Frithjof Nansen. Biography Swimming on the Viking

Fridtjof Nansen - Biography

Fridtjof Nansen (Norwegian Fridtjof Nansen, 1861-1930) - Norwegian polar explorer, zoologist, founder of a new science - physical oceanography, winner of the Nobel Peace Prize for 1922.

Biography

Fridtjof Nansen was born on October 10, 1861, not far from Christiania (now Oslo) in the Sture-Frön estate, owned by his father, the successful lawyer Baldur Nansen. The Nansen family is of Danish origin, they settled in Norway from the 17th century. From his youth he was an excellent skier, he repeatedly won the championships of Norway. After graduating from the gymnasium, he seriously chose between painting and science, and as a result he entered the university at the department of zoology. Already at the age of 20, he took part in a four-month voyage in the Arctic Ocean: in 1882, he went on a ship of the Viking seal industrial company to sail among the ice (as a biological practice). It was this journey that was decisive for the direction of all his subsequent activities. Upon his return from sailing, he devoted himself to scientific studies. In 1883, after graduating from Christiania University, Fridtjof was appointed curator of the zoology department at the Bergen Museum. In 1885-1886. worked at the University of Parma and at the first marine biological station in Europe in Naples. In 1886 he was awarded a large gold medal of the Royal Academy of Sciences for his research on the structure of the cellular apparatus of the nervous tissue. He received his doctorate a few months before leaving for Greenland.

Greenland Expedition 1888

Nansen set himself an extremely large and difficult task - to cross the entire ice plateau of Greenland from its eastern coast to its western one. He took upon himself all the work of equipping the expedition, and a sponsor from Denmark provided meager funding. Part of the funds was given by rewarding him with a gold medal: Nansen asked for a bronze duplicate, and the difference in cost went to equip the expedition.

The expedition included:

1. Fridtjof Nansen - head of the expedition.
2. Otto Neumann Sverdrup - an experienced polar captain, a specialist in survival in the Arctic.
3. Olaf Dietrichson is an experienced skier.
4. Christian Christiansen Trana - a North Norwegian peasant, an experienced skier (his parents' farm was adjacent to the farm of Sverdrup's parents).
5. Samuel Johannessen Baltu - Sami by nationality, reindeer breeder and musher (originally it was supposed to be used as a traction force of reindeer). In 1902 he emigrated to the USA and lived in Alaska. He met Nansen in 1882 while sailing on the Viking seal-killing ship.
6. Ole Nielsen Ravno - Saami by nationality, reindeer herder and musher.

The expedition set off on May 5, 1888. Nansen, along with five comrades through Scotland and Iceland, reached the east coast of Greenland and on July 17 they landed on floating ice, 20 km from the coast. At the cost of incredible effort, the group on boats passed through the floating ice and reached the coast on August 17. Further advancement was carried out on skis through unknown territory, the people themselves served as the draft force. Frosts reached -40 ° C, woolen clothes did not protect well from the cold, and there were almost no fats in the diet (Sverdrup even asked Nansen to give ski ointment for food). On October 3, 1888, the expedition reached the west coast, having made the first passage through the ice of Greenland at a distance of about 660 km. During the entire journey, Nansen and his companions conducted meteorological observations and collected scientific materials.

The members of the expedition were late for the last steamer heading home, but managed to deliver letters and telegrams. The six travelers returned to Norway in 1889 and were honored by the entire nation. Nansen was appointed curator of zoology at the University of Christiania (in 1897 he received a professorship without the obligation to lecture).

In 1890 and 1891 books describing the Greenland expedition were published: Paa ski over Grønland (“On skis through Greenland”, 2 vols., in 1928, greatly reduced by the author) and Eskimoliv (“Life of the Eskimos”). These books testify to Nansen's commitment at that time to the ideas of social Darwinism.

Expedition on the Fram 1893-1896

Having finished with the analysis of the results obtained, Nansen began preparations for an even more daring and grandiose expedition - to the region of the North Pole.

Previous observations had convinced him of the existence of a strong east-west current that must have flowed from Siberia to the North Pole and on to Greenland. This conclusion, in particular, is led by the fact that the remains of an unsuccessful American expedition on the ship "Jeanette" under the command of Lieutenant of the American Navy George De Long were found. This expedition was wrecked in 1881 northeast of the New Siberian Islands, and items from it were found off the southwestern coast of Greenland. Norwegian meteorologist, Professor G. Mon in 1884 published an article that confirmed Nansen's guesses and became the basis for an expedition to the pole.
1988 $50 - Cook Islands commemorative coin dedicated to Fridtjof Nansen

Deciding to test his theory, Nansen designed a ship (the Fram) strong enough to withstand ice compression. The plan was to sail this ship along the Northeast Passage to the New Siberian Islands, where it was supposed to freeze into the ice. The crew was to remain on board the ship while it drifted along with the ice towards the North Pole and the straits between Svalbard and Greenland.

The expedition plan was sharply criticized in Great Britain (it was reported at a meeting of the Royal Geographical Society in 1892), but was supported by the Norwegian parliament, which allocated in 1890 and 1893. subsidies for the construction of the vessel in the amount of 250 thousand crowns, with the obligatory condition that the expedition will have a purely Norwegian national composition (Norway from 1814 to 1905 was part of Sweden). Other expenses of 200 thousand crowns were covered by national subscriptions and subsidies from private investors, including foreign ones: O. Dixon supplied electrical equipment, and Baron E. Toll built evacuation bases on the New Siberian Islands in case of a disaster, and handed over 35 West Siberian sled dogs to Nansen . One of the sponsors of the expedition was the brewing firm of Ellef Ringnes.

The expedition set out from Christiania on June 24, 1893, with provisions for five years and fuel for six months at full speed. More than 600 people applied for participation in the expedition, in the end the team included 13 people:

1. Fridtjof Nansen - head of the expedition, zoologist, hydrologist and oceanologist.
2. Otto Neumann Sverdrup - commander of the Fram, acting head of the expedition since March 14, 1895
3. Sigurd Scott-Hansen - Assistant Commander, Senior Lieutenant of the Norwegian Navy. During the expedition he was the chief meteorologist, astronomer and specialist in magnetic and gravitational research.
4. Henrik Greve Blessing, MD, doctor, veterinarian and botanist of the expedition.
5. Theodor Claudius Jacobsen - Fram's navigator. Navigator of the Norwegian and New Zealand fleets.
6. Anton Amundsen - senior machinist "Fram". Norwegian Navy Machinist.
7. Adolph Ewell - Proviantmeister and cook of the expedition. From 1879 he served as a navigator in the Norwegian fleet.
8. Lars Peterssen - the second machinist and blacksmith of the expedition. Served in the Norwegian Navy. Since 1895, he also served as a cook and meteorologist.
9. Frederik Hjalmar Johansen - stoker and meteorologist. Norwegian army lieutenant.
10. Peder Leonard Hendriksen - sailor and harpooner. Skipper of the Norwegian fleet, took part in the Sverdrup expedition in 1898-1902.
11. Bernard Nordal - fireman, electrician and sailor. He also served as a meteorologist. Non-commissioned officer of the Norwegian Navy.
12. Ivar Otto Irgens Mugstadt - sailor, musher and watchmaker. Prior to the expedition, he changed many professions, including a forester and a supervisor of a psychiatric hospital.
13. Bernt Bentsen - sailor. From 1890 he served as a navigator in the Norwegian Arctic fishing fleet. Joined the expedition half an hour before departure from Tromsø. He died during an expedition to Svalbard in 1899.

"Fram" proceeded along the northern coast of Siberia. About 100 miles short of the New Siberian Islands, Nansen changed course to a more northerly one. By September 22, reaching 79º N.S. , "Fram" is firmly frozen into the pack ice. Nansen and his crew prepared to drift west towards Greenland.

The Fram's drift was not as close to the Pole as Nansen had hoped. He decided to attempt a throw to the pole, taking with him one of the strongest and most enduring members of the expedition, Hjalmar Johansen. On March 14, 1895, Nansen, accompanied by Johansen, left the ship, which at that time was at 84 ° 05 "North latitude and 101 ° 35" East longitude. Their attempt was unsuccessful. The conditions turned out to be more difficult than expected - they were often blocked by ice hummocks or areas of open water, which created obstacles. Finally, reaching 86º14'N, they decided to turn back and set off for Franz Josef Land. Nansen and Johansen did not reach the Pole, but they came closer to it than all previous travelers.

Three months later, Nansen and Johansen managed to get to Franz Josef Land, where they wintered in a dugout built by them from walrus skins and stones (September 28, 1895 - May 19, 1896). This wintering of Nansen, during which he led the life of a real Robinson, is a vivid example of how courage and ability to adapt to the harsh conditions of the Arctic allow a person to emerge victorious even in extremely difficult circumstances.
Route of the Nansen expedition in the Arctic

In the summer of 1896, Nansen unexpectedly met on Franz Josef Land with the English expedition of Jackson, on whose ship Windward he returned on August 13 to Vardø, having spent three years in the Arctic. Exactly a week later, the Fram returned to Norway, having brilliantly completed its historical drift. Nansen's theory was confirmed - the ship followed the current, the existence of which he assumed. In addition, the expedition collected valuable data on currents, winds and temperatures and confidently proved that on the Eurasian side in the circumpolar region it was not land, but a deep, ice-covered ocean. The Fram's voyage was of particular importance for the young science of oceanology. For Nansen, this marked a significant turn in his activities. Oceanography became the main subject of his research.
Nansen (left) and Johansen (right) on June 17, 1896 at Cape Flora off Jackson Base.

For several years, Nansen was engaged in processing the results of the expedition and wrote several works, including the popular description of the expedition in two volumes Fram over Polhavet. Den norske polarfærd 1893-1896 (1897). This book was immediately translated into German, English and Russian, but appeared under different titles: In Nacht und Eis: Die norwegische Polarexpedition 1893-96 ("In the Night and Ice: The Norwegian Polar Expedition 1893-1896") Farthest North ( "further north"). Russian pre-revolutionary translations were usually called "In the Land of Ice and Night" (1898, 1902), and Soviet-era translations were called "Fram" in the Polar Sea" (1940, 1956, reprinted in 2007).

Further activities

Without stopping oceanographic research, Nansen engaged in social activities. In 1906-1908 he was appointed Norwegian ambassador to Great Britain. At the end of the First World War, he was the representative of Norway in the United States, in 1920-1922 the High Commissioner of the League of Nations for the repatriation of prisoners of war from Russia. In 1921, on behalf of the International Red Cross, he created the Nansen Aid Committee to save the starving Volga region. He was one of the few public figures in the West who was loyal to Bolshevik Russia and the young USSR. The following year, he became High Commissioner for Refugees and established the Nansen Passport Bureau. In 1922 he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, and in 1938 the Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to the Nansen International Refugee Agency in Geneva, founded in 1931.

Nansen did not interrupt his scientific activity: in 1900 he made an expedition to Svalbard, and in 1913 he sailed on the steamer "Correct" to the mouth of the Lena, and made a trip along the Trans-Siberian Railway. He also planned an expedition to the Antarctic on the Fram, but in 1905, due to his wife's illness, he abandoned this idea, handing over the ship to Amundsen. Since 1928, he participated in the preparation of the German expedition to the Arctic on the airship Graf Zeppelin, but it took place after his death. During the last years of his life he suffered from cardiovascular diseases. Nansen died in Lusaker near Oslo on May 13, 1930, playing with his granddaughter on the veranda of his estate. At his request, he was cremated, and the ashes were scattered over the Oslo Fjord. The tombstone is located in his estate "Pulhögda".

The annual human rights award of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, the Nansen Medal, is named in his honor.

Personal life

Nansen was married in 1890 to Eva Sars (1868-1907), daughter of the famous zoologist Mikael Sars. It was Eva who consecrated the Fram when it was launched in 1892; the epigraph of the description of Nansen's voyage "She who gave the name to the ship and had the courage to wait" is dedicated to her. In 1893, their daughter Liv was born, who first saw her father at the age of three. During Nansen's absence, Eva made a career in music, performing professionally as a singer.

In honor of Eva and Liv, Nansen named the islands on Franz Josef Land (now it turned out that this is one island, so it is called Evaliv on the maps). After 1898, the Nansen had six more children.

Eva Nansen died in 1907 while Nansen was ambassador to London. He married a second time in 1919 to Sigrun Munta. Daughter Liv left memoirs about her father and mother.

Russian editions of Nansen's books

Frithiof Nansen. In the darkness of the night and in the ice. Journey of the Norwegian expedition on the ship Fram to the North Pole. 31 drawings on separate sheets and in the text. Travel map in color. St. Petersburg: Wolfa, 1897. 337 p.
Nansen F. In the land of ice and night vol. 1-2 SPb. Type of. Br. Panteleev, 1897. 320, 344 p.
Nansen Fridtjof (compiled by Annenskaya A.) Skiing through Greenland. Library of Shoots of St. Petersburg: Ed. journal for children Vskhody 1897. 198 p.
Nansen Frithiof. In the darkness of the night and in the ice. Journey of the Norwegian expedition on the ship Fram to the North Pole. 2 vols. Full translation, edited by N. Berezin. SPb. Publishing house O. N. Popova. 1901
Nansen Frithjof. To the land of the future. The Great Northern Route from Europe to Siberia through the Kara Sea. With a portrait of the author, 155 drawings and 3 maps. Authorized translation from Norwegian by A. and P. Hansen. Petrograd Edition by K. I. Ksido. 1915 454 s (Modern ed. 2004)
Frithiof Nansen. Russia and the world. Translation from fr. S. Bronsky. With a preface by N. Meshcheryakov. M.-Pg. State publishing house. 1923 147 p.
Nansen F. Collected Works. In 5 vols. M.: Geografgiz, 1939-1940.
Nansen F. Fram in the polar sea. In 2 volumes. M.: Geografgiz, 1956. 368, 352 p.
Nansen F. "Fram" in the Polar Sea. Per. from Norwegian Lopukhina Z.I., introductory article. Glushkova VV Series: Travel Library. M.: Bustard 2007. 992 p.

Fridtjof Nansen - Biography

Greenland Expedition 1888

Nansen set himself an extremely large and difficult task - to cross the entire ice plateau of Greenland from its eastern coast to its western one. This caused a heated controversy in the press: all previous expeditions began from the inhabited western coast. In addition, Nansen deprived himself of escape routes. He took upon himself all the work of equipping the expedition, and a sponsor from Denmark provided meager funding. Part of the funds was given by rewarding him with a gold medal: Nansen asked for a bronze duplicate, and the difference in cost went to equip the expedition.

The expedition included:

Fridtjof Nansen - head of the expedition.

Otto Neumann Sverdrup is an experienced polar captain and Arctic survival specialist.

Olaf Dietrichson is an experienced skier.

Christian Christiansen Trana is a North Norwegian peasant, an experienced skier (his parents' farm was adjacent to the farm of Sverdrup's parents).

Samuel Johannessen Baltu - Sami by nationality, reindeer herder and musher (originally it was supposed to be used as a traction force of reindeer). In 1902 he emigrated to the USA and lived in Alaska. He met Nansen in 1882 while sailing on the Viking seal-killing ship.

Ole Nielsen Ravno - Saami by nationality, reindeer herder and musher.

Best of the day

The expedition set off on May 5, 1888. Nansen, along with five comrades through Scotland and Iceland, reached the east coast of Greenland and on July 17 they landed on floating ice, 20 km from the coast. At the cost of incredible effort, the group on boats passed through the floating ice and reached the coast on August 17. Initially, the trip was planned from the Angmasalik fjord, but in fact the expedition started south from the Umivik fjord. Further advancement was carried out on skis through unknown territory, the people themselves served as the draft force. Frosts reached -40 ° C, woolen clothes did not protect well from the cold, and there were almost no fats in the diet (Sverdrup even asked Nansen to give ski ointment for food). On October 3, 1888, the expedition reached the west coast, having made the first passage through the ice of Greenland at a distance of about 660 km. During the entire journey, Nansen and his companions conducted meteorological observations and collected scientific materials.

Expedition on the Fram 1893-1896

Having finished with the analysis of the results obtained, Nansen began preparations for an even more daring and grandiose expedition - to the North Pole.

Fridtjof Nansen - head of the expedition, zoologist, hydrologist and oceanologist.

Otto Neumann Sverdrup - commander of the Fram, acting head of the expedition from March 14, 1895

Sigurd Scott-Hansen - Assistant Commander, Senior Lieutenant in the Norwegian Navy. During the expedition he was the chief meteorologist, astronomer and specialist in magnetic and gravitational research.

Henrik Greve Blessing, MD, doctor, veterinarian and botanist of the expedition.

Theodor Claudius Jacobsen is the navigator of the Fram. Navigator of the Norwegian and New Zealand fleets.

Anton Amundsen is the Fram's senior engineer. Norwegian Navy Machinist.

Adolf Ewell - Provisional Master and Cook of the expedition. From 1879 he served as a navigator in the Norwegian fleet.

Lars Peterssen is the expedition's second machinist and blacksmith. Served in the Norwegian Navy. Since 1895, he also served as a cook and meteorologist. Already on board it turned out that he was a Swede by nationality (his real name was Petersson), who pretended to be a Norwegian in order to take part in the expedition. Nansen's book states that his parents are Norwegians living in Sweden.

Frederik Hjalmar Johansen - stoker and meteorologist. Norwegian army lieutenant.

Peder Leonard Hendriksen - sailor and harpooner. Skipper of the Norwegian fleet, took part in the Sverdrup expedition in 1898-1902.

Bernard Nordal - stoker, electrician and sailor. He also served as a meteorologist. Non-commissioned officer of the Norwegian Navy.

Ivar Otto Irgens Mugstadt - sailor, musher and watchmaker. Prior to the expedition, he changed many professions, including a forester and a supervisor of a psychiatric hospital.

Bernt Bentsen - sailor. From 1890 he served as a navigator in the Norwegian Arctic fishing fleet. Joined the expedition half an hour before departure from Tromsø. He died during an expedition to Svalbard in 1899.

Before Novaya Zemlya, the expedition was accompanied by Nansen's secretary, Ole Christophersen.

Further activities

The annual human rights award of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, the Nansen Medal, is named in his honor.

Personal life

In honor of Eva and Liv, Nansen named the islands on Franz Josef Land (now it turned out that this is one island, so it is called Evaliv on the maps). After 1898, the Nansen had four more children: Kore, Irmelin, Odd and Osmund. Odd Nansen (1901-1973) was a famous Norwegian architect, writer and philanthropist who set up a foundation during the war to help Jewish refugees from European countries occupied by Nazi Germany.

Eva Nansen died in 1907 while Nansen was ambassador to London. He married a second time in 1919 to Sigrun Munta. Daughter Liv left memoirs about her father and mother.

Fridtjof Nansen (1861-1930) - Norwegian polar explorer, scientist (doctor of zoology), founder of a new science (physical oceanography), political and public figure, humanist, philanthropist, Nobel Peace Prize winner (1922), awarded by many countries, in including Russia. Many geographical and astronomical objects are named after Nansen. Within the framework of one post, it is difficult to talk about this interesting person, I would like to focus on two periods of his life - the conquest of the North Pole and helping the starving people of the Volga region.

Fridtjof Nansen was born on October 10, 1861 in Norway, near Oslo (in those years the city was called Christiania). Nansen describes the events of his childhood in his autobiography "In the Free Air", published in 1916. The Nansen family was characterized by order and discipline, as well as a love of sports, especially skiing - it was cultivated by Nansen's mother, Adelaide. Fridtjof was taught to ski from the age of two. As a teenager, he and his brother Alexander were allowed to spend a lot of time in the forest, Nansen even compared himself to Robinson. At the age of 10, Nansen tried to jump from the ski jump in Huseby and was not crippled only by a miracle, from the age of 15 he regularly participated in skiing competitions with his older brother Einar.

01. In the photo - Fridtjof Nansen at the age of 4 years.

In 1877, Nansen set the 1-mile (1.6 km) skating world record, and in 1878 won the first national cross-country championship in 1878. In total, he won this championship twelve times. In 1880, Fridtjof Nansen graduated from school, passed his exams well and received the highest marks in natural sciences and drawing. He was not attracted by the career of a lawyer, on the advice of his father, he applied to a military school, but soon took him away. After that, he entered the Christian University at the Faculty of Zoology, which greatly worried his father. The main reason for the choice was that "out of youthful inexperience, he thought that the study of zoology was associated with a constant stay among nature - in contrast to chemistry and physics, to which he felt a special attraction." Nansen began his studies at the university at the beginning of 1881, at the same time he won second place in national skating competitions. Nansen's scientific adviser was Professor Robert Collet (1842-1913), an old friend of the family, who was also head of the zoology cabinet. He convinced Nansen to take up the biology of seals, for which he had to go on a fishing vessel to the Arctic Ocean. In 1882, Fridtjof made this trip under the command of Captain Axel Krefting off the coast of Greenland on the Viking schooner.

02. Fridtjof Nansen in 1880

Journey to the Arctic Ocean Nansen described in detail in the book "Among the seals and polar bears", published in 1924. When Nansen returned from the Arctic, Professor Collet offered him the then vacant post of Preparator of the Department of Zoology at the Bergen Museum. At the age of 21, Nansen joined the director of the museum, Professor Daniel Cornelius Danielsen, and worked in this post for the next six years.

03. Nansen at work in the laboratory of the Bergen Museum (photo 1982-1984)

In Bergen, Nansen settled in the house of the priest Wilhelm Holt and devoted himself to scientific work. At the same time, he became interested in art and literature, especially appreciated Ibsen's dramas and Byron's poetry. By that time he was fluent in English, French and German. He showed his talent for painting as a child, and in Bergen Nansen began to take lessons from the artist Franz Schirtz, a pioneer in the depiction of the Arctic in painting, a member of Arctic expeditions, who even advised him to quit science. Nansen's older sister Sigrid Bölling became a well-known artist at that time. In February 1884, Fridtjof set another sports record: he single-handedly crossed the mountains from Bergen to Christiania, after which he took part in ski jumping competitions in Huseby and won them. In 1885, Nansen was awarded the Friele gold medal for his first scientific work - "Materials on the anatomy and histology of the mysostome."

04. Fridtjof Nansen in 1886

At the beginning of 1886, Nansen left for Germany, where he studied with Professor Camillo Golgi new methods of staining microscopic preparations of nervous tissue. In April 1886, Nansen moved to Naples to work at Anton Dorn's marine biological station. Nansen spent the summer of 1886 in Norway at military training, in the second half of the year his second work was published, based on materials from a European trip - "The structure and composition of the histological elements of the central nervous system", which became the basis of his doctoral dissertation.

05. Fridtjof Nansen in 1888

As early as 1882, on board the Viking, Nansen had a plan to cross the Greenland ice sheet on skis. In the autumn of 1887, he began serious preparations for the implementation of his plan. In November 1887, Nansen arrived in Stockholm and talked with the famous Swedish geologist, cartographer and explorer of the Arctic - Adolf Nordenskiöld. Nordenskiöld did not approve of Nansen's plans, but considered them quite feasible and shared his own experience. Despite criticism from the public and the press, Nansen managed to raise funds for the expedition. Four days before the trip, Nansen was able to defend his doctoral dissertation. The expedition of 6 people set off on May 2, 1888. On July 17, there was a landing on floating ice 20 km from the coast of Greenland. With great effort, the group on boats passed through the floating ice and reached the coast on August 17. October 3, 1888 the expedition reached the west coast, making the first passage through the ice of Greenland at a distance of about 470 km. During the entire journey, Nansen and his companions conducted meteorological observations and collected scientific materials. They returned to their homeland by the Melchior steamer on May 30, 1889 as victors. Professor Brögger wrote in Nansen's biography: "For the majority of people crowding on the pier, Nansen was a Viking, connecting the sagas of the distant past with the saga of today, with the saga of a skier rolling down from a dizzying height ..." Based on the results of the expedition, Nansen wrote two books - the two-volume "On Skis through Greenland" and the ethnographic description "Life of the Eskimos".

On September 6, 1889, Fridtjof Nansen married Eva Helena Sars, the daughter of a well-known zoologist in Norway, priest Mikael Sars. Eva was by that time a famous chamber singer (mezzo-soprano), a performer of romances. In addition to music, Eva was fond of painting and sports. A lover of skiing, she invented a women's ski suit, modeled on the Sami.

06. Fridtjof Nansen with his wife Eva Sars in 1889

After returning from Greenland, Nansen received the position of curator of the zoological office of the University of Christiania. The whole of 1889 passed for Nansen under the sign of hard work - writing two books, a report on the expedition, lecture tours. Inspired by the expedition to Greenland, Nansen came up with a new grandiose plan to prepare an expedition to the North Pole.

07. Fridtjof Nansens in 1889

On February 18, 1890, Nansen spoke at a meeting of the newly founded Geographical Society of Norway with the rationale for his new expedition. His plan was this: to build a small but very strong ship that could withstand the pressure of ice and go through the Bering Strait in order to quickly reach the New Siberian Islands. Upon arrival at the place, it was supposed to go as far north as possible through open water, then moor to the ice floe and let the ice push the ship towards the pole. In case an accident occurs and you have to evacuate, or, on the contrary, the expedition will be taken to the shores of unknown land, Nansen intended to use sled dogs.

08. Fridtjof Nansen with his wife Eva Sars in 1890

Nansen spent 1890-1893 in careful preparation for an expedition to the North Pole. He gave presentations, raised funds and a team, and looked for sponsors. Many supported Nansen, including in Russia. The Russian Foreign Ministry issued him a "Recommendation Sheet" and informed the coastal authorities of the Arkhangelsk and all Siberian provinces about this expedition and ordered them to provide it with all possible assistance. At the request of the Geographical Society, the Main Hydrographic Directorate sent Nansen copies of all maps of the polar seas available in Russia. E. V. Toll personally in 1892 made a trip to the New Siberian Islands, where he laid three evacuation bases for Nansen. Toll also bought 40 Ostyak and 26 Yakut dogs for Nansen.

Nansen laid down an estimate for the expedition of 300,000 Norwegian kroner (16,875 British pounds = 168,750 rubles), including the cost of the ship, equipment, crew salaries and the maintenance of the families of the expedition members. The laying of the ship took place at the Archer shipyard in Larvik on September 11, 1891. Launching took place on October 26, 1892. The ceremony was presided over by Eva Nansen, who named the ship "Fram" ("Forward"). Back in Greenland, Nansen was convinced of the advantage of a small team of professionals, in which everyone carries an equal share of the work. The total number of applications for participation in the expedition exceeded 600, Nansen selected only 12 people from them (including himself), but in Vardø, an hour and a half before departure, the 13th member of the team was received - sailor Bernt Bentsen, who intended to go only to Yugorsky Shar, however, he remained until the end of the expedition. While the ship was sailing along Norway, Nansen gave a series of public speeches in order to make up for the expedition's financial shortfalls.

On July 29, the Fram entered Yugorsky Shar, in the Nenets camp of Khabarovo, where the envoy of E.V. Toll, a half-Russian, half-Norwegian, Tobolsk tradesman Alexander Ivanovich Trontheim delivered 34 Ostyak huskies. The Kara Sea was crossed safely, being on the beam of the Yenisei on August 18. By September 7, the expedition was near the Taimyr Peninsula, having previously discovered several groups of small islands that were named after the assistant commander (Scott-Hansen Islands) and in honor of the expedition sponsors (Fearnley Islands and Heiberg Islands). Cape Chelyuskin was crossed on September 9 in a strong snow storm that threatened forced wintering. Nansen decided not to go to the mouth of the Olenyok River, where Toll had prepared a coal warehouse and a batch of riding huskies. Instead, "Fram" went north along open leads, skirting Kotelny Island. Nansen expected to reach a latitude of 80°, but solid ice fields stopped the Fram on September 20 at 78° N. sh. On September 28, the dogs were lowered from the side onto the ice, and on October 5, the start of the drift was officially announced.

10. The ship "Fram" leaves Norway, 1893

11. Nansen plays the organ (a gift from sponsors) on the ship "Fram", 1893

On October 9, 1893, the design of the Fram was tested in practice - the first ice compression occurred. The ship all this time drifted randomly in shallow water (130-150 m). The polar night began on October 25, by which time a wind generator was mounted on board. In general, the main enemy of the Fram team was boredom, which led to conflicts of people squeezed in cramped living quarters, as well as depression that began with Nansen.

12. Nansen at the Fram stuck in the ice, 1894

Only on May 19, 1894, the Fram crossed 81 ° N. sh., moving at an average speed of 1.6 miles per day. Nansen feared that if the drift rate was constant, it would take at least 5-6 years to cross the polar basin. During this period, a remarkable discovery was made: an ocean up to 3850 m deep was discovered on the site of the Polar Basin. By the end of the summer of 1894, Nansen was convinced that the ship would not reach the Pole, and firmly decided in 1895 to go on a sledge trip.

13. "Fram" in the ice, 1894

15. Measuring the depth of the ocean. Depth 3500 meters, 1894

16. Nansen on Ice, 1894

17. Polar landscape. Peder Leonard Henriksen and "Fram", 1894

18. Dog houses next to the "Fram", September 1894

Nansen, as the leader of the expedition, decided that two people and 28 dogs with a load of 1050 kg (37.5 kg per dog) would go on a trip to the pole. After reaching the Pole (50 days were allotted for this), it would be possible to go either to Svalbard or to Franz Josef Land. As companions, Nansen chose Hjalmar Johansen, the most experienced skier and musher on the expedition.

20. "Fram" in the ice, 1894

21. Henrik Greve Blessing with an algae collector, 1894

22. The team digs out the ship. March 1895

By the end of January 1895, the expedition was carried by currents to a latitude of 83° 34′ N. sh. Thus, Greeley's 1882 record of 83° 24' N was broken. sh.

24. "Fram" in the ice, 1895

25. Nansen in his cabin, February 1895

26. Flag "Fram", 1895

The sledge expedition was equipped within a limited timeframe (about two months), using only the materials available on board the expedition ship. Initially, it was supposed to perform on four sleds, but an unsuccessful start on February 26, 1895 showed that the chosen design of the sled was unreliable - the crossbars broke. An attempt to start on February 28 on six sleds also failed: a small number of dogs (28) actually made them pass the same distance six times. Because of this, food supplies were significantly reduced (850 kg: for 120 days for people and only 30 for dogs). It turned out that the polar suits made of wolfskin were poorly tailored, and Nansen and Johansen were sweating profusely. Taken off at night, the fur suits froze. Nansen decided to return to the woolen knitted suits he had tried on the 1888 Greenland Expedition. They were also uncomfortable: they did not protect well from the cold, they froze on the go, and at night they thawed in a sleeping bag and were constantly wet.

27. "Fram" still drifting in ice, 1895

Nansen and Johansen finally performed on March 14, 1895 on three sleds. The trip to the north turned out to be extremely difficult: headwinds constantly blew, hiding the distance traveled due to ice drift (on average, travelers covered from 13 to 17 km a day), dogs weakened, woolen suits resembled ice armor. Nansen and Johansen repeatedly fell through the young ice, freezing their fingers. The temperature was constantly kept between −40 °C and −30 °C. Finally, on April 8, 1895, Nansen decided to stop the fight for the pole: having reached 86°13′36′′ N. sh., they turned to Cape Fligeli.

28. Nansen and Johansen on the road (staged photograph by F. Jackson, July 1896)

In April, the direction of the ice drift changed to the north, which strongly held back the polar explorers. By April 19, dog food was left for three days, and the polar explorers began to slaughter the weakest animals, feeding them to the rest. On April 21, Nansen and Johansen discovered a larch log frozen into the ice, which confirmed Nansen's theory about the drift of pack ice from the Siberian coast to Greenland. By the beginning of June - the time of melting ice - they had 7 dogs left. From June 22 to July 23, 1895, Nansen and Johansen were blocked by continuous fields of melting hummocks, they called their forced camp "languishing camp". The temperature sometimes exceeded zero, we had to sleep in wet sleeping bags, putting skis under ourselves. I had to kill the last dogs and abandon most of the equipment, as well as chop off the three-meter sledges, making them suitable for dragging by one person.

29. Nansen and Johansen on the road (staged photograph by F. Jackson, July 1896)

On August 10, Nansen and Johansen reached the archipelago, to which Nansen gave the name Belaya Zemlya - these were the northernmost spurs of Franz Josef Land. Inaccurate maps of that time could not help them in any way, it remained to go as far as possible before the onset of winter. Finally, on August 28, 1895, Nansen decided to stay for the winter in "an unknown country". Wintering took place from August 28, 1895 to May 19, 1896 at Cape Norway (80°12′ N 55°37′ E) in the western part of Jackson Island. Nansen and Johansen built a dugout out of walrus skins and stones. Stones were broken out of the moraines, a piece of sledge runner served as a lever, the gravel was loosened with a ski pole, a spade was made from a walrus shoulder, tied to the crossbar of the sled, and a walrus tusk served as a pick. The only means of lighting and cooking in the dugout was a fat lamp made from the binding of sled runners. Polar explorers ate bear and walrus meat and lard obtained during hunting. Stormy winds often blew (once the wind broke Nansen's skis and carried away and badly crushed Johansen's kayak), and large flocks of arctic foxes periodically plundered the meager property of winterers.

30. Nansen and Johansen on the road (staged photograph by F. Jackson, July 1896)

On May 21, 1896, they set off again, hoping to get to the Svalbard archipelago. We had to move on foot, the leads were overcome in kayaks. If the wind allowed, improvised sails made of blankets were placed on the sledges (this was the case when crossing McClintock Island). On June 12, a catastrophe almost happened: the polar explorers settled down on the shore for hunting, when the tied kayaks were blown out to sea by a strong wind. Nansen, risking his life, swam to the kayaks and returned the property piled on board. On June 15, Nansen almost drowned when a walrus ripped open the canvas side of the kayak, fortunately without injuring the traveler.

On June 17, 1896, Nansen heard a dog barking while cooking. Not believing his ears, he decided to go on reconnaissance and accidentally stumbled upon Frederick Jackson, who, with his expedition, had been at Cape Flora since 1894. Nansen described it this way: “On one side stood a European in a checkered English suit and high boots, a civilized man, clean-shaven and trimmed, on the other, a savage dressed in dirty tatters, smeared with soot and blubber, with long disheveled hair and a bristly beard, with face so blackened that its natural light color did not show through anywhere ... "

31. Nansen's meeting with F. Jackson, June 1896 (staged photo taken a few hours after the real meeting)

On July 26, 1896, the yacht "Windward" arrived at Cape Flora, on which Nansen and Johansen returned to Norway, setting foot on the land of Vardø on August 13. Literally a week later, Fram also returned to Norway (the Fram team, after a long wait, considered Nansen and Johansen dead).

32. The crew of the Fram after returning to Norway, September 1896

33. The crew of the Fram after returning to Norway, September 1896

The return of the Fram has become a national holiday. All the way from Tromsø to Christiania (August 20 - September 9, 1896) was accompanied by honoring in every port. On the way to Bergen, E. V. Toll boarded the Fram; on behalf of Russia, he congratulated Nansen at the royal banquet. In Christiania, the Fram met the Norwegian Navy, and on the way to the royal audience, the Nansen team passed through a triumphal arch formed by the bodies of 200 gymnasts. University students crowned the team with laurel wreaths.

34. Solemn meeting of "Fram" in Christiania (Oslo), September 1896

Although Nansen failed to reach the North Pole, in the words of Sir Clement Markham (President of the Royal Geographical Society), "the Norwegian expedition solved all the geographical problems of the Arctic." The expedition proved that there is no land in the area of the North Pole, instead establishing the existence of an ocean basin. Nansen discovered that the Coriolis force, due to the rotation of the Earth, plays a huge role in the drift of pack ice. Based on the analysis of the results of the expedition in 1902, Nansen deduced two simple rules describing the speed and direction of ice drift, known as "Nansen's rules" and widely used in polar expeditions of the 20th century. In addition, Nansen for the first time described in detail the process of growth and melting of pack ice, and also described the phenomenon of "dead water". For polar explorers and athletes, Nansen's technological discoveries play a huge role. For the first time, he used the experience of the survival of the Eskimos on a large scale, and a number of his inventions (light bamboo sleds with metal skids and an apparatus for cooking food and simultaneously melting drinking ice with an efficiency of 90%) are still used.

35. Fridtjof Nansen in 1886

36. Fridtjof Nansen in 1887

Nansen's most important task was to write a report on the expedition, based on travel diaries and initially processed scientific materials. The book was called "Fram in the Polar Sea: The Norwegian Polar Expedition 1893-1896" and became extremely popular all over the world: in 1897-1898 its translations into English, German, Swedish and Russian were published. Royalties from publications and reprints made Nansen a wealthy man. In 1897, Nansen was appointed professor at the University of Christiania with an exemption from lecturing until the processing of the scientific materials of the expedition was completed. The work took about 10 years, the last (sixth) volume of the report was published in English already in 1906. The third volume was written solely by Nansen and was devoted to the oceanography of the Polar Basin. Since 1900, Nansen lectured at the university on oceanography, and since 1908 he was approved as a professor of oceanography, not zoology.

37. Fridtjof Nansen with his family in 1902

In 1907, Nansen's wife, Eva Sars, died after an illness (Sigrun Munte became Nansen's second wife, their marriage took place in 1919, but they had no joint children). Eva Nansen bequeathed not to bury herself and burn her body. There was no crematorium in Norway at that time, Fridtjof Nansen and Dr. Jensen took the body to Gothenburg, where it was cremated. The place where the ashes were scattered is unknown.

A few words can be said about Fridtjof Nansen as a politician and diplomat. For the first time, Nansen was connected with the affairs of big politics during his first visit to Russia in April 1898. In St. Petersburg, he was awarded an audience with Nicholas II, during which the question of Norway's non-intervention in the event of a Russian-Swedish conflict was discussed. In April 1906, Nansen was appointed the first Norwegian envoy (with the rank of minister) to Great Britain and left for London. His main task was to constantly interact with representatives of the major world powers in order to maintain the neutral position of Norway and prepare a Norwegian-English treaty, since Nansen was extremely popular in the UK. The Norwegian-British Treaty was signed on November 2, 1907 in London, after which Nansen considered his task fully completed. Despite the persuasion of King Edward, on November 15, Nansen resigned.

38. Fridtjof Nansen with children in 1908

In 1913, Nansen accepted an offer from Norwegian-born American businessman Jonas Crane to travel on the steamer "Correct" along the Northern Sea Route, mainly to explore the possibilities of using it for trade between Asiatic Russia and Europe. It was not a scientific expedition, Nansen was only a passenger. Having reseeded at the mouth of the Yenisei (in Dudinka) from the "Correct" to the "Omul" of Stepan Vostrotin, the polar explorer climbed the Yenisei with stops to Krasnoyarsk, where he spent 4 days in various meetings, and then through China on the Chinese Eastern Railway reached Vladivostok, from where he returned by cars, horses and at that time the unfinished northern route of the Trans-Siberian Railway to Norway through Yekaterinburg, where he participated in a meeting of the Russian Geographical Society, reporting on the voyage along the Yenisei. Based on the results of his trip to Siberia, Nansen wrote the book "To the Land of the Future". On this journey, Nansen became closely acquainted with the Russian way of life and many active officials, which helped him in further missions to Russia in the 1920s. Since then, he began to take an interest in the problems of Russia.

In October 1918, Nansen was elected rector of the University of Christiania without asking for his consent, but he categorically refused the post. Then he was elected chairman of the Norwegian Union for the creation of the League of Nations, this predetermined all his activities over the next 12 years, until his death. R. Huntford claimed that for Nansen this was the best application of his indefatigable energy. Nansen, despite the traditional neutrality of the Scandinavian states, achieved the election of Norway as a full member of the League in 1920 and became one of three delegates to the General Assembly of the League. Since April 1920, Nansen has been involved in the repatriation of about half a million prisoners of war scattered around the world through the League of Nations. More than 300,000 of the repatriates were natives of Russia, engulfed in civil war. Already in November 1920, Nansen reported to the Assembly that he had achieved the return of 200 thousand people to their homeland, and stressed that he could not have imagined that he would face so much human suffering. In the final report of 1922, he stated that 427,886 prisoners of war had been repatriated from over 30 countries. Some biographers claim that Nansen's venture is not inferior to his Arctic endeavors.

39. Fridtjof Nansen in Krasnoyarsk, 1913

Back in 1920, analyzing the situation in Russia, Nansen predicted the beginning of a serious famine. At the suggestion of the British delegate Philip Noel-Baker, on September 1, 1921, Nansen assumed the position of the League's High Commissioner for Refugees. From now on, his main task was to return to their homeland more than 2 million Russian refugees scattered around the world due to the ups and downs of the Russian revolution. At the same time, on his own initiative, he dealt with the problem of famine, which directly affected more than 30 million people in a country engulfed in civil war. This greatly damaged the reputation of Nansen, who was accused of "Bolshevism" and defending the interests of the Soviet government. Nansen's work to repatriate refugees was also hampered by the fact that most of them had no documentary evidence of origin or citizenship, as well as no legal status in the host country. Nansen proposed the idea of the so-called "Nansen passport" - an identity card for people who have lost their citizenship. In the early 1920s, more than 50 governments recognized "Nansen passports", which allowed refugees to legally cross borders, look for work, etc. Among the holders of the Nansen passport were world-famous figures, for example, Marc Chagall, Igor Stravinsky, Anna Pavlova. Initially, the Nansen passport was intended only for Russian emigrants, but over time it began to be issued to other groups of refugees.

While at the Lausanne Conference, Nansen received the news that he had been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. According to the recollections of his daughter Liv, he had no idea that the governments of Denmark and Norway nominated him - primarily for his merits in the repatriation of prisoners of war and assistance to the starving in Russia, as well as for the contribution that he made through his activities to achieve mutual understanding between peoples and establishment of peaceful relations between countries. The amount of the award was 122 thousand kroons. Nansen spent most of the amount received on the construction of two demonstration agricultural stations in the USSR in Rostash (Saratov region) and in Mikhailovka (Dnepropetrovsk region). These large farms, according to Nansen, were supposed to serve as an example of a more rational mode of production, thanks to which Soviet Russia would be able to export grain in the future.

40. Distribution of bread in Samara, 1921

Having visited the Volga region and brought a large amount of food, Nansen was horrified by the scale of the disaster. From the memoirs of Nansen: "The most terrible was the visit to the cemetery, where there was a mountain of 70 or 80 naked corpses, most of which belonged to children who died in the last two days and were brought here from orphanages or simply picked up on the streets. And next to them were piled up another 7 or 8 adult corpses They are all simply put in one grave until it is full The corpses are naked because the clothes are taken by the living Nansen asked the grave digger how many dead were brought to the cemetery daily and received the answer that they were brought in "carts". It was impossible for the gravediggers to cope with the burial of so many dead, because the earth was frozen and dug very hard, so mountains grew from the bodies of the unfortunate. Many corpses generally remained lying on the streets and in houses, because it was not possible to take them to the cemetery. "

41. Starved to death in the Samara region, Buzuluk, 1921 (photo by Nansen)

The International Committee for Assistance to Russia under the leadership of Nansen from September 1921 to September 1922 delivered 90,700 tons of food to Russia. Emil Ludwig wrote in his book "Leaders of Europe": "What significance Nansen had for the Russian people, the look of an old peasant woman told me when I once visited the Lower Volga region three years after Nansen's stay in Russia. When I called his name, she crossed herself and she asked, wide-eyed, if I knew him, then touched my chest with her hand, as if wishing to convey a blessing to her savior.

42. Starving children in Saratov, 1921

43. Starved to death in Saratov, 1921

44. Children who died of starvation in the city of Marx, Saratov Region, 1921

Fridtjof Nansen traveled around the US and Europe to raise funds, held dozens of meetings with representatives of public organizations and business circles, with ordinary people. And everywhere he said the same phrase "I have said my word here and I will repeat it again and again. I will never forget the mortal anguish in the eyes of Russian children. Save Russia!"

So he called out to the people - and was heard. The attitude of the governments towards the Soviets, of course, did not change, and Nansen's appeal to the League of Nations did not move things forward, although several states that were members of the League of Nations provided some assistance. However, public opinion awakened and resulted in resolutions and appeals addressed to governments, various institutions and ordinary people. Perhaps the world has never seen such a fervent desire to help. Parcels with gifts and large sums of money flowed in from individuals and organizations. One Englishman, a friend of Nansen, Major Davis, gave 5,000 pounds. Norwegian shipowners donated about 10,000 crowns each, two Quakers donated their entire fortune - 23,000 pounds. The newspapers "Politiken" and "Dagens Nyheter" sent 8,300 kroons, while the Berum community (where Nansen lives) collected 5,000 kroons. Often ordinary people donated their last money. One worker from Montevideo sent all his savings - 12 thousand pesos, one French poet - 48 thousand francs, and one 18-year-old girl - the contents of her piggy bank: 341 dollars. Nansen's landlord and friend of his student years, Pastor Holt of Bergen, now a lonely old man, collected 372 crowns. Nansen thanked them all warmly.

45. Fridtjof Nansen in 1922

46. Fridtjof Nansen in 1922

In 1924, Nansen was commissioned by the League of Nations to deal with the Armenian refugees. However, even before that, at the first session of the League, Nansen made a proposal to admit Armenia to its members, emphasizing that the Armenians need help more than ever. Since 1925, Nansen devoted much of his efforts to helping Armenian refugees - victims of the Armenian genocide in the Ottoman Empire. His goal was the return of refugees to Soviet Armenia. Nansen actively visited refugee camps - including in Egypt, and after a trip to Soviet Armenia, he proposed to the League of Nations to finance the irrigation of 36 thousand hectares of land (360 km²), which would allow 15 thousand people to be accommodated and provided with jobs. This plan failed, but Nansen has since become one of the heroes of the Armenian people. In total, Nansen saved about 320,000 people from the Armenian genocide, who were later able to obtain asylum in various countries, including Syria, using "Nansen" passports. Upon returning to his homeland, Fridtjof Nansen wrote a book full of sympathy and respect for the Armenian people, "On Armenia".

47. Fridtjof Nansen in Armenia, 1925

For the last two years of his life, Nansen suffered from heart disease, but he still led an active lifestyle. On May 13, 1930, Fridtjof Nansen died on the veranda of his house, the funeral was scheduled for the day of the national holiday - May 17. According to his will, Nansen's body was cremated, the urn with the ashes was buried under one of the birches in Pulhögde.

In 1954, the UN established the Nansen Medal, which was transformed in 1979 into a prize named after him, awarded annually on behalf of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees. Since 1948, the former Nansen manor "Pulhögda" has housed the Fridtjof Nansen Institute, an independent institution for research in the fields of environmental protection, energy, and the development of resource management methods and policies.

50. Fridtjof Nansen in 1930

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(1861- 1930)

The Norwegian explorer and philanthropist Fridtjof Nansen was born on the outskirts of Oslo on October 10, 1861 in the family of a lawyer. As a child, Nansen spent a lot of time on the wooded hills, for several days he was in the forest. Childhood experience became convenient for Nansen later, during the Arctic expeditions.

1980 Fridtjof Nansen entered the University of Oslo, specializing in zoology, which attracted the possibility of expeditionary work.

In 1982, he enlisted on the industrial ship Viking, which was heading to the Arctic, and soon saw the beauty of Greenland. This journey prompted Fridtjof Nansen to think about organizing his own expedition and the first foot crossing through Greenland.

For a long time, Nansen could not find the means to implement his plan, in the end he interested a Copenhagen philanthropist. In May 1888, Nansen and five crew members set off on a journey that, by the way, turned out to be unsuccessful.

1890 Fridtjof Nansen wrote two books - The First Crossing of Greenland and The Life of the Eskimos.

At the same time, he plans a new expedition, if only to be the first to get to the North Pole and find out if there is a mainland there. With funds provided by the Norwegian government, Nansen built the Fram, a round-bottomed ship designed for ice crushing.

In the summer of 1893, he set off with a crew of 12 people. The Fram moved 450 miles towards the Pole and was jammed with ice. In March, Fridtjof Nansen and another crew member traveled further by dog sled and reached 86° 13.6 N. Not knowing where the Fram was located, the polar explorers wintered on Franz Josef land. In May 1896 they met an English expedition and returned to the Fram. All this was described by Nansen in the book "The Far North".

With the outbreak of the First World War, Nansen actively helps Russian prisoners of war, repatriates 500 thousand German and Austrian prisoners of war from Russia, and provides housing for 1.5 million Russian emigrants. In 1921, during the famine in Russia, he raised money to save the starving, thanks to which he resorted to saving up to 10 million lives.

For many years of efforts to provide assistance to the defenseless, Nansen was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1922, as a Danish journalist wrote at the time - "this distinction was the first to go to a person who achieved such outstanding successes in a short time against the backdrop of peace protection."

Fridtjof Nansen had no family. He died in Oslo on May 13, 1930, overworked after a ski trip; his funeral took place on the anniversary of Norwegian independence.