts are located in the polar regions of the Earth. An absolute minimum temperature of 89.2°C has been recorded in Antarctica.

Average winter temperatures are -30°С, summer - 0°С. Just like in the deserts of the tropical and temperate zones, little precipitation falls in the polar desert, mainly in the form of snow. The polar night here lasts almost half a year, the polar day lasts almost half a year. Antarctica is considered the highest continent on Earth, given the thickness of its ice shell of 4 km.

The indigenous inhabitants of the polar deserts of Antarctica are emperor penguins. They cannot fly, but they are excellent swimmers. They can dive to great depths and swim great distances, escaping from their enemies - seals.

The northern polar region of the Earth - the Arctic - got its name from the ancient Greek arcticos - northern. The southern, as it were, opposite polar region is Antarctica (anti - against). The Arctic occupies the island of Greenland, the islands of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, as well as the islands and waters of the Arctic Ocean. This area is covered with snow and ice throughout the year. The owner of these places is considered to be a polar bear.

Tundra

Tundra is a treeless natural area with vegetation of mosses, lichens and creeping shrubs. Tundra is common in the subarctic climatic zone only in North America and Eurasia, which are characterized by harsh climatic conditions (little solar heat, low temperatures, short cold summers, low rainfall).

Moss lichen was called "reindeer moss" because it is the main food for reindeer. Arctic foxes also live in the tundra, lemmings are small rodents. Among the sparse vegetation there are berry bushes: blueberries, lingonberries, blueberries, as well as dwarf trees: birch, willow.

Permafrost in the soil is a phenomenon characteristic of the tundra, as well as the Siberian taiga. It is worth starting to dig a hole, as at a depth of about 1 m there will be a frozen layer of earth several tens of meters thick. This phenomenon must be taken into account in the construction, industrial and agricultural development of the territory.

In the tundra, everything grows very slowly. It is with this that the need for careful attention to its nature is connected. For example, pastures damaged by deer are restored only after 15-20 years.

Altitudinal zonality

Unlike flat territories, climatic zones and natural zones in the mountains change according to the law of vertical zonality, i.e., from bottom to top. This is because the air temperature decreases with altitude. Consider, as an example, the greatest mountain system in the world - the Himalayas. Almost all natural zones of the Earth are represented here: a tropical forest grows at the foot, at an altitude of 1500 m it is replaced by broad-leaved forests, which in turn turn into mixed ones at an altitude of 2000 m. fir and juniper. In winter, there is snow for a long time and frosts persist.

Above 3500 m, shrubs and alpine meadows begin, they are called "alpine". In summer, the meadows are covered with a carpet of brightly flowering herbs - poppies, primroses, gentians. Gradually the grasses become lower. Approximately from a height of 4500 m, eternal snow and ice lie. The climatic conditions here are very harsh. Rare species of animals live in the mountains: mountain goat, chamois, argali, snow leopard.

Latitudinal zonality in the ocean

The world ocean occupies more than 2/3 of the planet's surface. The physical properties and chemical composition of ocean waters are relatively constant and create an environment conducive to life. It is especially important for the life of plants and animals that oxygen and carbon dioxide coming from the air dissolve in water. Photosynthesis of algae occurs mainly in the upper layer of water (up to 100 m).

Marine organisms live mainly in the surface layer of water illuminated by the Sun. These are the smallest plant and animal organisms - plankton (bacteria, algae, smallest animals), various fish and marine mammals (dolphins, whales, seals, etc.), squids, sea snakes and turtles.

There is life on the sea floor too. These are bottom algae, corals, crustaceans, molluscs. They are called benthos (from the Greek benthos - deep). The biomass of the World Ocean is 1000 times smaller than the biomass of the land of the Earth.

The distribution of life in oceans uneven and depends on the amount of solar energy received on its surface. Polar waters are poor in plankton due to low temperatures and long polar nights. The greatest amount of plankton develops in the waters of the temperate zone in summer. The abundance of plankton attracts fish here. The temperate zones of the Earth are the most fishy areas of the oceans. In the tropical zone, the amount of plankton again decreases due to the high salinity of the water and high temperatures.

Formation of natural zones

From today's topic, we have learned how diverse the natural complexes of our planet are. The natural zones of the Earth are full of evergreen forests, endless steppes, various mountain ranges, hot and icy deserts.

Each corner of our planet is distinguished by its uniqueness, diverse climate, relief, flora and fauna, and therefore various natural zones are formed on the territories of each continent.

Let's try to figure out what natural zones are, how they formed, and what was the impetus for their formation.

Natural zones include such complexes that have similar soils, vegetation, wildlife and the similarity of the temperature regime. Natural zones got their names according to the type of vegetation, and they bear such names as the zone of taiga or broad-leaved forests, etc.

Natural areas are diverse, due to the uneven redistribution of solar energy on the Earth's surface. This is the main reason for the heterogeneity of the geographic envelope.

After all, if we consider one of the climatic zones, we can see that those parts of the belt that are closer to the ocean are more humid than its continental parts. And this reason lies not so much in the amount of precipitation, but rather in the ratio of heat and moisture. Because of this, on some continents we observe a more humid climate, and on the other - arid.

And with the help of the redistribution of solar heat, we see how the same amount of moisture in some climatic zones leads to excess moisture, and in others - to their lack.

So, for example, in a hot tropical zone, a lack of moisture can cause drought and the formation of desert territories, while in the subtropics, an excess of moisture contributes to the formation of swamps.

So you learned that due to the difference in the amount of solar heat and moisture, various natural zones were formed.

Patterns of placement of natural zones

The natural zones of the Earth have clear patterns of their location, extending in a latitudinal direction and changing from north to south. Most often, a change in natural zones is observed in the direction from the coast, making its way deep into the mainland.

In mountainous areas there is an altitudinal zonality, which changes one zone for another, starting from the foot and moving towards the mountain peaks.

In the oceans, the change of zones occurs from the equator to the poles. Here, changes in natural zones are reflected in the surface composition of waters, as well as the difference in vegetation and wildlife.

Features of the natural zones of the continents

Since the planet Earth has a spherical surface, the Sun also heats it unevenly. Those areas of the surface above which the Sun is high receive the most heat. And where the sun's rays only glide over the Earth, a more severe climate prevails.

And although vegetation and animals on different continents have similar features, they are influenced by climate, topography, geology and people. Therefore, it so happened historically that due to changes in the relief and climate, different types of plants and animals live on different continents.

There are continents where endemics are found, on which only a certain type of living creatures and plants live, which are characteristic of these continents. So, for example, polar bears can only be found in nature in the Arctic, and kangaroos in Australia. But in African and South American shrouds, similar species are found, although they have certain differences.

But human activity contributes to the changes that occur in the geographical shell, and under such influence, natural areas also change.

Questions and tasks for preparing for the exam

1. Make a diagram of the interaction of natural components in the natural complex and explain it.
2. How do the concepts of "natural complex", "geographical envelope", "biosphere", "natural zone" relate to each other? Show with a diagram.
3. Name the zonal soil type for the tundra, taiga, zones of mixed and broad-leaved forests.
4. Where is the soil cover more difficult to restore: in the steppes of the South of Russia or in the tundra? Why?
5. What is the reason for the difference in the thickness of the fertile soil layer in different natural zones? What does soil fertility depend on?
6. What types of plants and animals are characteristic of the tundra and why?
7. What organisms live on the surface of the oceans?
8. Which of the following animals can be found in the African savannah: rhinoceros, lion, giraffe, tiger, tapir, baboon, llama, hedgehog, zebra, hyena?
9. In what forests is it impossible to find out its age from a cut of a cut tree?
10. What measures, in your opinion, will help preserve the human habitat?

Maksakovskiy V.P., Petrova N.N., Physical and economic geography of the world. - M.: Iris-press, 2010. - 368 pp.: ill.

Vietnam

The Socialist Republic of Vietnam is located in Southeast Asia, on the east coast of the Indochinese Peninsula. It occupies an area of ​​331,600 km2, which is comparable to the territory of Germany. Vietnam borders China in the north, Laos in the west, Cambodia in the southwest, and the South China Sea in the east. Vietnam owns two large archipelagos - Hoang Sha and Truong Sha and a large number of islands. Three-quarters of the country's territory is mountainous; there are two fertile deltas of the main water arteries of the country of the Mekong (Fig. 2.73) and Red. The coastline of Vietnam, excluding the islands, is 3444 km. Population - 92.477 million people (2013 data).

The climate, according to the Köppen classification, belongs to the types Aw (tropical savanna climate in the plains of the south of the country) and Cwa-Am (warm monsoon climate in the mountainous north).

The Vietnamese economy has been developing rapidly since 1990, when the country, following the example of China, began to combine state and private property. GDP growth varies between 5.3-8.5%.

13 large rivers and about 3,500 rivers with a length of at least 10 km flow on the territory of Vietnam. Water resources have become an important factor in ensuring food and energy security, as well as in the industrialization and modernization of the country. At the end of the 20th century, Vietnam came out on top in the world in terms of rice exports (Vietnam..., 1993) (Fig. 2.74-2.78).

Water resources are also a decisive factor in increasing the production of other agricultural and industrial crops such as tea, coffee, black pepper, etc. Currently, 70% of the water used for agricultural production comes from the Red and Mekong rivers. However, the country faces numerous challenges in the use of water resources.

The Mekong is one of the largest rivers in the world: its length is 4350 km, and its area is 795 thousand km 2. Food rain, snow and ice. Its basin is home to 250 million people from several countries (Fig. 2.73).

Rice. 2.74

Valley type of settlement. Fields and villages are located in the valleys of small rivers

The Mekong basin is the second largest biodiversity basin in the world after the Amazon. The Mekong flows through the territory of 4 states: China, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam. The state borders of Myanmar (Burma) and Thailand pass along the right bank of the river. The cooperation of the countries to which this river is directly related, the experts have their own name - "the spirit of the Mekong." Since 1957, this cooperation has been taking place within the framework of the Commission for the river. Mekong (Rysbekov, 2009; FB.ru: http://fb.ru/article/222437/mekong).

Rice. 2.75

Rice fields of Mu Cang Chai District, Yen Bai Province

Rice. 2.76

Rice. 2.77

Rice. 2.78

On the territory of Vietnam there is only a relatively small segment (200 km long) of the lower reaches of the river. Mekong, representing a delta of two wide branches and many smaller channels (Fig. 2.79, 2.80). There are many channels dug here. 17 million Vietnamese live in the delta with an area of ​​70,000 km2. The climate within the delta is subequatorial monsoonal. The average annual temperature is 27°С; The year is divided into two seasons - wet and dry.

Rice. 2.79

The economy of the provinces in the Mekong Delta is based on agriculture (rice cultivation (Figures 2.81, 2.82)) and aquaculture. An important role in the delta is played by artificial channels, which are transport arteries and places for breeding aquatic products. The most famous canal, Vinh Te, is 87 km long and 40 to 60 m wide. It was dug by hand with shovels and hoes over a period of 5 years, from 1819 to 1824, during the reign of the Nguyen dynasty.

The fishing fleet has more than 25 thousand vessels of various tonnage. More than 1 million tons of fish (pangasius), about 300 thousand tons of saltwater shrimp and a large number of other fish, arthropods and molluscs are grown annually. About 200 factories have been built to process seafood. Tourism has been developing intensively in the last two decades.

Fig.2.80

Rice. 2.81

Rice. 2.82

The role of water resources in providing food for the population of Eurasia. Based on the completed review of the most common types of agricultural land in Eurasia, we will try to assess the role of water resources in solving the food problem on this continent. According to forecasts, by 2050 the world's population will increase to 9 billion. At the beginning of section 2.2, we outlined one of the food programs proposed by J. Foley (2014), which includes five steps. This program aims to double food production by 2050, but does not address the issue of water availability. In table. 2.4. The "steps" of the Foley program are numbered 1-5. The last column shows our estimate of the water availability of the program as a percentage of the amount that doubles food production.

The "first step" - stabilization of the area of ​​agricultural land is accepted as feasible in all the territories considered as a necessary initial condition for the implementation of the Foley program. The “second step” (continuation of the “green revolution”) is possible on irrigated lands of countries with a warm climate, while in the zone of the northern and middle steppes it has limitations - the unsuccessful experience of introducing Italian durum wheat in the steppe zone of Russia is known.

Table 2.4

Assessing the feasibility of implementing the food program J. Foley (2014) "Five Steps", taking into account the potential of water resources

Rice. 2.83 Map of the use of nitrogen fertilizers in Eurasia (fragment of the world map).

Variably humid forests, unlike permanently humid forests, grow in areas of the planet where precipitation does not occur all year round, but only during the rainy season. At the same time, with the drought season, they have to shed their leaves in order to protect themselves from excessive evaporation in conditions of moisture deficiency. Variably humid forests grow mainly on the territory of the subequatorial climatic zone. They occupy the northern tip of South America, the countries of the American isthmus, large areas of Brazil, where they are called caatinga, in Africa - south and north of the equator, the central part of Madagascar, northeast Hindustan, the east coast of Indochina and northern Australia. They are also often referred to as deciduous variable rain forests or monsoon forests, as they often grow in areas with monsoonal climates. The biodiversity here is also very high, however, much less than in the humid equatorial forests. Animals and plants here have to adapt to strongly changing weather conditions throughout the year. Precipitation falls here during the summer, reaching an average of 1000 to 2000 mm per year, but at the end of the rainy season, drought sets in sharply, and there is practically no rain during the winter. Variably humid forests are home to significantly more mammals, deer, many rodents, monkeys and felines live here. There are many birds in the trees. The soils here are also ferralitic, but predominantly red. With a decrease in the amount of rain, the concentration of humus in them increases. Alternately humid forests, as well as equatorial forests, are threatened by man. The restoration of these forests is possible, however, it will take a long time, so it is necessary to think about their rational use.

Variably humid forests, unlike permanently humid forests, grow in areas of the planet where precipitation does not occur all year round, but only during the rainy season. At the same time, with the drought season, they have to shed their leaves in order to protect themselves from excessive evaporation in conditions of moisture deficiency. Variably humid forests grow mainly on the territory of the subequatorial climatic zone.

They occupy the northern tip of South America, the countries of the American isthmus, large areas of Brazil, where they are called caatinga, in Africa - south and north of the equator, the central part of Madagascar, northeast Hindustan, the east coast of Indochina and northern Australia. They are also often referred to as deciduous variable rain forests or monsoon forests, as they often grow in areas with monsoonal climates.

The biodiversity here is also very high, however, much less than in the humid equatorial forests.

Animals and plants here have to adapt to strongly changing weather conditions throughout the year.

Precipitation falls here during the summer, reaching an average of 1000 to 2000 mm per year, but at the end of the rainy season, drought sets in sharply, and there is practically no rain during the winter. Variably humid forests are home to significantly more mammals, deer, many rodents, monkeys and felines live here. There are many birds in the trees. The soils here are also ferralitic, but predominantly red. With a decrease in the amount of rain, the concentration of humus in them increases.

Alternately humid forests, as well as equatorial forests, are threatened by man. The restoration of these forests is possible, however, it will take a long time, so it is necessary to think about their rational use.

Variably moist forests wikipedia
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Permanently humid equatorial forests. There are 3 arrays along the equator:

Forests of the Amazon (South America), the northern coast of the Gulf of Guinea and about. Madagascar (Africa), Southeast Asia, New Guinea, Malay Peninsula, southern Philippines.

Also, permanently humid forests can be found in the subtropical and tropical zones, due to the fact that there are high temperatures throughout the year and the territory is constantly under the influence of the trade winds.

These territories are: Northern coast of Australia, Eastern coast of Brazil, Western part of India.

Climate characteristic:

Rainfall - 1500-2000

Evaporation - 700-1200

High-Ivanov coefficient 1.5-3 (excessive moisture - more precipitation than evaporation)

Vegetation:

Phytomass – 650T/ha, Productivity – 40T/ha per year

There are 50-100 plant species per 1 ha.

Forests differ in tiers, are polydominant - several species of plants dominate on each tier. The upper tier - trees 50-60m (characterized by diversity), the middle - 20-30m (well developed and closed), the lower one is rather poorly expressed due to low radiation. Under the canopy of the forest, there is significant shading.

Soils: Greyolitic (yellow) soils are formed on powerful weathering slopes (20 m or more), have excessive moisture and leaching regime throughout the year.

Soils are poor in bases and humus (5.7cm), because there is a rapid decomposition of plant residues, but are rich in oxides of iron and aluminum.

Variably humid equatorial forests. They are located between the zone of permanently humid forests and the savannah. This is the wettest part of the subequatorial climate. Summer rains and a dry period are characteristic. The zone in Africa is presented from the north and south of the equator, the forests of the South.

America on the periphery of the Amazonian permanently humid forests, For the forests of Central America, in the east of about. Java, Bali, Also in the region of Hindustan (Bombay).

Climate characteristic:

Rainfall - 1200-1600

Evaporation - 1200-1400

Coefficient of High - Ivanov 1-1.2

The dry period can last up to 5 months, then evaporation is greater than the amount of precipitation, during rains precipitation> evaporation.

Vegetation:

Phytomass – 500T/ha, Productivity – 16T/ha per year

The tallest trees are 25-30m, layering is less pronounced than in constantly wet forests.

In the dry season, leaf fall is observed.

The shrub layer is better expressed than in variable-humid forests. Grasses appear in the herbaceous layer.

Soils: red feramide soils are formed. In the dry season, there is no leaching regime of soils + deciduousness + less decay = humus horizon 10-15cm. Humus is formed under conditions when the leaching regime is replaced by a non-leaching one.

Savannah landscapes.

Savannahs are called zones with a predominance of cereals in the subequatorial and tropical zones.

They are characterized by stand-alone trees.

There are 3 subzones of savannahs: wet savannahs, typical savannahs, deserted savannahs.

Savannahs are very widespread. In Africa, m / y deserts and variable-humid subequatorial forests, as well as in the east and south. South America - south of the Amazon, On the Caribbean coast (turn into woodlands), in the Orinoco Delta.

Sev. America - in the "rain shadow" of Central America and Mexico (Pacific Coast). Asia - the Hindustan Peninsula, in the interior of Thailand, Kombodia. Vast belts of savannas in Australia.

Climate characteristic:

Precipitation - 1000-1500 (for wet), 500-1000 (typical), 200-500 (desert)

Evaporation - 1500-2400 (for wet), 2400-3800 (typical), 3500-4200 (desert)

High-Ivanov coefficient 0.4-1; 02,-0.4; 0.02-0.2

Savannahs are characterized by alternating wet and dry seasons.

The maximum duration of the dry season is 10 months (in desert savannas). The minimum dry season is 3 months. Evaporation > amount of precipitation.

Vegetation:

Phytomass — 40T/ha (in typical); 15T/ha (in deserted),

Productivity - 12T/ha per year; 4t/ha per year

Characteristic sparse woody vegetation. This is due to the fact that plants compete for soil moisture.

There are areas of forests along the banks of rivers and lakes. For the savannas, a developed animal world with a large number of herbivores is typical.

Soils: Red feralite soils are common in wet savannahs. In typical and deserted - red-brown soils. All soils are formed in the process of non-leaching water regime. In humid savannahs, the humus horizon reaches 15 cm; towards desert savannahs, the humus horizon decreases.

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1) Variable rain forests grow south and north of the equatorial rain forests: in tropical Africa, America, Hindustan, Sri Lanka, Indochina, China, North and Northeast Australia.
3) They differ from their colder and drier counterparts in their red or reddish color and strong weathering of minerals.

In these areas, more than 1000 mm of precipitation falls annually in the form of rain (in some places more than 10 thousand mm), that is, a layer of water more than one meter thick.

Heat and moisture are the basis of lush vegetation, which injects organic acids into the soil all year round, and warm soil waters carry them to a great depth, dissolving the minerals of rocks. It is very important that the age of the surface layers of soil in the tropics and subtropics reaches hundreds of thousands and millions of years. With such strong and long weathering, most minerals and chemical elements are washed out and the most stable minerals remain in the soil - kaolinite, quartz, as well as a large amount of iron and aluminum oxides, for which they are called ferralite soils (from "ferrum" - "iron, aluminum" and "lithos" - "stone").

The most important iron oxides that give color to the soil are red hematite, as well as yellow limonite and brown goethite, which contain impurities of crystalline water. Differences in the color of the soils of the tropics and subtropics are also associated with the humidity of the climate and the degree of weathering of minerals.

The most humid soils of the equatorial zone are red-yellow soils (in the subtropical zone they are called krasnozems and yellow soils). In these forest soils, the litter and a small humus horizon give way to weathering horizons with red and yellow coloration. Heavily weathered, but variable wet soils of subequatorial tall grass savannahs are called red.

In them, the humus horizon is much thicker than in forest equatorial soils. In savannahs and hardwood forests, where it is still drier, the soils are less weathered, they have less red hematite and more brown goethite, therefore they are called red-brown and brown-red. Here the humus horizon is less dark in color and thinner, and calcium carbonates can appear in the soil profile.

The soils of the subtropical zone often represent, as it were, transitions between the red soils of low latitudes and the soils of the temperate zone. The wettest red and yellow soils are the closest soil
4) Among the plants of variable-moist forests, evergreen, coniferous and deciduous trees are distinguished. Evergreens include palm trees, ficuses, bamboo, all kinds of magnolia, cypress, camphor tree, tulip tree. Deciduous trees are represented by linden, ash, walnut, oak, maple. Of the evergreens, fir and spruce are often found.
5)
Among the plants of variable-moist forests, evergreen, coniferous and deciduous trees are distinguished.

Evergreens include palm trees, ficuses, bamboo, all kinds of magnolia, cypress, camphor tree, tulip tree.

Deciduous trees are represented by linden, ash, walnut, oak, maple. Of the evergreens, fir and spruce are often found. Other inhabitants of such a forest, chain-tailed monkeys, live mainly on trees. They are small in size and have a black and white color. As is clear from the name of the species, these monkeys are distinguished by a particularly tenacious tail. There are also many bats, fish and reptiles here. Note that about 2,000 species of fish live here, which is from the freshwater fauna of the whole world.
2) The climate there is very difficult, as the sun can shine and heavy rain can immediately begin.

It can rain very heavily and there is a lot of precipitation. For these forests, the most testing month is May. May is very hot, small rivers and small reservoirs dry up.

Landscapes of subtropical variable-moist forests and landscapes of broad-leaved forests of the temperate zone.

Landscapes of subtropical variable-humid (monsoon) forests are found on the eastern coasts of the continents. In Eurasia - eastern China, the southern part of Japan (to Tokyo), the south of South Korea. Here the monsoon forests are pronounced. Sev.

America is the southeastern United States. South America - the south of Brazil, the upper reaches of the Uruguay River. Africa - in South Africa (southeastern part, at the foot of the Dragon Mountains). Australia - m / y along the coast of the Tusman Sea and the Great Dividing Range; in northern New Zealand.

Climate characteristic:

Rainfall - 1000-1600

Evaporation - 750-1200

Coefficient High - Ivanov 1-1.5

Throughout the year, the amount of precipitation is greater than evaporation.

It rains in summer, there is little rain in winter. But in accordance with this, the decrease in evaporation occurs in proportion to the decrease in the amount of precipitation. Excess moisture all year round. This zone is analogous to humid equatorial forests, only with a different thermal and radiation background.

Vegetation:

Character-on polydominance - there are different types, a cat.

represent tree forests. These forests are forever green. Layering is developed, creepers are characteristic, grassy cover is developed. The fauna of Asia is diverse (a relic is a panda), many animals do not correspond to this zone. In the east of Asia, from the equator to the north, one natural zone replaces another: humid equatorial forests - subequatorial humid forests - subtropical forests - deciduous forests - taiga. This is due to the fact that the monsoon type of climate dominates here.

There is a mixing of types of zones, some penetrate into others.

All in. America exists coniferous forests, different. species of oaks, rich fauna.

South America - araucaria forests, hardwoods.

Soils: zheltozems and krasnozems are formed. Permanent decomposition of litter throughout the year, constant washing regime. Small humus horizon.

Temperate broadleaf forest zone in Zap. Europe is occupied by huge spaces (France, Ireland, Germany, etc.).

In Eurasia, there are 2 large tracts of broad-leaved forests - Zap. Europe (up to Scandinavia) and the Far East (North of Japan, Korea). All in. America - the Ohio River Basin, Fr. Michigan, in the upper reaches of the Missouri river. in Yuzh. America - south of the zone of hardwood forests. Australia - about. Tasmania, south Part of New Zealand.

Climate characteristic:

Rainfall - 600-1000

Evaporation - 500-1000

High-Ivanov coefficient 1-1.2.

Throughout the year, there is more precipitation than evaporation.

Vegetation:

Deciduous forests are formed, this is due to the negative. temperatures in winter when photosynthesis is not possible.

Under these conditions, in the north of the zone, a subtaiga zone is distinguished, where coniferous species are present in the upper tier, and broad-leaved species are present in the lower tier. Beeches, oaks, hornbeams grow in such forests.

Soils: Brown sandy soils are formed in coastal areas, sandy sulfur soils are formed in continental areas.

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For tropical wet evergreens, or as they are sometimes called, rainforests are characterized by a three-tier structure of the tree canopy. The tiers are poorly demarcated. The upper tier is made up of giant trees 45 m or more in height, 2-2.5 m in diameter. The middle tier is represented by trees about 30 m high with a trunk diameter of up to 90 cm. Smaller, exceptionally shade-tolerant trees grow in the third tier. There are many palm trees in these forests. The main area of ​​\u200b\u200btheir growth is the Amazon basin. Here they occupy vast areas, including, in addition to the northern part of Brazil, French Guiana, Suriname, Guyana, the southern part of Venezuela, the west and south of Colombia, Ecuador and the east of Peru. In addition, this type of forest is found in Brazil in a narrow strip along the Atlantic coast between 5 and 30°S. Similar evergreen forests also grow along the Pacific coast from the border of Panama to Guayaquil in Ecuador. Here are concentrated all types of the genus Svitania (or mahogany), rubber-bearing genus Hevea, Brazil nut (Bertolletia excelsa) and many other valuable species.

Tropical variable-humid deciduous forests distributed in the southeast of Brazil and in the south of Paraguay. Tree species in them are relatively small in height, but often with thick trunks. Legumes are widely represented in the forests. Subtropical deciduous broadleaf forests most common in the south of Brazil and Parguay, in the west of Uruguay and in the north of Argentina along the Parana and Uruguay rivers. montane evergreen forests cover the slopes of the Andes from Venezuela to central Bolivia. These forests are characterized by thin-stemmed low trees forming dense stands. Due to the fact that these forests occupy steep slopes and are far from populated areas, they are exploited very little.

Araucaria forests located in two isolated regions. The Brazilian Araucaria (Araucaria brasiliana) is predominant in the states of Paraná, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul in Brazil, as well as in Uruguay, Eastern Paraguay and Argentina. A less significant massif is formed by forests of Chilean araucaria (A. araucana) found in the Andes at 40°S. in the altitude range from 500 to 3000 m above sea level. seas. These forests are characterized by hardwood species, among which the most important is embuya (Phoebe porosa). In the undergrowth of the araucaria forests, mate bush, or Paraguayan tea (Ilex paraguariensis), is also widespread on plantations.

Low growing xerophilous forests distributed in the east of Brazil, in the northern part of Argentina and in the western part of Paraguay. The most important tree species in these forests is the red querbacho (Schinopsis sp.), from which tannin is obtained. mangrove forests occupy the coastal strip of the Atlantic part of South America. These forests are dominated by red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle), forming pure stands or mixed with Avicenna (Avicennia marina) and Conocarpus (Conocarpus erecta).

In addition to timber harvesting, rubber, food products (seeds, nuts, fruits, beans, leaves, etc.), oils, medicinal substances, tannins, resins, including chicle (Zschokkea lascescens), raw materials for the production of chewing gum.

Venezuela. Evergreen (on laterites) and deciduous forests grow on the slopes of the spurs of the Andes and the Guiana Highlands. On the territory of the low llanos, tall-grass savanna with groves of the Mauritian palm is common, and in the high llanos, xerophilic light forests and shrub communities are common. Mangroves stretch around Lake Maracaibo, giving way to low-growing xerophilous, and to the south - evergreen tropical forests. In the south of the country, in the upper reaches of the river. Orinoco and its right tributaries grow moist evergreen tropical forests, almost inaccessible to exploitation. Of the tree species of economic value, mahogany, roble colorado, baku, balsa, espave (Anacardium spp.), angelino (Ocotea caracasana), oleo-vermelho (Myroxylon balsamum), pao-roxo, guaiacum, tabebuya (Tabebuia pentaphylla ), ceiba (Ceiba pentandra), almasigo (Bursera simaruba), kurbaril (Hymenaea courbaril), adobe (Samanea saman), etc.

Landscape in the center of Venezuela

Colombia. According to natural conditions, two regions are distinguished: the eastern (plain) and the western (mountainous, where the Colombian Andes stretch). The first region is largely occupied by humid evergreen forests of the Magdalena basins and the left tributaries of the Amazon. To the north and west of the Guajira peninsula, along the Caribbean coast, low-growing xerophilous forests stretch, in which divi-divi beans (Libidibia coriaria) are harvested for tannin. Guaiac wood (Guaiacum spp.) is also harvested here - this is one of the hardest and heaviest woods in the world, used for the manufacture of rollers, blocks and other engineering products.

Mangrove forests stretch along the Pacific and Caribbean coasts. In evergreen tropical hylaea, especially in the lower part of the Magdalena basin and along the mouth of the river. Atrato, kativo wood (Prioria copaifera) is harvested for export, as well as baku, or "Colombian mahogany" (Cariniana spp.), caoba, or real mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla), roble colorado, or Panamanian mahogany (Platymiscium spp.) , purple tree, or paoroxo (Peltogyne spp.), etc. In the eastern part of the elevated plain along the tributaries of the Orinoco, savanna-llanos with rare trees and gallery forests with Mauritian palm (Mauricia sp.) are common. The forests of the mountain regions of the Andes are characterized by a peculiar altitudinal zonality. On the lower parts of the lee slopes and on the northern ridges, deciduous forests or thorny shrubs are common. In the adjacent part of the mountains (from 1000 to 2000 m) mountain broad-leaved evergreen forests grow with tree ferns, wax palm (Copernicia cerifera), cinchona, coca (Erythroxylon coca) and various orchids. Cultivated crops include cocoa and coffee trees. At an altitude of 2000 to 3200 m, humid alpine hylaea, in which there are many species of evergreen oaks, shrubs and bamboos.

Ecuador. Three natural areas are distinguished on the territory of the country: 1) a watershed plateau with moist equatorial forests - hylaea, or selva(together with the upper reaches of the left tributaries of the Amazon); 2) Andes ranges; 3) the Pacific forest-savannah plain and the western slopes of the Andes. The evergreen tropical forests of the first region are poorly studied and difficult to access. On the western slopes of the Andes, up to a height of 3000 m, evergreen mountain broad-leaved forests (hylaea) grow, largely disturbed by slash-and-burn agriculture. They produce a lot of cinchona bark, as well as balsa, kapok from the fruits of ceiba, leaves of the toquilla palm, or hipihapa (Carludovica palmata), used to make Panama hats. Tagua palm (Phytelephas spp.) is also found here, the hard endosperm of the fruits of which is used to produce buttons, and various rubber plants. The lower part of the western slopes is characterized by evergreen tropical forests. In the river valley Guayas is intensively harvested for export balsa wood.

Guyana, Suriname, Guiana. The forests of these countries, located along the coast of the Atlantic Ocean and along the Guiana Highlands, are evergreen tropical with a number of valuable species. The green tree, or betabaro (Ocotea rodiaei), which is exported in Guyana and Suriname, stands out in particular. Apomate (Tabebuia pentaphylla), canalette (Cordia spp.), pekia (Caryocar spp.), espave (Anacardium spp.), habillo (Hura crepitans), wallab (Eperua spp.), carap (Carapa guianensis), virola are no less valuable. (Virola spp.), Simaruba (Simaruba spp.), etc.

Brazil. There are more than 7 thousand species of woody and shrubby plants in the flora, of which there are over 4.5 thousand species in the Amazonian selva. High bertholecia grow (giving brazil nuts, etc.), various rubber plants, including brazilian hevea, which has become a valuable plantation crop in many countries of South Asia and Africa, laurels, ficuses, brazilian mahogany, or "pau brazil", which gave the name to the country (Caesalpinia echinata), chocolate tree, or cocoa, mahogany, jacaranda, or rosewood, oleo vermelho, roble colorado and sapukaya, or paradise nut (Lecythis ustata), and many others. In the east, the selva turns into light palm forests, among which we note the valuable babasu palm (Orbignya speciosa), which has highly nutritious nuts. South of the Amazonian selva, landscapes of tropical dry woodlands are common - caatinga, in which trees grow that shed their leaves in the dry season and accumulate moisture in the rainy season, for example, the bottle tree (Cavanillesia arborea), thorny shrubs, cacti (Cereus squamulosus). In the floodplains, there is a carnauba, or wax, palm (Copernicia cerifera), from the leaves of which wax is collected, which is used in technology. From the south, subtropical deciduous forests adjoin forests dominated by palms and savannahs. In the southeast of the country, along the Brazilian Highlands, there are araucaria forests from the Brazilian, or Paran, araucaria (pinheiro, or "Brazilian pine"). Along with it, embuya, tabebuya, cordia grow, and in the undergrowth of yerbamate, Paraguayan tea is prepared from its leaves. Araucaria forests are involved in intensive exploitation.

Along the Atlantic coast and at the mouth of the Amazon, mangrove forests grow, dominated by red mangrove with an admixture of black mangrove (Avicennia marina) and white mangrove (Conocarpus erecta). Tannin is extracted from the bark of these trees.

Argentina. There are several natural regions. The east is dominated by evergreen forests, in which more than 100 species of trees of great economic importance grow. Among them are cabreuva (Myrocarpus frondosus), kanzherana (Cabralea oblongifolia), Brazilian araucaria, tabebuya, etc. In the west, evergreen ice grows along the slopes of the Andes at an altitude of 2000-2500 m above sea level. seas. Palo blanco (Calycophyllum multiflorum), cedro salteno (Cedrela balansae), roble cryolo (Amburana cearensis), nogal cryolo (Juglans australis), tarco (Jacaranda mimosifolia), type blanco (Tipuana tipu), etc. In the south, along the slopes of the Andes, subantarctic vegetation extends, among which several species of southern beech, alerce, "Cordillera cypress" (Austrocedrus chilensis), etc., are distinguished. palosanto (Bulnesia sarmientoi), guaiacan (Caesalpinia paraguarensis), etc. To the south, along the eastern slopes of the Andes, there are xerophilic broad-leaved forests of the temperate zone with algarrobo, acacias (Acacia caven), carcass (Celtis spinosa), quebracho-blanco.

Paraguay. Forest cover 51%. In the east of the country, mixed tropical evergreen and deciduous forests are common, turning in the west (in the Gran Chaco region) into woodlands and savannahs. The main tree species is quebracho blanco (Aspidosperma quebracho-blanco).

Uruguay. Forests occupy an insignificant part of the total territory of the country and are located in the lower reaches of the Rio Negro and in the valley of the river. Uruguay. The forest cover of the country is 3%. Large areas are beginning to be occupied by artificial plantations - pines on coastal dunes and eucalyptus plantations.

Published according to the monograph: A.D. Bukshtynov, B.I. Groshev, G.V. Krylov. Forests (Nature of the world). M.: Thought, 1981. 316 p.

Variable wet monsoon forests

Variably humid monsoon forests can also be found on all continents of the Earth, except for Antarctica. If summer is all the time in the equatorial forests, then three seasons are pronounced here: dry cool (November - February) - the winter monsoon; dry hot (March-May) - transitional season; humid hot (June-October) - summer monsoon. The hottest month is May, when the sun is almost at its zenith, the rivers dry up, the trees shed their leaves, the grass turns yellow. The summer monsoon comes at the end of May with gale-force winds, thunderstorms, and heavy rains. Nature comes to life. Due to the alternation of dry and wet seasons, monsoon forests are called variable wet. The monsoon forests of India are located in the tropical climate zone. Valuable species of trees grow here, distinguished by the strength and durability of wood: teak, sal, sandalwood, satin and ironwood. Teak wood is not afraid of fire and water, it is widely used for building ships. Sal also has a durable and strong wood. Sandalwood and satin wood are used in the manufacture of varnishes and paints.

Monsoon forests of tropical and subtropical regions are also characteristic of Southeast Asia, Central and South America, northern and northeastern regions of Australia (see the map in the atlas).

Temperate monsoon forests

Temperate monsoon forests are found only in Eurasia. The Ussuri taiga is a special place in the Far East. This is a real thicket: the forests are multi-tiered, dense, intertwined with lianas and wild grapes. Cedar, walnut, linden, ash and oak grow here. Rough vegetation is the result of an abundance of seasonal rainfall and a rather mild climate. Here you can meet the Ussuri tiger - the largest representative of its species.

The rivers of the monsoon forests are rain-fed and flood during the summer monsoon rains. The largest of them are the Ganges, Indus, and Amur.

The monsoon forests are heavily cut down. According to experts, only 5% of the former forests have survived in Eurasia. Monsoon forests suffered not so much from forestry, but also from agriculture. It is known that the largest agricultural civilizations appeared on fertile soils in the valleys of the Ganges, Irrawaddy, Indus and their tributaries. The development of agriculture required new territories - forests were cut down. Farming has adapted over the centuries to alternating wet and dry seasons. The main agricultural season is the wet monsoon period. The most important crops - rice, jute, sugar cane - are dated for it. In the dry cool season, barley, legumes, and potatoes are planted. In the dry hot season, agriculture is possible only with artificial irrigation. The monsoon is capricious, its delay leads to severe droughts and the death of crops. Therefore, artificial irrigation is necessary.