Reforms of Alexander II. Educational reform of Alexander II Educational reform of 1864

Reforms in the field of public education (1863 - 1864)

During the reign of Alexander II, the number of educational institutions increased significantly, incl. for children from low-income, usually peasant, families. In post-reform Russia, women's education was widely developed. Women's gymnasiums were opened, under which pedagogical courses were created. Diocesan schools were created for the daughters of clergy, preparing teachers for elementary schools. In 1878, social activists headed by professor of St. Petersburg University K.N. Bestuzhev-Ryumin achieved the opening in the capital of the Higher Courses for Women, equivalent to the university. The same courses were opened in Moscow under the guidance of Professor V.I. Guerrier. The beginning of women's medical education was laid. The reform in the educational sphere gave rise to a new type of Russian intellectual: a well-educated, critical thinker, striving for active social and practical activities.

Censorship Reform (1865)

The first draft law on censorship was worked out by a commission chaired by Prince. YES. Obolensky under the Ministry of Public Education (A.V. Golovnina), and the second draft was drawn up by the new commission D.A. Obolensky at the Ministry of Internal Affairs (P.A. Valuev). The law was put into effect on September 1, 1865. In two cities of the empire - St. Petersburg and Moscow - the procedure and conditions for the publication of books and the press were partially changed. Serious scientific books and expensive periodicals could be printed without prior censorship with the permission of the Minister of the Interior. If a "harmful" direction was found in them, the perpetrators (author, publisher, translator or editor) were prosecuted by the court. A system of administrative penalties was introduced - warnings from the Minister of Internal Affairs with the right to suspend a periodical for up to 6 months or its final prohibition by the highest decision.

General characteristics of the school reforms of the 60s. Under the influence of the social movement of the 60s, the tsarist government was forced to carry out a number of reforms: peasant (the abolition of serfdom), judicial, military, school, zemstvo. According to V. I. Lenin, these reforms were bourgeois in content, but were carried out by in power by the serfs. Therefore, they were stamped with half-heartedness, duality. These features are also inherent in the school reforms of the 60s, in particular the reform of elementary and secondary schools in 1864 and the reform of universities in 1863. Preparations for school reforms were carried out for eight years (starting from 1856). Reform projects were worked out and revised several times. In the early 60s, reform projects, including school reforms, were more liberal than their subsequent versions and laws approved in 1863-1864. Characterizing the charter of universities, approved in 1863, and the five-fold revision of the draft of this charter, Herzen wrote : “The government took, like the Jerusalem pilgrims who sinned too much, three steps forward and two back. One still remained. These words are quite applicable to the preparation of the reform of elementary and secondary schools.
"Regulations on Primary Public Schools". On July 19, 1864, the "Regulations on Primary Public Schools" was approved. According to this “Regulation”, the goal of primary public schools was defined as follows: “To affirm religious and moral concepts among the people and to disseminate initial useful knowledge” (§ 1). Primary public schools included elementary schools of all departments, urban and rural, maintained at the expense of the treasury, societies and individuals (§ 2). actions and, where possible, church singing. All teaching must be in Russian. The duration of training in the "Regulations" is not specified. In fact, she was in the best (zemstvo, city) schools for three years, and in many others (especially parochial ones) even for two years. The age of students was not indicated in the “Regulations”. Children of all classes were admitted to public schools. Where it was not possible to open separate primary schools for boys and girls, joint education was allowed. Education in elementary schools could be paid or free, at the discretion of those departments, societies and persons at the expense of which the schools were maintained. Usually it was free. According to the “Regulations” of 1864, clergymen (priests, deacons and deacons) or secular persons had the right to be teachers in elementary schools. Clerics were not required to have any documents confirming their preparedness for teaching, good morals and political loyalty, while secular persons could be teachers of elementary public schools if they “received special permission from the county school council for the title of teacher or teacher upon presentation of a certificate in good morals and trustworthiness from persons known to the council” (§ 16).
All elementary public schools, which were previously under the jurisdiction of various ministries and departments, were subordinate to the Ministry of Public Education, however, an exception was made for elementary schools opened by the clergy: they were under the jurisdiction of the synod. according to the “Regulations” of 1864, district and provincial school councils were established. The county school council included: a representative from the Ministry of Public Education (by appointment of the trustee of the educational district, usually a gymnasium teacher or superintendent of the county school), a representative from the Ministry of the Interior (by appointment of the governor, usually a police officer, i.e. the head of the county police), a representative of the spiritual department (priest, appointed by the bishop), two representatives from the county zemstvo (elected at the county zemstvo assembly), a representative of the city government. The chairman of the county school council was elected from among the members of the council. The county school council ran elementary schools, gave permission to open, transfer and close these schools, appointed and dismissed teachers. The provincial school council (consisted of the bishop - the chairman of the council, the governor, the provincial director of schools and two representatives from the provincial zemstvo) mainly considered complaints against decisions of the county councils of this province.
The "Regulations on Primary Public Schools" shows the duality of the school reform, which consisted in its bourgeois character and in the preservation of the prerogatives of the pre-reform education system. New were the replacement of the feudal-estate elementary school with a classless, class school, the granting of the right to open public schools to local governments (zemstvos, cities), societies and individuals, the admission of women to teaching, the establishment of collegiate bodies for managing schools. Along with these parochial schools were preserved. The dissemination of religious and moral knowledge came to the fore in determining the purpose of public schools. Churchmen were allowed to teach without any certificates, while secular persons - only after receiving certificates of their readiness, morality and reliability.
Charter of gymnasiums and progymnasiums of 1864. The draft charter of the gymnasiums was revised several times, discussed by the pedagogical community, and finally approved on November 19, 1864.
According to this charter, two types of gymnasiums were established: classical - with the teaching of ancient languages ​​​​- Latin and Greek, and real - without ancient languages, both with a seven-year term of study.
In real gymnasiums, mathematics was taught to a greater extent than in classical ones (26 lessons in all classes per week, in classical 22), natural science (23 lessons and 6 lessons), physics and cosmography (9 and 6 lessons), drawing (in real) ; in real gymnasiums two new languages ​​were taught, in classical schools only one of the new languages ​​(French or German). The remaining subjects: Russian language, literature, history, geography - had the same number of lessons in all gymnasiums; Russian language in real gymnasiums - one lesson more. The duration of the lesson was set at 1 hour 15 minutes. The curriculum of a real gymnasium was distinguished by progressive features and was more vital. In addition, a greater amount of knowledge in mathematics, physics, and natural sciences better met the requirements for entering the physics and mathematics and medical faculties of the university. Nevertheless, the right to enter universities was granted only to those who graduated from classical gymnasiums. They could enter all higher educational institutions, while those who graduated from real gymnasiums were given access only to technical and agricultural ones. According to the charter of 1864, gymnasiums were declared to be non-estate educational institutions: boys of all classes were accepted as students without distinction of the rank of their parents and religion. Corporal punishment of students was abolished. The functions and rights of pedagogical councils of gymnasiums were expanded. The director of the gymnasium did not have the right to cancel the decisions of the pedagogical council, but could only appeal against them to the trustee of the educational district. Each gymnasium was obliged to have a library of books approved for student and teacher libraries of secondary educational institutions, a set of visual teaching aids in natural science, geography, mathematics, and drawing and a physical study. Progymnasiums were incomplete secondary schools, had four classes, corresponding to the first four classes of gymnasiums, and were opened more often in small towns. The former estate-serf gymnasium was transformed into a bourgeois-class secondary school, but the duality and half-heartedness of the school reforms of the 1960s had a strong effect on the reform of the gymnasium. It was required that the secondary school give more extensive knowledge in mathematics, physics, natural science than the classical gymnasium, as well as knowledge of new languages ​​and modern literature, the ability to draw and disassemble drawings. This is exactly what the high school was like. However, the tsarist government gave preference to the classical gymnasium. Half of all gymnasiums were made semi-classical (with one Latin language), 25% of gymnasiums were classical (with Latin and Greek) and only 25% were real. In 1866, the reactionary Count D. A. Tolstoy was appointed Minister of Public Education, who was hostile to real gymnasiums, since they contributed to the spread of a materialistic worldview among young people. He began strenuously planting classicism in the secondary school and soon turned all the gymnasiums into classical ones. Secondary female education. In the early 1960s, a step forward was also taken with regard to women's education, although this issue was also resolved halfway.
On May 10, 1860, the "Regulations on Women's Schools of the Office of the Ministry of Public Education" was approved. According to this "Regulation" women's schools could be of two categories. Schools of the first category had a six-year term of study. They taught the law of God, the Russian language and literature, arithmetic and the beginnings of geometry, geography, history (general and Russian), natural science, physics, calligraphy and needlework. The optional subjects included French and German, drawing, music, singing and dancing. Women's schools of the second category had a three-year course of study. They taught the law of God, the Russian language, geography, Russian history, arithmetic, calligraphy and needlework. Girls of all classes were admitted to women's schools.
Compared with men's gymnasiums, women's schools of the first category had one year shorter duration and significantly narrowed training programs. They, as can be seen from the wording of the "Regulations on Women's Schools", were intended to prepare a woman as a wife and mother, but did not aim to prepare a woman for social activities. The number of women's schools was small. In 1870, in all of Russia there were only 37 women's schools of the first category and 94 schools of the second category. In the same year they were transformed into women's gymnasiums and progymnasiums. Higher education reform. Professors and students took a great part in the social movement of the 60s. Already in 1856, student unrest began, to which the government responded with repressions, up to the dismissal in 1861 of all students of St. Petersburg University. But along with this, the government was forced to make some concessions. The development of a new university charter began. Its draft was revised five times, and, finally, on June 18, 1863, the charter was approved under pressure from the social movement. According to this, the most progressive of all the university charters of pre-revolutionary Russia, universities were given some autonomy: the right to choose a rector and vice-rector (for a four-year term) by the academic council of the university ; election by competition of professors; faculty councils elected deans. The number of departments was increased, they were given the opportunity to conduct scientific work. The composition of teachers increased by more than one and a half times. The previously existing institutions were reorganized, turned into full-fledged higher educational institutions: the St. Petersburg Technological Institute, the Mining Institute, the Ways of Communication, the Moscow Higher Technical School, the Petrovsko-Razumovskaya (now Timiryazevskaya) Agricultural Academy; The Riga Polytechnic Institute was opened.
The beginning of zemstvo activities in public education. In 1864, the “Regulations on Zemstvo Institutions” were approved, according to which in 34 provinces of European Russia, populated mainly by Russians and the peoples of the Volga region, local self-government was introduced - zemstvos. The introduction of zemstvos was, as V. I. Lenin noted, a concession from the government to society. The population (represented, however, only by the owners of large immovable property - landlords, manufacturers, homeowners, as well as the prosperous part of the peasantry) was given the right to manage, under the control of the governors, local economic and cultural affairs: health care, public education (maintenance of primary schools and encouragement of secondary education ), the construction of roads, water supply, etc. In the field of public education, tsarism gave the zemstvo a modest role: participation in the development of public education "mainly in economic terms", that is, the zemstvo could open (with the permission of the district school council) schools and maintain them in economic terms (rooms, heating, lighting, equipment, supply of textbooks and stationery permitted by the Ministry of Public Education, payment of teachers, etc.). But the zemstvo was forbidden to interfere in the educational work of the school, which was under the jurisdiction of the district school councils and inspectors of public schools, whose position (one per province) was established in 1869. The role of the zemstvo was also limited in another respect: it could contain only primary but not high schools. With regard to secondary education, the zemstvos had the right only to “encourage” the issuance of subsidies to secondary educational institutions, the establishment of scholarships for secondary school students. And yet, the zemstvos of most provinces in the first ten years of their existence created a significant network of primary rural schools; about 10,000 zemstvo schools were opened. The advanced zemstvos tried to organize the training of folk teachers in zemstvo teachers' schools, held courses and congresses of teachers, arranged school libraries, which were also used by those who graduated from school.
It should be noted, however, that the zemstvo assumed only a part of the household expenses for schools, and the main expenses (hiring premises for schools, construction of school buildings, heating, lighting, paying teachers, watchmen) were borne by rural communities. Of all types of primary schools, existing at that time (zemstvo, ministerial, parochial, etc.), zemstvo schools were the best. The educational level of their teachers was higher than the teachers of other primary schools, they had special buildings, were better equipped with teaching aids. However, the activities of the zemstvos in public education did not go beyond the scope of bourgeois enlightenment.

In 1864, the system of primary and secondary education was reformed: on July 19, 1864, the “Regulations on Primary Public Schools” were issued, the purpose of which was seen as the establishment of religious and moral concepts among the people and the dissemination of initial useful knowledge. The term of study in schools was not limited, as was the age of students.

The content of the training was extremely poor - the Law of God, reading, writing, arithmetic, church singing. It was especially emphasized that the training is conducted in Russian. Primary public schools were non-class educational institutions, they allowed joint education of boys and girls, and education was free. All secular elementary public schools were transferred to the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Public Education, spiritual - to the jurisdiction of the Holy Synod, the highest body for the affairs of the Russian Orthodox Church. A special place in the "Regulations" was given to the question of the personality of the teacher.

Both clergy and secular persons received the right to teach in schools. However, if clerics had the right to teach without confirming their competence and reliability with any documents, then secular persons, according to § 16 of the “Regulations”, had to obtain permission to teach from the county school council upon providing a certificate of integrity and reliability. District and provincial school councils, according to this "Regulation", became bodies of leadership and control over the activities of schools in the field. The school council included a representative of the Ministry of Public Education, a representative of the Ministry of the Interior, a representative of the clergy, representatives of the county zemstvo, and a representative of city government. The school council was headed by a chairman chosen from among the members of the council. Only a bishop could be the chairman of the provincial school council.

On November 19, 1864, a new “Charter of Gymnasiums and Progymnasiums” was approved, according to which two types of gymnasiums were established: classical and real, and, accordingly, progymnasiums. Progymnasiums corresponded in their content to the first four classes of gymnasiums. Their curriculum included arithmetic, the Law of God, grammar of the Russian, Latin and Greek languages, natural history, often in the form of conversations in Russian language classes. Progymnasiums were opened most often in small towns and made it possible to prepare for admission to the senior classes of the gymnasium.

A feature of the classical gymnasiums was that about 40% of the total study time was devoted to the study of ancient languages ​​- Latin and Greek. In addition, they taught the Russian language, Russian literature, domestic, world and sacred history, domestic and universal geography, natural science, mathematics, physics, cosmography, drawing and one modern foreign language - French or German. Those who graduated from the classical gymnasium received the right to enter the university.

The content of training in real gymnasiums differed from classical gymnasiums primarily in the absence of ancient languages ​​in the curricula, which corresponded to the goal of these educational institutions - preparation for entering higher technical and agricultural educational institutions. In real gymnasiums, much more time was devoted to studying subjects of the natural cycle - 4 hours more than in classical gymnasiums; for the study of mathematics - for 17 hours, for the study of physics - for 9 hours and for the study of cosmography - for 6 hours. It was obligatory to study two new languages ​​- French and German. Other academic subjects - Russian language, literature, history, geography - were studied in the same volume as in classical gymnasiums.

In accordance with the new "Charter", both types of gymnasiums were declared non-class educational institutions with separate education for boys and girls. New in the practice of gymnasiums was the requirement to create educational libraries, and - both for teachers and students - specially equipped classrooms for natural science, geography, physics, mathematics, and drawing. The course of study in both types of gymnasiums was designed for seven years.

The new educational institutions that emerged as a result of the creation of forms of local self-government after the abolition of serfdom - zemstvos - were zemstvo schools, the importance of which increased towards the end of the 19th century. In accordance with the “Regulations on Zemstvo Institutions” dated January 1, 1864, institutions closely related to economic management, including educational institutions, were transferred to the jurisdiction of district and provincial zemstvos. Zemstvos were supposed to financially support elementary schools. Teaching and educational work in them was under the jurisdiction of the school councils. Zemstvos received the right to encourage the activities of secondary educational institutions with subsidies and scholarships.

During the period of the late 18th - early 19th centuries, the commission on the establishment of public schools published textbooks in mathematics, physics, chemistry, geography, natural science, and foreign languages. In the middle of the 19th century, the successes of the natural sciences, the rise of the social and pedagogical movement for the democratization of education, determined a new direction in the approach to compiling textbooks. An example of this was Konstantin Dmitrievich Ushinsky's "Native Word" (book for reading), published in 1864, the book had 146 editions, the main idea of ​​which was to implement the unity of speech and thinking, thinking and sensory experience in the learning process. Following him, textbooks for public schools were published, written by followers of Ushinsky's ideas - Vasily Ivanovich Vodovozov, Nikolai Aleksandrovich Korf.

At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries, textbooks on physics by K.D. Kraevich and A.V. Zinger, in algebra and geometry L.P. Kiseleva and S.P. Rybkin, in geography A.S. Barkova, A.A. Krubera, S.S. Grigorieva and S.V. Chefranov, withstood multiple editions. Some of them were used in a revised form in the Soviet school - for example, Kiselev's textbook on algebra had 42 editions, was published until 1965, his textbook on geometry had 31 editions and was published until 1970.

The transformations carried out during the reign of Alexander II had important consequences for Russia at that time. Not only the descendants, but also the contemporaries of the emperor noted both the positive and negative significance of the reforms of Alexander 2 for the development of statehood.

The inevitability of reforms

Immediately after accession to the throne in February 1855 - the day after the death of the father of Emperor Nicholas 2 - Alexander 2 made it clear to his subjects that he perfectly understood at what time he would have to rule and in what state he got the country. He stated this in his first speech as emperor before the members of the State Council. The socio-political situation in Russia at that time was far from stable and progressively developing. It was necessary to quickly resolve a number of rather complex internal and external political issues in order to bring the country out of the crisis.

From the abolition of serfdom to the education of peasant children

Emperor Alexander 2 went down in history under the name "Liberator". which was carried out under him somewhat overshadowed the rest of the transformations of his reign, and there were many of them. The same reform of public education Alexander 2 - what is the reason to give him the name "Illuminator"?

Among the intelligentsia, in addition to the women's issue, the consequences of the exodus of peasants from the landowners and their further fate were discussed. The ideas about the needs of the organization for peasant children practically did not cause disputes - the enlightened minds of the state recognized the need for their education unconditionally. Many cited the genius of Russian science Mikhail Lomonosov as an example, the fate

which was so amazing and unique. Alexander 2 also had deep respect for him. Education reforms were supposed to open the way to the world of knowledge for many peasant children. A great supporter of enlightenment among the people was I.S. Turgenev, who proposed his project for the creation of a literacy committee, which was approved by the emperor.

The historical significance of the transformations introduced in the reign of Alexander

In addition to accepting and signing new educational statutes, and carrying out a complete educational reform, among his merits there are other important transformations that have affected the entire Russian society. In 1862-1863, changes in the management of the financial resources of the state were adopted, in 1865 - the law on the press. Reforms - self-government, judicial, military - were adopted by society in different ways, but their necessity was recognized by everyone. Although not everything was carried out as planned, it is difficult not to recognize the very fact of the transformations and the positive significance of the reforms of Alexander 2 for the further development of the state. Let some of them give different assessments to this day, but both in the domestic and foreign policy arena, Russia in the era of Alexander 2 became stronger.

Educational reform of Alexander II

The need to change the system of school and university education in the Russian Empire has been brewing for a long time. This was understood by the emperor, and his entourage, and the intellectual elite of society. Therefore, specially created commissions were engaged in the development of reform projects for university and secondary education for several years. The education reform was carried out by the emperor in two stages - in 1863 (higher) and 1871 (secondary)

1864 - Regulations on elementary public schools;
1894 - Regulations on gymnasiums and progymnasiums.

Emperor's actions

The developed reforms and activities within their framework were introduced gradually, but had a tremendous impact on the whole country.
A new system of primary and secondary education was introduced, which allowed people from the lower classes to gain knowledge within the walls of educational institutions;
In educational institutions, classical education was introduced, which was introduced simultaneously with the realistic one. This had a positive impact on the overall results of the reform;
Education was considered classical, which was based on the teaching of the ancient Greek language, Latin, mathematics, history, literature, rhetoric, philosophy, in real gymnasiums they taught foreign languages ​​and natural science;
Gymnasium students could enter universities and higher technical schools;
Universities were given broad autonomy. Universities were divided into faculties, and those - into departments. Scientific degrees and titles were introduced.
Teachers independently chose rectors and deans, had the right to invite lecturers from abroad and other universities, a student court appeared, the opportunity to choose lecture and seminar courses, various disciplines, subjects;
Scientific societies could be formed at universities.
Each university had public libraries;
The departments of philosophy and state law were restored;
The role of trustee and pedagogical councils has increased.

Creation of educational institutions

A new system of educational institutions was created, which were divided into several types:
Zemstvo schools, which were created by zemstvos;
Church schools;
Public schools belonging to the Ministry of Public Education;
Commercial schools, initiated by representatives of the big bourgeoisie;
Women's educational institutions.
Anyone who wanted to study in gymnasiums could study, but only after passing tests. Graduates of classical gymnasiums or those who passed examinations for passing the course of such a gymnasium entered universities.

Results of the reforms

1. Pedagogical societies have been created.
2. Literacy committees appeared.
3. Pedagogical congresses were held.
4. The structure of education has become strictly hierarchical, with an emphasis on the education of all segments of the population.

download dle 12.1
The legend of voluntary slavery

Alexander II, initiator of reforms

The reforms of Alexander II are an attempt by the Russian authorities to bring the order of the Russian Empire in line with the realities of the 19th century.

Indeed, at a time when Russia remained a semi-feudal power, the industrial revolution was in full swing in Europe: railways were being built, electricity and steam power were introduced everywhere in everyday life and industry. Social relations developed in the direction of liberalism.

• By the middle of the 19th century, Russia moved to eighth place in metal smelting. England outnumbered her 12 times.
• By the middle of the century, Russia had 1.5 thousand people.

  km. railway lines, while in England there were 15 thousand km.

• The average harvest in Russia is 4.63 quarters per tithe, in France - 7.36 quarters, in Austria - 6.6
• In 1861, the cotton industry in Russia had about 2 million mechanical spindles and about 15 thousand mechanical looms.

  In England, by 1834, over 8 million mechanical spindles, 110,000 mechanical looms, and 250,000 manual looms were working in the cotton industry.

On February 18, 1855, Emperor Nicholas I died. The Russian throne was taken by his son Alexander (II). The Crimean War was still going on, but its unsuccessful course more and more confirmed the Russian society in the idea that the country was lagging behind the West in its development and cardinal reforms of the entire structure of Russian life were required.

The initiator of the reforms was Emperor Alexander II

Reasons for the reforms of Alexander II

• The existence of serfdom, which hindered the economic development of Russia
• Defeat in the Crimean War
• The lack of opportunities for the estates of the Empire to influence the activities of the state

Reforms of Alexander II

• peasant reform.

  The abolition of serfdom (1861)

• Financial reforms (since 1863)
• Educational reform (1863)
• Zemstvo reform
• Urban reform (1864)
• Judicial Reform (1864)
• Military reform (1874)

Peasant reform

• Declaring serfs personally free without ransom
• The landowners retained a third of the estate in the Non-Chernozem region and half of the estate in the Chernozem region.
• The land was given to the peasant community
• The peasant received the allotment on the rights of use and could not refuse it
• According to certain preferential rules, the peasant paid the landowner a ransom for a full allotment.
  (a peasant could receive 2.5 acres of land without redemption.)
• Before the redemption of the land, the peasant was considered "temporarily liable" in relation to the landowner and was obliged to perform the former duties - corvée and dues (abolished in 1882–1887)
• The location of the peasant allotments was determined by the landowner
• The peasant received
  - personal freedom,
  - independence from the landowner;
  - the right to move to other estates;
  - the right to self-marriage;
  - freedom of choice of occupation;
  - the right to defend their cases in court.
  - transact on your own
  - acquire and dispose of property;
  - engage in trade and crafts
  - participate in local government elections

Having abolished serfdom, Alexander remained in the history of Russia under the name of the Liberator

financial reform

It was aimed at streamlining the work of the financial apparatus of the state

• The state budget was drawn up in the Ministry of Finance, approved by the State Council, and then by the Emperor
• The budget began to be published for public review
• All ministries were required to draw up annual estimates showing all items of expenditure
• Bodies of state financial control were created - control chambers
• Wine farming was replaced by excise stamps and local excise departments were created that issued excise taxes.
• Taxation was divided into indirect taxes and direct taxes

Education reform

• A new university charter was adopted that gave universities broad autonomy
• Adopted a regulation on elementary schools
• The charter on secondary educational institutions with their division into 2 types: classical gymnasiums, their graduates had the right to enter the university without exams; and real schools
• A system of women's education was created: the law on women's schools
• A new law on the press was adopted, in which the activity of censorship was reduced

Land reform.

Its goal is to replace the bureaucratic management of the territory from the Center with a local self-government body, consisting of residents of the area, better than anyone familiar with the local realities of life.
Elected provincial and district zemstvo assemblies and zemstvo councils were created. They were in charge of local economic affairs: the maintenance of communication lines; construction and maintenance of schools and hospitals; hiring doctors and paramedics; arrangement of courses for the education of the population; development of local trade and industry; arrangement of grain warehouses; concern for cattle breeding and poultry farming; collection of taxes for local needs, etc.

urban reform

It pursued the same goals as the Zemstvo.

In the provincial and county cities, city public administrations were organized, which were in charge of economic issues: the external improvement of the city, food supply, fire safety, the construction of marinas, stock exchanges and credit institutions, etc.

Under the institutions of city self-government was meant the city electoral meeting, the Duma and the city government.

Judicial reform. Briefly

The judicial system under Nicholas I was irrational and complex. Judges were dependent on the authorities. There was no competition. The right of the parties and the defendants to defense was limited. Often the judges did not see the defendants at all, but decided the case on the basis of documents drawn up by the court office.

The following provisions became the basis of the reform of the legal proceedings of Alexander II

• Independence of the judiciary
• One court for all estates
• Publicity of legal proceedings
• Competitiveness of legal proceedings
• The right of parties and defendants to defense in court
• Openness of all evidence brought against the defendants
• The right of parties and convicts to file a cassation appeal;
• Cancellation without complaints of the parties and protest of the prosecutor of the review of cases by a higher authority
• Educational and professional qualification for all judicial ranks
• Irremovability of judges
• Separation of the prosecutor's office from the court
• Trial by jury for those accused of crimes of medium and serious gravity

In the course of the reform, two branches of the courts were created - world and general.

They, in turn, had two instances (magistrates and world congresses; district courts and judicial chambers). The common third instance was the Cassation Departments of the Governing Senate

Military reform

• Military settlements abolished
• Corporal punishment abolished
• Military gymnasiums and cadet schools were established with a two-year term of study, where people of all classes were admitted.
• All-class military service proclaimed

The value of the reforms of Alexander II

As a result of the reforms carried out by Emperor Alexander II, an economic infrastructure was formed in Russia, providing an industrial boom that put the country on a par with other great powers of the world, and a civil society began to take shape.

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At the very beginning of his reign, Emperor Alexander II abolished those restrictive measures that had been taken against educational institutions in the last years of Nicholas I. Teaching at universities received more freedom; open access to universities for volunteers. In 1863, a general statute was given to the universities, according to which the professorial corporation received self-government. The council of professors at each university elected all university officials and managed the economy of the university; the school district trustee had only the task of overseeing the legality of the council's actions.

But students did not receive the right to a corporate structure, and volunteer students were no longer allowed to enter universities.

When at the turn of the 1860-1870s. “nihilism” has spread widely among young people, the conservative Minister of Public Education, Count D. Tolstoy persuaded Alexander II to carry out a reform of the secondary school - in order to focus not on such subjects that develop "superficial freethinking", but on the mechanical assimilation of precise concepts that can "prepare the mind and feelings for proper work."

The most important role in the school was supposed to be given to ancient languages ​​and mathematics.

Tolstoy's gymnasium charter (1871) introduced the classical system of education. In humanitarian gymnasiums, Latin and Greek began to be taught in a huge amount, excluding natural science and reducing the teaching of the Russian language and literature.

Technical ("real") gymnasiums were downgraded to colleges. The broadest course of mathematics and drawing was introduced there, but natural science was reduced.

Dmitry Andreevich Tolstoy.

Portrait by I. Kramskoy, 1884

In 1879, after new attempts on the tsar, on the initiative of Tolstoy, changes were made to the university charter of 1863: the professorial bodies for the supervision of students were replenished, and partly replaced by an inspection outside the university

The era of Alexander II was also marked by the rapid development of women's education.

Since the end of the 1950s, all-class female gymnasiums began to appear in Russia. The head of such gymnasiums in St. Petersburg, N. A. Vyshnegradsky, made the first attempt to organize higher education for women by establishing "pedagogical women's courses" (1863). Then a circle of advanced women, with the assistance of Professor K.

N. Bestuzhev-Ryumin (1878) “higher women's courses” (“Bestuzhev courses”) were opened in the capital. Following the example of St. Petersburg, they began to appear in other university cities.

Konstantin Nikolaevich Bestuzhev-Ryumin

Under Alexander II, notable successes were also achieved in the sphere of lower, public, education.

In addition to parochial schools, a new type of secular elementary school appeared, which was taken over by the zemstvos. By the end of the reign of Alexander II, public schools numbered in the tens of thousands.

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At the beginning of his reign, Emperor Alexander II abolished those restrictive measures that had been taken against educational institutions in the last years of Emperor Nicholas I. Teaching at universities received more freedom, access to universities was open to volunteers. An outside audience, male and female, appeared in university auditoriums.

The same revival was introduced into university life, which then reigned in the whole society.

Higher education reform

The novelty and complexity of the situation that arose soon led the students to unrest and unrest (1861). In connection with them, some restrictions on university freedom followed. In 1863, a general charter of the universities was given, according to which the professorial corporation received self-government. The council of professors at each university elected all university officials and managed the economy of the university.

The school district trustee had only the responsibility of overseeing the legality of the council's actions.

But students studying at the university were treated as individual visitors who did not have the right to a corporate device, while outsiders were not allowed to attend lectures at all. This situation of students gave them frequent reasons for displeasure and "student riots", which were one of the frequent and sad phenomena of that era.

High school reform

Under the influence of public unrest and student unrest, the Minister of Public Education, Count D.

A. Tolstoy conceived the reform of the secondary school. At the beginning of the reign of Emperor Alexander II (under Minister A.V. Golovin), access to the gymnasium was open to children "of all conditions, without distinction of rank or religion."

The gymnasiums themselves were of two types: classical (with ancient languages) and real (without ancient languages, with a predominance of natural science).

Count Tolstoy (supported by M. N. Katkov) found that real education is “one of the important reasons for the materialism, nihilism and the most pernicious conceit that has so strongly gripped our student youth.”

The minister considered the establishment of a strictly classical system of education in gymnasiums the only means of combating this evil. In 1871, he drew up a new charter for gymnasiums, approved by the sovereign. The classical gymnasium was made the only type of general education and all-class secondary school, the pupils of which alone had the right to enter universities.

The real gymnasiums were replaced by "real schools", the purpose of which was to provide the student youth of all conditions with a general education adapted to practical needs and to the acquisition of technical knowledge.
Tolstoy's reform created the complete predominance of the classical school in the state.

Unfortunately, school classicism was given an external formal character: the matter was limited to the grammatical study of ancient languages ​​with a very large number of teaching hours for this subject.

Due to the lack of a sufficient number of Russian teachers of Latin and Greek, specialists had to be sent from abroad (mainly Czechs). Their teaching could not be liked due to their ignorance of the Russian language and the Russian school. The reform of Count Tolstoy did not enter the mores of society at all and aroused direct hatred against itself, although at its core it had the correct idea of ​​the high educational value of classicism.

Women's and Primary Education Reforms

Simultaneously with the reform of the men's secondary school, there were measures in the field of women's education.

Until the time of Emperor Alexander II, only institutes and private boarding schools existed for girls; they were educated almost exclusively by noblewomen. From the end of the 1950s, women's gymnasiums began to appear for incoming students of all classes. At first, these gymnasiums were based in the department of the institutions of Empress Maria, and then in the department of the Ministry of Public Education.

In parallel with them, in the spiritual department, for the daughters of persons of the clergy, diocesan women's schools began to open with the appropriate course.

Thus, in the reign of Emperor Alexander, the cause of women's education was put on a wide scale. Naturally, the idea of ​​the possibility of higher education for women was born. The first attempt in this direction was made by the head of the St. Petersburg women's gymnasiums N.

A. Vyshnegradsky. According to him, at the women's gymnasiums, "pedagogical women's courses" were founded for the preparation of teachers (1863).

Then, with the assistance of Professor K. N. Bestuzhev-Ryumin (1878), a circle of advanced women opened the “Higher Women's Courses” (“Bestuzhev Courses”) in St. Petersburg.

Finally, in St. Petersburg, for some time (since 1872), women's medical courses for women doctors existed. Following the example of St. Petersburg and in other university cities, higher courses for women began to emerge on a private initiative. Thus, the issue of women's higher education was successfully resolved, despite the fact that the government was very cautious about allowing women's courses.

With regard to lower, primary or public education, great results were achieved in the reign of Emperor Alexander II.

In addition to the old type of primary public schools - parochial schools, a new type of secular primary school was created, which was transferred to the care of the zemstvos.

By the end of the reign of Alexander II, public schools numbered in the tens of thousands and constituted one of the most important concerns of the Zemstvo. To train teachers in elementary schools, the Ministry of Public Education and Zemstvos arranged "teacher's seminaries."

Despite, however, a number of efforts to raise public literacy, in the era of reforms it was still at a low level.

See also:

Education reform of 1864

Don't be afraid of ignorance, be afraid of false knowledge. All evil comes from him.

L.N. Tolstoy

The education reform of 1864 took place in several stages, which eventually reformed all education systems in Russia. Primary, general and secondary education was reformed.

Key dates for these reforms:

• June 18, 1863 - the "University Charter" was adopted.
• July 14, 1864 - the "Regulations on public schools" were adopted.
• November 18, 1864 - the "Charter of gymnasiums and progymnasiums" was adopted.

Because of the University Charter, the reform of education is often referred to as the reforms of Alexander 2 of 1863-1864. In any case, we are talking about changing the education system of the Russian Empire, and below we will consider what exactly changed, as well as the functioning of the education system in the country.

Primary school reform

The main feature of this provision was the abolition of the state and church monopoly on education. After the reform of the education system, public institutions and private individuals could also open primary schools. The term of education in elementary school did not exceed 3 years.

Primary schools were now of the following types:

• Sunday.
• Parish.
• Zemsky.
• Private.
• State.

High school reform

It was the gymnasiums that were the main element of the secondary school. All gymnasiums were divided into 2 types: classical and real. Classical ones prepared for admission to higher institutions, and real ones - to technical educational institutions.

In all gymnasiums, the term of study was 7 years.

After 1871, the term of study in classical gymnasiums was 8 years. In fact, the education reform of 1864 divided people into estates according to the type of education received: classical gymnasiums - people with higher education, real gymnasiums - industrialists and merchants.

An important feature of the reform is that absolutely any person of the Russian Empire could enter the gymnasium.

True, in fact, education still remained available only to the nobles, since the cost of education in gymnasiums was very high, and most of the population could not afford it.

In 1862, women's gymnasiums first appeared in Russia. Thus, for the first time in the history of the country, women received the right to secondary education.

True, a reservation must be made - the training program in women's gymnasiums was much inferior to men's gymnasiums.

Reforming higher education

On June 18, 1863, the University charter was adopted. The reform of education under Alexander 2 actually began this year with this document, and continued in 1864.

The main thing in the new charter is that autonomy was returned to universities. Each university had a "council of professors" that elected a rector and a dean. It was the rector, the dean and the board of professors who were fully and solely responsible for education:

• Decided on the hiring and dismissal of teachers.
• The training program was approved.
• Approved and edited curricula and disciplines.
• Resolved all financial issues.

At the same time, women in Russia have the opportunity to receive higher education.

Women's gymnasiums, of course, did not give the right to enter a regular university, so higher courses for women were created in the country.

It was possible to study them in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kyiv and Kazan. Further reforms opened the way for women to ordinary universities, but even so they were accepted there under a special status - volunteers. This reform in the field of enlightenment from 1864 served as an impetus.

Country value

The education reform of Alexander II pursued two main goals:

1. Make education accessible to all.
2. Eliminate the monopoly on education.
3. Put things in order in the system of gymnasiums and progymnasiums.

The advantages and disadvantages of reforms in the field of education should be interpreted in terms of the achieved result and goals.

The second point of the goals was secondary and not fundamental.

"Private" schools eventually appeared, but they did not take root and soon disappeared completely. As for the rest of the goals, they were achieved on paper, but not in reality. The universality of education affected only primary schools (grade 3). Even secondary schools, gymnasiums, were inaccessible for 90% of the population due to the high cost of education.

Naturally, higher education was therefore also inaccessible. Therefore, in this reform, it is necessary to clearly distinguish between what was on paper and what actually happened.

There was also a time bomb in the reforms - the complete independence of universities. In fact, they were not controlled by the state: their own rules, their own distribution of funding, independently in determining the program and subjects of study, independence in the choice of personnel.

This was later actively used by the revolutionaries and those who today can be called liberals.

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