Perception and the process of perception. Perception, its types and properties Topic "process of perception"

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Perception

a) touch

b) apperception,

c) perception

d) observation.

41. For the first time the concept of perceptual actions was put forward in:

a) cognitive psychology

b) domestic psychology

c) gestalt psychology

d) psychology of consciousness

42. Perception is the process (result) of building an image of an object in the perceptual space of the subject when:

a) its direct interaction with this object

b) its indirect interaction with this object

c) the absence of a perceived object

d) all answers are wrong

43. Images of representations ______ in relation to images of sensation and

perception.

a) primary

b) secondary

c) tertiary

d) all answers are correct

44. The set of analyzers that provide this act of perception is:

a) apperception

b) perceptual system

c) perceptual actions

d) touch

45. The main criterion for classifying perception into the perception of space, time, movement is:

a) lead analyzer

b) subject of reflection

c) the form of existence of matter

d) activity of the subject

46. ​​The basis for the division of perception into voluntary and involuntary is:

a) lead analyzer

b) subject of reflection

c) the form of existence of matter

d) purposefulness of the nature of the activity of the subject

47. Type of perception, developing on the basis of tactile and motor sensations:

a) apperception

b) illusions

c) watchfulness

d) touch

48. Subsensory perception is one of the manifestations of:

a) unconscious

b) conscious

c) subconscious

d) all answers are correct

49. Erroneous perceptions of real things or phenomena are called:

a) agnosia

b) a hallucination

c) an illusion

d) nonsense

50. An example of a drawing that is perceived either as a vase or as two human profiles illustrates the law:

a) transpositions

b) figure and background

c) pregnancies

d) constancy

51. Images that arise in a person without the presence of external influences on the senses are called:

a) perceptual illusions

b) hallucinations

c) fantasies

d) dreams

52. The dependence of perception on the content of a person’s mental life and on the characteristics of his personality is called:

a) insight

b) perception

c) apperception

d) sensibility

53. The phenomenon of the relative independence of the parameters of a figure from changes in its background is known as _______ of perception.

a) an illusion

b) constancy

c) integrity

d) objectivity

54. The property of perception, characterized by the perception of closely related to thinking and understanding the essence of objects, is called:

a) constancy

b) meaningfulness

c) selectivity

d) integrity

55. Constancy of perception _____ property.

a) congenital

b) acquired

c) genetically determined

d) all answers are correct

56. In the ability of a person to recognize an object by its incomplete or erroneous image, the property of _____ perception is manifested:

a) integrity

b) objectivity

c) constancy

d) structural

57. The selection of information entering the brain from the environment depends mainly on:

a) needs

b) interests

c) expectations

d) all answers are correct

58. The property of a person, manifested as the ability to notice little-known but significant details in the perceived, characterizes:

a) illusions

b) perceptual actions

c) watchfulness

d) touch

59. Time, saturated in the past with experiences, activities, is remembered as:

a) longer

b) fast past

c) usually, no change

d) all answers are correct

60. The readiness of an organism to perceive an object or phenomenon of a certain type is defined as:

a) apperception

b) installation

c) watchfulness

d) touch

Memory

a) gestalt psychology

b) associative psychology

c) behaviorism

d) cognitive psychology

62. Neuropsychological problems of memory in natural science studied:

a) V.M. Bekhterev

b) A.R. Luria

c) P.I. Zinchenko

d) L.S. Vygotsky

63. A supporter of the associative direction in the psychology of memory was (a):

a B C. Zeigarnik

b) G. Ebbinghaus

c) G. Muller

d) all answers are correct

64. The direction in psychology, which as the primary "factors of memory" puts forward some integral "psychological - structures" that are not reducible to the sum of its constituent parts, is known as:

a) activity theory of memory

b) associative theory of memory

c) gestalt - theory

d) psychoanalytic theory of memory

65. The memory of one's memory is called:

a) working memory

b) metamemory

c) autobiographical memory

d) RAM

66. The basis for the division of memory into motor, emotional, figurative and verbal is:

a) lead analyzer

b) subject of reflection

c) activity of the subject

d) type of activity

67. Indirect and immediate memory differ in:

a) lead analyzer

b) the use of aids in the process of memorization

c) the degree of activity of the subject

d) activities

68. Genetically primary is considered:

a) motor memory

b) figurative memory

c) emotional memory

d) verbal memory

69. The highest type of memory is:

a) motor memory

b) figurative memory

c) emotional memory

d) verbal memory

70. The type of memory based on the establishment of semantic connections in the memorized material is called _____ memory.

a) mechanical

b) logical

c) emotional

d) auditory

71. The type of visual memory that retains a vivid image for a long time with all the details of what is perceived is ____ memory.

a) eidetic

b) visual-figurative

c) phenomenal

d) emotional

72. The type of memory in which, first of all, the feelings experienced by a person are stored and reproduced is known as ____ memory.

a) visual

b) phenomenal

c) emotional

d) verbal-logical

73. The memory associated with memorizing the form of the material and based on the repetition of the material without its comprehension is called:

a) long term

b) emotional

c) arbitrary

d) mechanical

74. Sensory Memory:

a) acts at the level of receptors

b) lasts less than one second

c) lies, in particular, at the basis of successive images

d) all answers are correct

75. Type of memory, including the processes of memorizing, storing and reproducing information processed in the course of performing an action; and necessary only to achieve the goal of this action is called _____ memory.

a) operational

b) iconic

c) short term

d) echonic

76. The main characteristic of RAM is:

a) storage duration

b) lability

c) noise immunity

d) all answers are correct

77. An early genetic form of memory is ______ memorization.

a) involuntary

b) arbitrary

c) post-voluntary

d) all answers are wrong

78. As studies have shown ____ for the productivity of involuntary memorization, the place that this material occupies in activity is important.

a) P.I. Zinchenko

b) A.A. Smirnova

c) A.N. Leontief

d) A.A. Leontief

79. The number of reproduced or recognized elements of a series in absolute numbers or as a percentage of the total volume of the presented stimulus material is called the coefficient:

a) remembering

b) memorization accuracy

c) mistakes

d) forgetting

80. The strength of memorization is determined by what (-o);

a) the degree of participation of the relevant material in the further activities of the subject

b) the significance of the relevant material for achieving the goals ahead

c) emotional state of the subject

d) all answers are correct

81. Individual features of memory are expressed in different memorization.

a) speed

b) strength

precisely

d) all answers are correct

82. It has been established that the material is remembered better if it:

a) is included in the conditions for achieving the goal

b) is included in the content of the main goal of the activity

c) is included in the ways to achieve the goal

d) all answers are correct

83. The importance of structuring the material for memorization was emphasized by the representatives of:

a) psychoanalysis

b) gestalt psychology

c) behaviorism

d) associationism

84. The characteristics of memorizing this or that material are determined by ____ the activity of the individual,

a) motives

b) goals

c) ways

d) all answers are correct

85. For the study of mediated memorization, it is used

method:

a) pair associations

b) pictograms

c) double stimulation

d) all answers are correct

86. The basis for the division of memory into involuntary and arbitrary is:

a) lead analyzer

b) subject of reflection

c) activity of the subject

d) type of activity

87. The capacity of long-term memory and the duration of information storage depends on:

a) the importance of the memorized material

b) the nature of the material

c) prior experience

d) all answers are correct

88. Connections between mental phenomena, in which the actualization of one of them entails the appearance of another, are called:

a) accommodations

b) associations

c) assimilation and

d) accentuations

89. Association _____ combines two phenomena connected in time or space.

a) by contiguity

b) by speed

c) in contrast

d) meaning

90. Association _____ connects two opposite phenomena.

a) by contiguity

b) by speed

c) in contrast

d) meaning

91. Forgetting factors include:

a) subject's age

b) non-use of learned material

c) the nature of the material

G) all answers are correct

92. The fact that incomplete actions are remembered better expresses the effect:

a) halo

b) placebo

c) B.V. Zeigarnik

d) recentness

93. G. Ebbinghaus studied the effect on memorization:

a) the amount of memorized material

b) number of repetitions

c) proximity and orientation of associative links

d) all answers are correct

94. The _______ of the preservation of the material depends on the process of memorization.

a) completeness

b) accuracy

c) strength

d) all answers are correct

95. The criterion for storing information in memory is:

a) reproduction

b) recognition

c) teaching

d) all answers are correct

96. The preservation and subsequent reproduction of information is affected by:

a) a kind of activity intermediate between memorization and reproduction

b) temporal localization in the interval between memorization and reproduction

c) the degree of initial memorization

d) all answers are correct

97. Forgetting usually proceeds as a ____ process.

a) arbitrary

b) involuntary

c) post-voluntary

d) all answers are wrong

98. The rate of forgetting material depends on:

a) its volume

c) similarities between memorized and interfering material

d) all answers are correct

99. Reconstruction during playback is manifested in:

a) selection of the main, and elimination of secondary material

b) generalization and introduction of new content

c) changing the sequence of presentation

d) all answers are correct

100. Recognition is _____ reproduction:

a) primary

b) repeated

c) tertiary

d) all answers are correct

101. Individual features of memory are to a certain extent associated with differences in ______ nervous processes,

a) excitatory and inhibitory forces

b) the degree of balance

c) degrees of mobility

d) all answers are correct

102. Recognition of a perceived object as already known from past experience is:

a) remembrance

b) recognition

c) presentation

d) reminiscence

103. A visual image of an object or phenomenon, arising on the basis of past experience by reproducing it in memory, is fixed as:

a) remembrance

b) recognition

c) presentation

d) reminiscence

104. Conscious reproduction, associated with overcoming known difficulties and requiring effort and effort, is:

a) remembrance

b) recognition

c) presentation

Perception is a process that forms the image of objects, phenomena from the surrounding world into the structures of the psyche. This display of the qualities and inherent characteristics of the object and phenomenon is integral. This is a kind of twisted thinking. Often it is interpreted not as a process, but as a result, that is, the image of the object itself. Perception is synonymous with perception, therefore the image of an object is formed with the help of perception of primary sensations, certain knowledge, desires, expectations, imagination and mood. The main features of perception are objectivity, constancy, integrity, apperception, structure, meaningfulness, illusion, selectivity.

Perception has many synonyms: apperception, perception, evaluation, understanding, acceptance, contemplation.

Perception in psychology

Perception in psychology is the process of displaying the characteristic properties of objects and phenomena in the psyche, when the sense organs are directly affected. There was a long discussion about sensations and their importance in perception. Associative psychology interpreted sensations as the basic elements of the psyche. Philosophy criticized the idea that perception is built from sensations. In the 20th century, some changes took place in psychology, perception is no longer considered as a set of atomic sensory sensations, but began to be understood as a structural and holistic phenomenon. Psychologist J. Gibson interprets perception as an active process of appropriating information from the world, which includes a real examination of the information that is perceived. Thus, this process shows a person the properties of the surrounding world related to his needs, and shows his possible activity in the actual real situation.

Another psychologist W. Nesser argued that perception in psychology is the process of extracting information from objects of the external world, which is carried out on the basis of schemes of various objects and the whole world that are in the subject. These schemes are obtained through experience, and there are also initial themes, innate. Supporters of cognitive psychology adhered to a similar idea, believing that perception is the process of categorizing perceived information, that is, classifying perceived objects into a certain category of objects. Some categories are innate - this is information about the surrounding nature and the closest objects that the child is able to correlate with some category, and there are categories that include objects, knowledge of which is obtained in experience.

In the human mind, the display occurs through a direct impact on the analyzers.

Perception methods depend on the system to be affected. Through perception, people can be aware of what is happening to them and how the world is affecting them.

This process was previously described as the summation of certain sensations, or as a consequence of elementary associations of individual properties. Nevertheless, there remains a part of psychologists who consider perception as a set of sensations that appear as a result of direct sensory cognition, which are interpreted as subjective experiences of quality, localization, strength and other properties of the impact of stimuli.

Such a definition is incorrect, therefore contemporaries describe this process as a reflection of integral objects or phenomena. It singles out the most basic stimuli from the complex of influencing stimuli (shape, color, weight, taste, and others), while being distracted from non-essential stimuli. It also combines groups of essential features and compares the perceived complex of signs with previously known knowledge about the subject.

During the perception of familiar objects, their recognition occurs very quickly, a person simply combines two or three properties into a whole and comes to the desired solution. When unfamiliar, new objects are perceived, their recognition is much more difficult and occurs in broader forms. As a result of the analytical-synthetic process, essential features are singled out that do not allow others to open up, non-essential and combining perceived elements are linked into a single whole, and a complete perception of the object arises.

Perception process is complex, active, requires significant analytical and synthetic work. This nature of perception is expressed in many features that require special consideration.

The process of perception has motor components, with the help of which the perception of information is realized (eye movement, palpation of objects). Therefore, this process would be more accurately defined as perceptual activity.

The process of perception is never limited to one modality, but has a well-coordinated relationship of several analyzers, as a result of which ideas appear that have been formed in the personality. It is very important that the perception of objects never occurs at the elementary level, but acts at the highest levels of the psyche.

When a person has a clock in front of his eyes, he mentally names this object, not paying attention to insignificant properties (color, shape, size), but highlights the main property - the indication of time. He also classifies this object in the appropriate category, isolates it from other objects that are similar in appearance, but those that belong to a completely different category, for example, in this case, a barometer. This confirms that the process of perceiving a person in terms of psychological structure is close to visual thinking. An active and complex character determines its features, which equally apply to all forms.

Features of perception constitute the main characteristic of perceived objects. They are also the properties of these objects, phenomena and objects.

Features of perception: objectivity, integrity, structure, constancy, comprehension, apperception.

The objectivity of perception is observed in the attribution of knowledge acquired from the outside world to this world. Performs regulatory and orienting functions in practical activities. It is created on the basis of external motor processes that provide contact with the object. Without movement, perception would not have a relationship with the objects of the world, that is, the property of objectivity. It also plays a role in regulating the behavior of the subject. Usually objects are defined not by their appearance, but according to their practical purpose or main property.

Constancy is defined as the relative constancy of properties in objects, even if their conditions change. With the help of the compensatory property of constancy, the subject is able to perceive objects as relatively stable. For example, constancy in the perception of colors is the relative invariability of the visible color under the influence of lighting. Color constancy is also determined by the action of certain reasons, among them: adaptation to the level of brightness in the visual field, contrast, ideas about natural color and its lighting conditions.

The constancy of size perception is expressed in the relative constancy of the visible dimensions of an object at different distances. If an object is relatively far removed, its perception is determined by the action of additional factors, of particular importance among them is the effort of the eye muscles, which adapt to fixing the object during its removal at different distances.

The perception of the shape of objects, their constancy is expressed in the relative stability of its perception when their positions relative to the line of sight of the observant subject change. During any change in the position of an object in relation to the eyes, its image shape on the retina changes, with the help of eye movements along the contours of objects and the selection of characteristic combinations of contour lines known to the subject from past experience.

Study of the evolution of the origin of the constancy of perception of people leading their way of life in a dense forest, not seeing objects at various distances, only around them. Perceive objects that are far away as small, not remote. For example, builders see objects that are below without distorting their dimensions.

The source of the property of constancy of perception is the actions of the perceptual system of the brain. When a person repeatedly perceives the same objects in different conditions, the stability of the perceptual image of the object is ensured, relative to the changeable conditions and movements of the perceiving receptor apparatus itself. Consequently, the occurrence of constancy results from a kind of self-regulating action, which has a feedback mechanism and adapts to the characteristics of the object, the conditions and circumstances of its existence. If a person did not have a constancy of perception, he could not navigate the constant variability and diversity of the world around him.

The integrity of perception gives greater information content, in contrast to sensations, which reflect individual features of the object. Integrity is formed on the basis of general knowledge about its individual properties and characteristics of the object, taken in the form of sensations. The elements of sensation are very strongly interconnected and the only complex image of an object arises when a person is under the direct influence of some properties or parts of the object. Impressions from this arise as a conditioned reflex as a result of the connection between visual and tactile influences, which was formed in life experience.

Perception is not a simple summation of human sensations, and does not respond to them instantly. The subject perceives a generalized structure actually isolated from sensations, which is formed during a certain time. When a person listens to music, the rhythms they heard will continue to sound in their head when a new rhythm arrives. Listening to music, perceives its structure holistically. The last note heard cannot form such an understanding; the whole structure of the melody continues to be played in the head with various interconnections of the elements that comprise it. Integrity and structure lie in the properties of reflected objects.

Human perception has a very close relationship with thinking. Therefore, the feature of meaningfulness of perception will play a very important role. Although the process of perception arises under the influence of direct influence on the sense organs, but perceptual images still always have a semantic meaning.

Conscious perception of objects helps a person mentally name the object, attribute it to the designated category, group. When a person encounters a new object for the first time, he tries to establish some similarity with already familiar objects. Perception is a constant search for the best description of the data available. How an object is perceived by a person depends on the stimulus, its characteristics, and the person himself. Since a living whole person perceives, and not individual organs (eyes, ears), therefore, the process of perception is always under the influence of specific personality traits.

The dependence of perception on the influence of the mental characteristics of a person's life, on the properties of the subject's personality itself, is called apperception. If the subjects are presented with unfamiliar objects, then in the first phases of their perception, they will look for standards relative to which the object that is presented can be attributed. During perception, hypotheses are put forward and subject to verification regarding the belonging of an object to a certain category. So, during perception, traces from past experience, knowledge are involved. Therefore, one object can be perceived by different people in different ways.

Types of perception

There are several classifications of types of perception. First, the perception is divided into intentional (arbitrary) or intentional (arbitrary).

Intentional Perception has an orientation, with the help of which it regulates the process of perception - it is to perceive an object or phenomenon and get acquainted with it.

Arbitrary perception can be included in some activity and implemented in the course of its activity.

Unintended Perception does not have such a clear focus, and the subject is not set to perceive a specific object. The direction of perception is influenced by external circumstances.

As an independent phenomenon, perception manifests itself in observation. Observation is a deliberate, planned and long-term perception in some period of time, aimed at tracking the course of some phenomenon or changes occurring in the object of perception.

Observation is an active form of human sensory knowledge of reality. During observation, as an independent purposeful activity, from the very beginning there is a verbal formulation of tasks and goals that orient the observation process towards certain objects. If you practice observation for a long time, you can develop such a property as observational ability - the ability to notice characteristic, subtle features and details of objects that are not immediately evident.

For the development of observation, it is necessary to organize perception, corresponding to the necessary conditions for success, clarity of the task, activity, preliminary preparation, systematic, planned. Observation is necessary in all spheres of human life. Already from childhood, in the process of playing or learning, it is necessary to focus on the development of observation, versatility and accuracy of perception.

There is a classification of perceptions according to: modality (visual, olfactory, auditory, tactile, gustatory) and forms of perception of the existence of matter (spatial, temporal, motor).

visual perception is the process of creating a visual image of the world based on sensory information perceived through the visual system.

auditory perception- This is a process that provides the susceptibility of sounds and orientation to them in the environment, carried out with the help of an auditory analyzer.

tactile perception- based on multimodal information, the leading among which is tactile.

Olfactory perception is the ability to sense and distinguish odorous substances as odors.

Taste perception- the perception of stimuli acting on the receptors of the mouth, characterized by taste sensations (sweet, salty, bitter, sour).

More complex forms of perception are the perception of space, movement and time.

Space is formed by the perception of shape, size, location, and distance.

Visual perception of space is based on the perception of the size and shape of an object, due to the synthesis of visual, muscular, tactile sensations, the perception of volume, the distance of objects, which is carried out by binocular vision.

A person perceives movement because it occurs against a certain background, which allows the retina to display in a certain sequence the resulting changes in positions that are in motion relative to the elements in front of and behind which the object moves. There is an autokinetic effect, when in the dark a luminous fixed point appears to be moving.

Perception of time a little less explored, because there are many difficulties in this process. The difficulty in explaining how a person perceives time is that there is no obvious physical stimulus in the perception. The duration of objective processes, that is, physical time can be measured, but duration itself is not a stimulus in the truest sense of the word. There is no energy in time that would affect a certain time receptor, for example, as is observed in the action of light or sound waves. To date, no mechanism has been discovered that directly or indirectly converts physical time intervals into the corresponding sensory signals.

Perception of information- this is an active, semi-conscious process of the subject's activity in receiving and processing essential knowledge about the world, events and people.

The perception of information is carried out under the influence of certain circumstances. First, the situation in which the information was acquired is important. A favorable situation encourages more favorable perception than the information is worth, and vice versa, an unfavorable situation will contribute to a negative perception of information than it really is.

Secondly, the depth of understanding of the situation. A person who is well versed in the situation in most cases is calmer about information, related events and people around at that moment. He does not dramatize what is happening, does not exalt and very adequately assesses the situation than a person with a limited outlook.

Thirdly, the perception of information is influenced by the characteristics of the phenomenon, subject or object, which information indicates.

Fourthly, stereotypes (simplified standardized representations of complex phenomena and objects of the surrounding reality) have a great influence. Stereotypes are a representation based on other people's views about those things that a person has not yet met, but can meet and, thus, facilitate his understanding of these things.

Fifthly, perception often becomes more difficult, under the influence of unpredictability or distortion of information, inability to present information correctly.

The perception of man by man

When people meet for the first time, they, perceiving each other, highlight features of appearance that represent their mental and social qualities. Particular attention is paid to posture, gait, gestures, cultural speech, behavioral patterns, habits, manners of behavior. One of the first and most important is professional characteristics, social status, communicative and moral qualities, how angry or cordial a person is, sociable or uncommunicative, and others. Individual facial features are also selectively highlighted.

The characteristics of a person are interpreted by his appearance according to several ways. The emotional way is expressed in the fact that social qualities are attributed to a person, depending on his appearance, aesthetic appeal. If a person is beautiful on the outside, then he is good. Very often people fall for this trick, it is worth remembering that appearances can be deceiving.

The analytical method assumes that each element of appearance is associated with a specific mental property characteristic of this person. For example, furrowed eyebrows, compressed lips, a scowling nose indicate an evil person.

The perceptual-associative method consists in attributing to a person qualities that make him or her seem similar to another person.

The social-associative method assumes that qualities are attributed to a person according to a certain social type in relation to his individual external signs. Such a generalized image of a person has an impact on communication with this person. Often people identify a person without a fixed place of residence by torn clothes, dirty trousers, torn worn shoes, and are already trying to keep their distance from him.

The perception of a person by a person lends itself to social stereotypes, standards, standards. The idea of ​​the social status of the individual, the general idea of ​​him, is transferred to other manifestations of this personality, this is the halo effect. The primacy effect suggests that the initial perceived information heard from other people about a person can affect the perception of him when meeting, will be of predominant importance.

The effect of social distance is generated by significant differences in the social status of people who were in communication. The extreme manifestation of this effect can be expressed in a dismissive, hatred attitude towards representatives with a different social status.

Evaluation and feelings of people during their perception of each other are very multifaceted. They can be divided into: conjunctive, that is, unifying and disjunctive, that is, separating feelings. Disjunctive ones are generated by what is condemned in that environment. Conjunctive - favorable.

Development of perception in children

In development, the perception of children has specific features. From birth, he already owns some information. The further development of this process is the result of the child's personal activity. How active he is, how quickly he develops, gets acquainted with various objects and people.

The perception of children in the future can be controlled by parents. The early development of the properties of perception is carried out as the child grows up, it manifests itself in the peculiarity that for the perceiving child the form of the object becomes significant, it gains meaning. In infancy, the development of recognition of people and objects around a person takes place, the number of purposeful conscious body movements grows. Such activity in the development of perception occurs before primary school age.

It is very important that before this time, a study on possible violations of perception takes place. The reason for the anomaly in the development of an understanding of reality may be in the breaks in the connection between the systems of the sense organs and the brain centers into which the signal arrives. This could happen in case of injury or morphological changes in the body.

The perception of children of primary school age is expressed by vagueness and fuzziness. For example, children do not recognize people dressed in costumes at holidays, although their faces may be open. If children see a picture of an unfamiliar object, they single out one element from this image, relying on which they comprehend the object as a whole. Such comprehension is called syncretism, it is inherent in children's perception.

In the middle preschool age, ideas about the ratio of the size of objects appear. The child can judge familiar things as big or small, regardless of their relationship to other objects. This is observed in the child's ability to arrange toys "by height".

Children of senior preschool age already have an idea about the dimensions of the size of objects: width, length, height, space. They are able to distinguish the location of objects among themselves (top, bottom, left, right, and so on).

The productive activity of the child lies in his ability to perceive and reproduce the features of objects, their color, size, shape, location. At the same time, the assimilation of sensory standards and also the development of special actions of perception are important.

The perception of works of art by children of senior preschool age expresses the unity of experience and cognition. The child learns to fix the image and perceive the feelings that excite the author.

The peculiarity of the child's perception of the surrounding people is revealed in value judgments. The highest and brightest assessment is attributed to those adults who have a close relationship with the child.

The perception and evaluation of other children depends on the popularity of the child in the group. The higher the position of the child, the higher the rating is attributed to him.

The development of the perception of preschool children is a complex, multifaceted process that helps the child learn to more accurately reflect the world around him, be able to distinguish the features of reality and be able to successfully adapt to it.

Perception- direct sensory reflection of objects and phenomena in a holistic form as a result of awareness of their identifying features.

Cognizing the surrounding reality, interacting with it, we meet with the objective world. Objects are identified by us by the totality of their characteristic features. Perceptual images are built on the basis of various sensations. However, they are not reduced to the simple sum of these sensations. Perception is associated with the identification, understanding, comprehension of objects, phenomena, situations, with their assignment to a certain category, type, class. Only by including a phenomenon in a certain system of categories, by covering it with an appropriate concept, can we evaluate and interpret its individual parts and elements. Even considering ordinary points, monotonous elements, we strive for their compositional organization (Fig. 1, 2).

Being a sensory stage of cognition, perception is inextricably linked with thinking, has a motivational orientation, and is accompanied by an emotional response.

To see is to correlate perceived visual signals with one of the hypotheses that exist in the brain's stores. If two different hypotheses can "work", then the brain chooses between them - and then we see either a duck or a rabbit (Fig. 3); an Eskimo standing with his back to us at the entrance to a cave, or an Indian turned in profile (Fig. 4).

Being associated with the identification process, perception includes the processes of comparison, correlation of a given object with typical standards stored in memory. Well-known objects are perceived on a stereotypical basis, quickly and confidently. (How easily letters are recognized by literate people and how difficult it is to recognize them at the first stages of learning.) In the process of ontogenesis, perceptual learning takes place.

People selectively see what they are used to seeing. Familiar objects are perceived simultaneously (simultaneously), little-known objects are perceived in a structurally expanded, step-by-step (successive) manner. In the latter case, a hypothesis about the essence of the object is first put forward, a decision is made about its categorization, nominalization, and then its features are critically evaluated.

The mental development of a person is associated with the development of a culture of perception - an educated, aesthetically developed person is able to enjoy the grace of form, color and sound harmony of objects and environmental phenomena.

Rice. 5. Record eye movements ( oculogram) when perceiving an object. The most informative points of the contour are fixed, the visual route is structurally organized.

The process of perception is a perceptual action. Its effectiveness depends on what features of the object will be singled out by the subject as the initial supporting elements.

The most important component of each type of perception is motor processes: the movement of the eye along the contour of the object, the movement of the hand along the surface of the object, the movement of the larynx, which reproduces an audible sound (Fig. 5).

Neurophysiological bases of perception.

The physiological mechanism of perception is the complex analytical-synthetic activity of analyzers—the formation of complex conditioned reflexes to complex stimuli.

Two systems interact in the human visual apparatus. One of them selects individual fragments in the object, the other one compiles a complete image from the established sub-images (Fig. 6).

Possible incompleteness of the integral image is filled with textures stored in memory. Therefore, we see contours even where they are not drawn, but only possible.

To recognize the situation, the brain stores ready-made generalized schemes ( frames- "skeletons"). Initially grasping the situation, we then seek to fill in the cells of the frame that has arisen - and our eyes are looking for the appropriate detail.

Perception is an active process of forming an image of an object. This activity is already manifested at the receptor level. Three pairs of external muscles of each eye carry out continuous eye movement. Some of them translate the peripheral image of the object to the center of the retina, where the highest visual acuity, others provide tracking of moving objects. The perception of the object is carried out by “groping” eye movements: fast and large-amplitude ( saccadic) movements, smaller forward and backward movements ( tremor) with a frequency of 20 to 150 Hz and an amplitude of 5-15' arc. min, and drift- slow movements at a speed of 6' arc. min/sec and amplitude up to 30' arc. min, preventing the development of local adaptation. Eye movements scan the shape and those key elements of the object of perception that are essential in building a visual image.

In the formation of a perceptual image, the left and right hemispheres of the brain perform different functions. The sensory side of perception is served by the right, and the categorical side - by the left hemisphere of the brain.

Classification of the phenomena of perception.

Depending on the participation of the will, the purposefulness of perception is divided into two forms: involuntary (unintentional, not associated with volitional tension and a pre-set goal) and arbitrary, intentional (purposeful).

Depending on the modality of the receptors, they differ visual, auditory and tactile perception.

There are also complex types of perception: perception of space and time perception.

Depending on the complexity, development, perceptual activity, perception is distinguished between simultaneous (one-act) and successive (stage-by-stage, sequential).

There are also three levels of perception:

1) sensory- sensual coverage of the object, getting it into the field of consciousness;

2) perceptual- comprehension of the object, its assignment to a certain category, class of objects;

3) operational- activity coverage of the object.

Perceptions can also be classified depending on the specifics of the object of reflection (perception of works of art, speech, etc.). Perception is usually included in some kind of activity, but it can also act as an independent activity.

Rice. 7. The tendency of consciousness towards the meaningfulness of the object is so great that we even “see” non-existent boundaries between the triangle and the background. The incompleteness of a holistic image is filled with textures stored in memory.

Systematic, specially organized perception to resolve any issue is called observation.

General patterns of perception.

Different types of perception have specific patterns. But besides the intraspecific ones, there are general patterns of perception: 1) meaningfulness and generalization; 2) objectivity; 3) integrity; 4) structure; 5) selective orientation; 6) apperception; 7) constancy.

1. Meaningfulness and generalization of perception. Perceiving objects and phenomena, we realize, understand what is perceived.

Perception is associated with the assignment of a given object to a certain category, concept, with its designation in a word. (It is no coincidence that children, when meeting with unfamiliar objects, always ask for their name.) The categorical correlation of perceived objects organizes the entire process of perception, its adequacy and direction. Only by determining the category of the perceived object, you will recognize all its features.

Perception largely depends on the purpose and objectives of the activity. In an object, those aspects of it that correspond to a given task come to the fore.

Rice. 10. The perception of a fragment of an object is facilitated by its inclusion in the context of the situation. In the upper rectangle, the letters are not identified by their fragments. In the lower rectangle, the letters are easy to read due to situational context.

Rice. 9. These disparate spots are combined into a single visual image, if you turn the image 180º, you will understand its meaning.

Due to the meaningfulness and generalization of perception, we conjecture and complete the image of the object according to its individual fragments (Fig. 7 and 8).

The simplest form of comprehending objects and phenomena is recognition. Here, perception is closely related to memory. To recognize an object means to perceive it in relation to a previously formed image.

Recognition can be generalized when the item belongs to some general category (for example, "this is a table", "this is a tree", etc.), and differentiated(specific) when the perceived object is identified with a previously perceived single object. This is a higher level of recognition. For this kind of recognition, it is necessary to highlight features specific to a given object, it will accept it.

Recognition is characterized by certainty, accuracy and speed. When recognizing, a person does not highlight all the features of an object, but uses its characteristic identification features. (So, we recognize the steamer from afar by the presence of a pipe and do not mix it with a boat.)

Recognition is hampered by insufficient identification features. The minimum of signs necessary for the identification of an object is called threshold of perception.

Rice. 11. The integrity of perception is violated if the individual elements of the object are excessively scattered. So, when a newspaper photo is enlarged ten times, the raster dots of a typographic cliché do not merge into an integral image (when the image is removed by 1 m, the integrity of perception is restored).

2. Objectivity of perception. A person realizes mental images of objects not as images, but as real objects, taking the images outside, objectifying them. objectivity- the relation of brain information about objects to real objects. Objectivity of perception means adequacy, correspondence of images of perception to real objects of reality, "objectivity" of the image.

3. Integrity of perception. In objects and phenomena of reality, their individual features and properties are in a constant stable relationship. In perception, as in the mental image of an object, these stable links between the components of an object or phenomenon, which is expressed in the integrity of perception.

Even in those cases when we do not perceive some signs of a familiar object, we mentally supplement them. We strive to unite the individual parts of the object into a single integral formation familiar to us (Fig. 9, 10, 11).

Thus, the integrity of perception is a reflection of an object as a stable systemic integrity (even if its individual parts are not observed under given conditions). The integrity of perception is violated if the object cannot be comprehended (Fig. 12).

4. Structural perception. We recognize various objects due to the stable structure of their features. In the process of perception, the relationship of parts and sides of the object is singled out. Awareness of perception is inextricably linked with the reflection of stable relationships between the elements of the perceived object (Fig. 12 and 13).

In cases where it is difficult to identify the structure of an object, the perception of the object as a whole is also difficult.

5. Selective orientation of perception. Of the countless number of objects and phenomena that surround us, we single out at the moment only a few of them. It depends on what the activity of a person is aimed at, on his needs and interests.

Selectivity of perception - the primary selection of the object from the background. In this case, the background performs the function of a reference system, relative to which the spatial and color qualities of the figure are evaluated.

Rice. 14. In the figure on the left, two vertical sectors are mainly distinguished, on the right - horizontal sectors.

The object stands out from the background along its outline. Contour is contrast. The contour we perceive due to the "jump" in brightness or color. The sharper, more contrast the contour of the object, the easier it is to select it. And vice versa, if the contours of the object are blurred, inscribed in the background lines, the object is difficult to distinguish. (This phenomenon underlies the disguise.)

The selectivity of perception is accompanied by the centralization of perception - the subjective expansion of the zone of focus of attention and the compression of the peripheral zone. With the equivalence of objects, the central object and the larger object are predominantly distinguished (Fig. 15, 16).

Objects located along the vertical and horizontal axes are subject to preferential selection (Fig. 14).

Rice. Fig. 18. Distribution of visual fixation points on a square panel when perceiving homogeneous material.

If the object and the background are equivalent, then they can pass into each other (the background becomes the object, and the object becomes the background (Fig. 17).

However, even when perceiving homogeneous material, attention is distributed unevenly (Fig. 18).

6. Apperception(from lat. ad- to and perception- perception) - the dependence of perception on experience, knowledge, interests and attitudes of the individual. Looking at a burning fire from afar, we do not feel its warmth, but this quality is included in the perception of a fire. In our experience, the fire and heat entered into a strong relationship. When we look at a frozen window, we also add to our visual perception the temperature sensations gleaned from past experience. Depending on past experience, knowledge, professional orientation, a person selectively perceives their various aspects (Fig. 19).

Apperception can be personal and situational (at night in the forest, a stump can be perceived as a figure of a dangerous beast).

7. Constancy of perception. The same familiar objects are consistently perceived by us in changing conditions: under different illumination, from different points of view, different distances. Constancy of perception(from lat. constantis - constant) - the independence of the reflection of the objective qualities of objects (size, shape, characteristic color) from the changed conditions of their perception - illumination, distance, angle of view.

The image of the size of an object on the retina will be different when perceived from close and far distances. However, this is interpreted by us as the remoteness or proximity of the object, and not as a change in its size (Fig. 20, 21).

Rice. 20. Constancy of perception. Of two objects of the same size, the more distant one gives a smaller image on the retina. However, this does not affect an adequate assessment of their actual value. In this case, the brain takes into account information about the accommodation of the lens (the closer the object, the more curved the surface of the lens), the convergence of the visual axes (convergence of the visual axes of the two eyes) and the tension of the eye muscles.

When perceiving a rectangular object (folder, sheet of paper) from different points of view, a square, a rhombus, and even a straight line can be displayed on the retina. However, in all cases, we retain the form inherent in this object. A white sheet of paper, regardless of its illumination, will be perceived as a white sheet, just as a piece of anthracite will be perceived with its inherent color quality, regardless of lighting conditions.

The constancy of perception is not a hereditary quality, it is formed in experience, the learning process. Pilots of supersonic aircraft at first interpret a very fast approach of an object as its increase in size, and temporary inconsistency arises. Aconstantity may occur when perceiving relief in photographic images and drawings (Fig. 22).

Aconstant(from lat. illudere- to deceive) - an illusion of perception, distortion in the perception of objects. The most common visual illusions. They arise for a number of reasons. Illusion of irradiation, in which light objects appear larger than their equal dark objects, is associated with irradiation of excitation in the retina (Fig. 23).

The perceived size of the figures depends on their objective environment. Yes, thanks illusions of contrast objects of the same size will appear different in size if one of them is surrounded by large objects, and the other is surrounded by smaller objects (Ebbinghaus illusion - Fig. 24, 25).

In the Muller-Lyer illusion, two identical lines ending in differently directed angles appear to be unequal in length. Due to the large difference between two neighboring parts of identical objects, one of them seems large (Fig. 26).

Rice. 25. Identical figures on a smaller zero seem to be large.

Rice. 24. Illusion of contrast. The inner circle on the left appears larger than the inner circle on the right. In reality, they are equal (Ebbinghaus illusion).

Vertical lines are overestimated compared to horizontal ones (Fig. 27). Parallel lines appear non-parallel under the influence of the lines crossing them (Zellner illusion - Fig. 28). Segments of a straight line crossing two vertical rectangles are perceived as segments located at different levels (Pogendorf illusion - Fig. 29). Due to the overestimation of the size of sharp corners, the circle with the square inscribed in it seems to be bent at the corners of the square (Fig. 30.)

Both receptor mechanisms and features of the functioning of the central nervous system are involved in the appearance of illusions. Some visual illusions are due to the optical features of the eye.

Illusions are subject not only to visual, but also other types of perception So, if you hold in your hands two objects that are the same in weight and appearance, but different in volume (for example, large and smaller in size, but not in weight balls), then the object, which is smaller in size, is perceived as heavier (Charpentier illusion) . This is explained by our generalized experience - the larger the object, the greater its weight.

If, crossing the index and thumb, we touch the ball or pencil, placing these objects in the resulting crosshairs, then we will feel a double touch (Aristotle's illusion). This is because the receptor fields of opposite fingers usually touch different objects.

Contrast illusions are common not only in the field of visual perception, but also in the field of auditory, gustatory, tactile, temperature and kinesthetic sensations. So, the contrast illusion of kinesthetic sensitivity arises after repeated perception of objects that differ in weight and volume - the subsequent presentation of objects equal in the same respects is perceived illusory: an object that is located in the place of a previously presented smaller object seems larger and heavier (Uznadze's installation experiments) .

In some cases, visual illusions can be the cause of inadequate actions. For example, when entering the tunnel on Triumfalnaya Square (formerly Mayakovsky Square) in Moscow, cars often drove into oncoming traffic. Psychological experts found that the light of the advertisement, then located on the building of the Sofia restaurant, fell in such a way that the illusion of shifting the entrance to the tunnel was created. After the billboard was replaced, traffic violations stopped.

Illusions are recognized thanks to our psychological knowledge. They are not only "pests" of our perception, but also a factor that ensures the adequacy of conditional images. Thanks to illusions, we translate the two-dimensional images of artistic paintings into three-dimensional spatial representations, and we interpret images of different sizes as the same, if the accompanying circumstances are taken into account.

Features of the perception of space and time.

Space and time are universal forms of the existence of matter. The perception of space and time reflects the objective spatio-temporal relations between objects.

Perception of the spatial qualities of an object consists of the perception of size, shape, volume, distance, location of objects and their movement. The size and shape of objects are perceived as a result of a combination of visual, tactile and kinesthetic (musculo-motor) sensations in a person's experience.

One of the factors of spatial perception is the binarity of the sense organs and the symmetry of the human body. Perceiving the spatial features of objects, their location in space, a person proceeds from the normal position of his body, perpendicular to the plane of the earth, the data of the balance apparatus are taken into account.

Form perception is a complex perceptual process. In it, fast, spasmodic eye movements are of great importance. In this case, the optical data are processed by the brain in combination with the data of the oculomotor muscles - the eye, as it were, feels the object.

Rice. 35. Aconstantity in the perception of relief images. Flip the drawing 180º - small protrusions will be perceived as indentations, and large indentations as protrusions. It depends on the subconscious interpretation of the direction of the light, which usually goes towards the observer.

The process of visual perception has a certain phasing - microgenesis. At the first stage (30 - 50 ms), the spatial position, distance and size of the visual stimulus (object) are assessed. When perceiving a moving object, it takes from 50 to 140 ms to determine the parameters of its movement. Further, the specification of the form of the perceived object is carried out.

The entire process of forming a stable spatially localized visual image is completed 300 msec after the presentation of the stimulus.

The eye, according to I.M. Sechenov, functions as a measuring instrument. When perceiving a flat form, a clear distinction between the outlines of an object and its contour is essential. Depth vision plays the main role in the perception of three-dimensional form. The closer the object is, the more intense the depth vision. So, the shape of a cube seems to be more elongated near, and flattened far away. Tunnels, alleys, and similar extended objects, when viewed from a distance, seem shorter than when perceived from a close distance.

When perceiving the shape of an object, its interaction with the background is essential(from fr. fon - bottom, base). In visual perception, the background acts as the basis for the reference system - the color and spatial characteristics of the object are evaluated in relation to the background. The background provides information about the situation of perception, ensures the constancy of perception.

Rice. 37. Rubin vase. In this picture, the image of a vase on a black background is alternately perceived, then two profiles on a white background. However, if one of the objects becomes the subject of active research, then it will also become a stable object of perception.

Rice. 36. And in this figure, only the central figure is consistently perceived. Why?

In situations of equivalence between the object and the background, the effect of the duality of the figure. At the same time, periodic fluctuations of attention occur - its fluctuation occurs (Fig. 36, 37).

The clarity of perception is facilitated by the sharp outline of the contour of the object. With the difference in the contour of the object, the process of its perception begins. Only then does its form and structure differ.

The relief and volume of objects, the depth of space are perceived due to the fact that their image falls on mismatched (disparate) points of the retina of two eyes - in this case, the image in the retinas of both eyes does not completely match and, as a result, stereoscopic effect

Remoteness of items It is also perceived through binocular vision. The perception of the remoteness of an object depends not only on the size of its image on the retina, but also on the tension of the eye muscles, the curvature of the lens. When viewing distant objects, the lens becomes flat. This change in the curvature of the lens depending on the distance of the objects in question is called accommodation. But accommodation provides information about the remoteness of objects only within the range of up to 6 m. If objects are further away, then information about their remoteness enters the brain from the relative position of the visual axes (Fig. 38).

Rice. 39. Stereoscopic visual perception. Relief, volume, depth are reflected thanks to binocular vision - vision with two eyes. Above - the perception of the object with one left and one right eye. Below is an object seen with both eyes.

Rice. 38. Reflection of the depth of space, remoteness of the object. To assess the remoteness of objects, information is used on the state of the lens of the eye (the phenomenon of accommodation), the angle of convergence of the visual axes, the tension of the eye muscles, the overlap of some objects by others, data on linear and aerial perspective.

For the perception of the remoteness of objects, not only the accommodation of the lens and the relative position of the visual axes are essential, but also linear and aerial perspective. The receding lines seem to converge at the horizon. Linear perspective is enhanced by the weakening of the difference between light and shadow, the loss of individual small details. Aerial perspective consists in some change in the color of objects under the influence of a bluish tint in the air. The spatial perspective is also determined by the texture density gradient of objects (Fig. 40).

The definition of the depth of space is limited deep vision threshold

Essential for the perception of the remoteness of objects is the comparison of their size with the known size of other objects. This is of particular importance in cases where objects are more than 450 m away (the limiting distance about which information is received as a result of the relative position of the visual axes). The distance from which objects are recognized is called spatial discrimination threshold(see tables below).

Rice. 40. Determining the extent of an object in depth is carried out by the density gradient of its texture.

Spatial thresholds of perception of individual
objects:

Rice. 41. Threshold of deep vision - the minimum difference in the distance of two objects, perceived by the observer. Quantitatively, the depth vision threshold is expressed as the difference between the corresponding parallactic angles. Most people have a Depth Vision Threshold of 5* (five arcseconds).

Spatial thresholds for distinguishing elements of a person's appearance:

The spatial movement of objects, their movement is perceived due to the movement of their image on the retina. For the perception of movement, the movement of the eye and head is also essential. When assessing the speed of movement, a correction is made for the distance of the moving object. Motion Perception Threshold equal to 5 ang. min/sec, which corresponds to the limiting speed of the tracking eye. The direction of movement of an object is determined by the change in its position relative to other objects, as well as by the mechanism of paired eyes (Fig. 42).

Rice. 42. The paired work of the eyes is one of the mechanisms that ensure the perception of the direction of movement of objects.

The ability to correctly evaluate the spatial relationships of objects is called eye gauge. There are static and dynamic eye gauges:

Static eye - determination of the size of stationary objects, their remoteness and the distances between them by a stationary observer;

Dynamic eye - the ability to determine the relationship between moving objects.

There are significant individual features of the eye.

The ability to see the smallest objects is called visual acuity or resolving power of the eye. Visual acuity is equal to one (it is normal) if a person distinguishes objects with an angular size of 1 min (people with normal vision distinguish objects with a size of 3 cm at a distance of 100 m). Visual acuity depends on the preliminary acquaintance with the object, on the expectation of it in the field of view, color, contrast between the object and the background, the duration of the visual stimulus. Visual acuity decreases with increasing angular velocity of the object.

In its genesis, visual perceptions are associated with touch.

Touch is one of the main sources of our spatial representations. (At one time it was even believed that the hand teaches the eye to see. Later, however, this was refuted by experimental data.) The groping movements of the hands reproduce the contour of the object, as if taking a cast from it.

Distinguish between passive and active touch:

Passive touch forms a tactile image of the contour of an object when it is moved on a resting hand;

Active touch is characterized by active palpation of an object.

Bimanual touch - touch with two hands - optimizes the strategy of perception. At the same time, the functions of the hands are separated; the left hand (for right-handed people) performs the function of a support and a reference point.

Perception of time- a reflection of the duration, speed and sequence of phenomena. Temporal relationships are reflected through:

chronometry- counting time, measured using the uniform movement of objects (clock hands);

chronology- reflections of time in accordance with common events for all (seasons, historical events);

chronognosia- subjective time (subjective experience of the duration of events depending on their significance and emotional coloring).

When evaluating the time intervals and duration of events, one should take into account the peculiarities of the subjective perception of time. With positive emotions, time is underestimated, and with negative emotions, time is overestimated. The underestimation of time is always the result of the dominance of excitation over inhibition. The exaggeration of time is associated with the predominance of inhibition, which occurs as a result of the influence of monotonous, insignificant stimuli. Under the same conditions of activity, time less than 1 minute is usually exaggerated, and time more than 5-10 minutes is underestimated.

The whole complex of analyzers is involved in the reflection of time. However, time intervals are differentiated to the greatest extent by kinesthetic and auditory analyzers. So, if the discontinuity of visual influences differs at intervals between them up to 1/20 sec, then the discontinuity of tactile influences differs at intervals of 1/40 sec, and of sound influences at intervals of 1/100 sec.

The period of time is estimated more accurately when making movements and when perceiving auditory influences. In this case, an involuntary motor and sound accompaniment appears, activating the process of time perception.

In activities associated with the establishment of time intervals, a person achieves a great development of the "sense" of time. The perception of time is disturbed in extreme states (stress, affect, frustration), with prolonged sensory deprivation, alcohol and drug toxicity.

Perception, man by man.

Rice. 43. Probability of differences in face elements at low exposures.

Rice. 44. Probability of the supporting role of facial elements during identification.

As an object of perception, a person is distinguished by a special social significance. When perceiving a new person for himself, the subject highlights in him those features of his appearance, which provide information about mental and social qualities. Posture, gait, gestures, facial expressions, voice, speech, behavioral habits, manners, and clothes stand out in particular. One of the first places is occupied by the professional characteristics of a person, his social status and basic moral and communicative qualities: evil, kind, cheerful, reserved, sociable, etc. Individual elements, features of the face and head are selected selectively and are identified with varying accuracy (Fig. 43 , 44).

Personality features in her appearance are interpreted in various ways:

emotional- social qualities are attributed to an individual depending on the aesthetic appeal of his appearance (outwardly a beautiful person is interpreted as a good person);

analytical- each of the elements of appearance is associated with a specific mental property of a person (pursed lips, furrowed eyebrows - an evil person, etc.);

perceptual-associative- the qualities of another person outwardly similar to him are attributed to a person;

social-associative- a person is given the qualities of a certain social type according to certain characteristic external signs (in glasses and a hat - an intellectual; in an overcoat - a military man).

The generalized image of a person that has arisen from external signs affects the interaction with this person.

The perception of a person by a person is subject to certain socially formed stereotypes, standards, standards. The general impression of a person, the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bhis social status are transferred to all private manifestations of a given personality (""). Initially perceived information about a person may have a dominant value (“primacy effect”).

Significant differences in the social status of those who communicate give rise to the "effect of social distance". The extreme manifestation of this effect is expressed in neglect and hatred towards representatives of other social groups.

Estimates and feelings of people in their perception of each other are multifaceted. But they are mainly divided into conjunctival- uniting and disjunctive- separating. Disjunctive feelings are caused by what is condemned in the given environment.

A.A. Bodalev made the following experiment. Two groups of people were shown the same photograph and asked to describe the person in the photograph. One group was told that they would see a portrait of a hero, while the other group was warned that they would see a picture of a criminal.

It turned out that the subjects in their assessments were within the power of the stereotype, the attitude. Here is a verbal portrait given by a person who believed that he had an image of a hero in front of him: “A young man of 25-30 years old. A strong-willed, courageous face, with regular features. The look is very expressive. His hair is disheveled, not shaved, the collar of his shirt is unbuttoned. Apparently, this is the hero of some fight, although he does not have a military uniform.

The subject, who believed that he was facing a portrait of a criminal, gave the following verbal description: “This beast wants to understand something. Cleverly looks and without interruption. Standard chin, bags under the eyes, a massive, aging figure, thrown forward ... "

Depending on the importance people attach to various features of the external image of a person, they perceive each other differently.

Perception of oral speech.

From a physical point of view, speech is a combination of sounds that varies in frequency and intensity.

The maximum intelligibility of oral speech occurs at a speech intensity of 40 dB. At a speech intensity of 10 dB, speech sounds are not perceived as related words. For satisfactory transmission of speech messages in noisy conditions, the sound intensity of speech should be 10 dB higher than the noise level. Speech is especially muffled by low-frequency noise.

Speech intelligibility increases with visual control of speakers, the vocabulary of speech familiar to listeners, significant intensity of speech, repetition of complex phrases in their original form.

The optimal rate of speech is 70 words per minute; the upper limit is 120 words per minute.

As a socially conditioned phenomenon of speech perception is gnostic process- the process of determining the meaning and meaning of perceived speech structures; this process is characterized by different levels of recognition and discrimination. In the perception of oral speech, there are sensory, perceptual and semantic levels.

Depending on the formation of the process of perception of oral speech can be successive(expanded) and simultaneous(collapsed).

The perception of oral speech is accompanied by probabilistic forecasting. Long words are understood and recognized better than short ones. The length of the phrase should not exceed 7 ± 2 words. The most significant words should be placed in the first third of the phrase. At the beginning of standard phrases, the listener predicts the phrase as a whole. The level and depth of speech prediction depend on the listener's speech culture.

The semantic perception of a speech message also depends on its situational involvement, logical and semantic structure, the length and depth of phrases, their communicative significance, the listener's orientation and the level of his mental development.

Perception by a person of the environment around him.

The human environment is perceived by him as a whole, and not as a set of isolated objects. This environment is considered by a person as a field of his life activity.

The place of permanent residence acts as a psychological center for a person, an arena of his activity, a source of certain mental states. (Psychologist William Sheldon even distinguishes special psychological types of people depending on their mental interaction with the environment. ectomorphic type perceives the environment depending on the mood. mesomorphic type perceives the environment as an object of mastery - travelers, climbers, entrepreneurs. Endomorphic type perceives the environment as a lyrical object - poets, artists.)

The environment dictates a person a certain way of behavior, activates and inhibits his motor reactions, creates a certain mood. The human environment evokes in him an aesthetic reaction, intimate associations.

The aesthetic and organization of the human environment is a sign of culture, civilization, and the psychological competence of society.

Rice. 45. The proportionality of the human body.

Different peoples at different times develop their own aesthetic norms. However, there are general psychological norms of beauty. Beautiful is what is harmonious, and harmonious is what optimizes the process of perception. The human body itself is beautiful, harmonious and proportionate (Fig. 45).

Greek word harmony means harmony, proportionality, balance of parts of the whole. Parts of a harmonious object are subdivided, subordinated, ordered in such a way that they provide a certain focus of attention. An object is convenient for perception if it has a certain functional and structural organization.

In works of art, the proportional ratio of the so-called " golden ratio"- the smaller part is related to the larger one as the larger one is to the whole (approximately 3:5, 5:8; more precisely - 100:161). The positive effect of stimuli in this ratio was empirically discovered in ancient times. The use of the "golden section" proportion in architecture, sculpture, painting, music (intervals in sound time, the ratio of sounds to height) contributes to the integrity of perception, gives the object harmony (an ordinary box looks beautiful if its dimensions have the "golden section" ratio).

A harmonious object is distinguished by the balance of its elements, the optimal distribution of optical masses, the symmetry and rhythm of the arrangement of its parts.

Rhythm is used to avoid monotony, to maintain the activity of perception. For this purpose, rhythmic changes in the spatial extent of the elements of the object, in the distances between them, alternation of their tonality, configuration (alternation of thickening and thinning, convexity and concavity, etc.) are used.

When perceiving an object, the weight of its parts is subconsciously interpreted. This interpretation depends on the location of the elements of objects in relation to its vertical and horizontal axes. In the center of the composition, the element weighs less (although it has a greater significance), and at the edges - more. It is no coincidence that in the paintings of outstanding masters of painting, the figures located in the center are made heavier by various pictorial techniques (more “heavy” color, larger size, etc.). Elements of an object located at the top of the object look heavier than those at the bottom. Elements on the right look heavier than those on the left. (Look at Raphael's painting "The Sistine Madonna". The figure of the monk on the left side of the picture is depicted larger than the figure of the woman on the right side of the picture - this balance is achieved throughout the composition.)

The weight interpretation of the elements of an object depends not only on the size, but also on their color. The most "heavy" are red and other colors of the long-wavelength part of the spectrum.

The visual system is dominated by vertical orientation. The vertical line is the base to which the relative position of the parts of the object is attached. With the vertical arrangement of the object, its symmetrical balance is evaluated. Depending on the function of the object, it is given different symmetry:

absolute- repetition of elements in the left and right parts;

relative- repetition of only individual homogeneous elements.

Harmonious object- an object whose content is expressed simply. The simplicity of an object does not mean its primitive simplification, but the clear definiteness, conciseness, completeness and clear unity of its elements. This kind of simplicity is the main virtue of a genuine work of art.

Under simplicity of composition one should not understand the limited diversity of its elements. An object with more detail may be simpler than an object with less detail. (Thus, a square with its four sides is a simpler figure than a triangle. The great simplicity of a square lies in the equality of its angles and sides, in the equal distance of the sides from the center and their symmetry with respect to the horizontal and vertical axes.) The simplicity of an object is determined not so much by its limited details, how many limited number of structural features. An object is simple, concise, if its complex content is covered by a minimum number of structural features.

The aesthetic impression of the object is enhanced if it emphasizes the natural color and texture of the materials used. The combination of the same colors of different saturation enhances the impression of the plasticity of the object. Color division should correspond to functional division. It is advisable to unite functionally homogeneous elements with one color. The dissection of the object, the contrast of its elements should not impede the synthetic side of perception.

The harmonious organization of the objective environment is the avoidance of dullness, dullness, colorlessness and disorder - all that has recently come to be called an aggressive environment.

Human life should be carried out in an aesthetic, functionally organized, ergonomic environment.

Individual differences in perception.

Life experience, knowledge, interests, the level of mental development determine the individual characteristics of perception - its completeness and accuracy. Representatives of the synthetic type of perception have greater integrity and emotionality of perception. Representatives of the analytical type show a great propensity to isolate and explain individual aspects of the object. The most common is the average analytic-synthetic type of perception.

People with insufficient development of differentiation activity are characterized by incompleteness and inaccuracy of perception. It is often supplemented by subjective additions, especially in situations of heightened emotionality. A person's susceptibility to inert stereotypes has a significant impact on perception. Incompleteness of experience and knowledge causes fragmentation of perception, insufficient meaningfulness and integrity of perception.

Perceiving objects and phenomena, a person evaluates them. Curiosity, inquisitiveness, analyticity are expressed in his observation- the ability to perceive subtle essential features of phenomena (Fig. 46).

Rice. 46. ​​The ability to productive observation is called observation. In this drawing, the mark on each hand is left by one specific object. What?

Perception is otherwise called perception (from Latin percepcio - I perceive), and the processes of perception are called perceptual processes.

The American neurophysiologist J. Pittigrew discovered cortical neurons of disparity (from Latin disparatis - separate). These neurons have two receptive fields - they are excited only when the image hits both zeros at once. This explains the fact that when an object is perceived with one eye, the effect of stereoscopicity occurs.

The effect of the movement of an object can also occur if, at short intervals, different phases of the object are perceived - the stroboscopic effect. So, when perceiving a film, when 24 frames with a still image are replaced in one second, the effect of movement occurs.

Bodalev A.A. Perception and understanding of man by man. M., 1989.

This role of the vertical is due to the vertically directed force of gravity that constantly acts on all living organisms.

Perception for a person is a sensation of what is contemplated, for animals - sensual contemplation, sensual smell, etc.; priority for the vital activity of the sense organs.

Knowledge is possible on the basis of perception, it cannot be perception. Sensations - what distinguishes us from the animal world, the ability to objectify the environment. "Sensory knowledge" is not perception. “Objects of the surrounding world” and “direct subjective representation” are rather derivative perceptions. “Objects of the surrounding world” are possible only in our “imagination”, as an already structured reaction of the nervous system to the environment, in the form of already formed images or phenomena. The world around us is our idea of ​​the environment, but not the environment itself. What actually exists and happens outside the range of our perception, what phenomena, and in what capacity, are little known to us. Objects and phenomena of the surrounding world are subjects of the environment, as a result of which the “objectivity of the surrounding world” and “direct subjective representation”, in essence, are the content already formed by us, which can be expressed as - the representation of the environment is subjective, and is given in objectivity and phenomenon like the surrounding world. As you can see, objects and phenomena are not given in finished form, but are gradually formed by our nervous system, thanks to our ability to perceive the environment in a peculiar way. This is a long process in which, in addition to perception, which provides material for future structures, other mechanisms are involved, in particular our ability to structure, which leads to the construction of finished structures from this material and their interconnection. The process of cognition in this series is final, and is based on sensations, not on feelings. So it is impossible to explain the perception when it is replaced by the subject obtained through this perception, even more so when the perception itself is replaced by some "sensory knowledge". This is not an object of perception, but a subject, and such a subject, which in the period of formation is compared with the environment in the process of perception. “Direct subjective representation” implies, first of all, the presence of an object of representation, which is possible with the ability to form images, which, in turn, is made up of elements obtained also on the basis of perception. As you can see, there are some inaccuracies that bring confusion and lead to involuntary substitution of concepts. We replace the process of perception with formed images of objects or phenomena that have developed on the basis of perception, but they are not perception in themselves. The source and subject of perception is the environment, and images and phenomena are the subject of comparison with the environment through perception.

Various interpretations of perception

Some psychologists continue to consider perception as a synthesis of sensations, while sensations are interpreted as subjective experiences of strength, quality, localization and other characteristics of the impact of stimuli on the senses that arise as a result of directly sensory cognition.

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  There are four operations or four levels of perception: detection, distinction, identification and identification. The first two relate to perceptual, the last - to identification actions.

  Detection- the initial phase of development of any sensory process. At this stage, the subject can only answer the simple question of whether there is a stimulus. The next percept operation is distinction, or perception itself. Its end result is the formation of a perceptual image of the standard. At the same time, the development of perception goes along the line of highlighting specific sensory content in accordance with the characteristics of the presented material and the task facing the subject.

  When the perceptual image is formed, it is possible to carry out an identification action. For identification, comparison and identification are obligatory.

  Identification is the identification of a directly perceived object with an image stored in memory, or the identification of two simultaneously perceived objects. Identification also includes categorization (assignment of an object to a certain class of objects perceived earlier) and extraction of the corresponding standard from memory.

  Perceptual Properties

  • Objectivity - objects are perceived not as an incoherent set of sensations, but as images that make up specific objects.
  • Structurality - the object is perceived by consciousness already as a modeled structure abstracted from sensations.
  • Apperceptivity - perception is influenced by the general content of the human psyche.
  • distal object when the proximal stimulus changes.
  • Selectivity - the preferential selection of some objects in comparison with others.
  • Meaningfulness - the subject is consciously perceived, mentally called (associated with a certain category), belongs to a certain class.
  Reflection consists of the following steps:
  1. Selection - selection of the object of perception from the information flow
  2. Organization - an object is identified by a set of features
  3. Categorizing and attributing to an object the properties of objects of this class

  Constancy of perception

  Constancy - the constancy of perception of the same distal object when the proximal stimulus changes, the ability to recognize the same object based on different sensory information (sensations). Perceived in different circumstances and conditions, the object is considered as one and the same. So, the brightness of an object as a quantity characterizing the reflected light changes if you move it from a dimly lit room to a room with good lighting. Nevertheless, when the proximal stimulus information changes, the object is considered as the same in both cases. It is possible to highlight the constancy of such object properties as size, shape, brightness, color. The shape perception constancy is studied on an apparatus, the main elements of which are a standard square (with a side of 10 cm) and a measuring rectangle (10 cm wide). The standard square is always inclined towards the observer in the experiment, and the plane of the measuring rectangle must be perpendicular to the subject's line of sight. The height of the measuring rectangle can be changed by the subject using a special button. The subject is asked to choose the height of the measuring rectangle so that it has the same visible shape as the tilted reference square. In the experiment, the slope of the reference square varies (25°, 30°, 35° and 40°). For each value of the inclination of the standard, the subject trims the height of the meter four times. Thus, data are obtained for calculating the constancy coefficient.

  Perception constancy is measured by the constancy coefficient according to the Brunswick-Thouless formula:

  K = V − P R − P (\displaystyle K=(\frac (V-P)(R-P)))

  where V (\displaystyle V)- the height of the measuring rectangle, which was set by the subject in an effort to trim the visible forms of the meter and the standard, R (\displaystyle R)- the height of the square of the standard, P = R ⋅ cos ⁡ α (\displaystyle P=R\cdot \cos \alpha ), where α (\displaystyle \alpha )- the angle of inclination of the standard square.

  The constancy of shape perception in experiments with inversion of the field of view using an invertoscope drops to zero, and in the process of adaptation it is restored, reaching the pre-experimental level. Experiments with inversion of the human visual field are carried out to study the mechanisms of constancy of visual perception.

  One of the explanations for the constancy of perception is based on the distinction between perception and sensitivity (sensation). The perception of the actual properties of objects is a subjective mental process that connects sensations (sensory experience) of the properties of an object with other stimulus information.

  So the property of the size of an object is associated with the distance to the object, the brightness of the object is associated with illumination. A subjective mental process of perception that allows a person to recognize an object as the same even if it is located at different distances from it (in this case, the object has a different angular size - if it is at a large distance - a small angular size, if at a small distance - a large angular size) size) is in some cases accompanied by a "regression to actual objects". An example of regression to real objects as a consequence of the constancy of perception is optical illusions. Thus, the Ponzo illusion shows how the regression carried out by perception to real objects that are located in the three-dimensional world, in the case of a two-dimensional object - a drawing - makes a person perceive the horizontal segment at the converging ends of the vertical lines as longer than the segment located at the divergent ends of the same vertical lines, as if the latter is located "closer" to the observer.

  Perception factors

  External

  • the size
  • intensity (physically or emotionally)
  • contrast (contradiction with the environment)
  • traffic
  • repeatability
  • novelty and familiarity

  Internal

  • stereotyping of perception, perception setting: expectation to see what should be seen from past experience
  • needs and motivation: a person sees what he needs or what he considers important
  • experience: the person perceives that aspect of the stimulus learned from past experience
  • self-concept: the perception of the world is grouped around the perception of oneself
  • personal characteristics: optimists see the world and events in a positive light, pessimists, on the contrary, in an unfavorable light
  • the principle of resonance - corresponding to the needs and values ​​of the individual is perceived faster than inappropriate
  • the principle of protection - opposed to human expectations is perceived worse
  • the principle of alertness - a threat to the human psyche is recognized faster than anything else

  Forms and principles of perception

  • Figure - background - perception highlights the figure from the background.
  • Constancy - objects are perceived in the same way for a long time.
  • Grouping - uniform stimuli are grouped into structures.
  Grouping principles:
  • Proximity - located near is perceived together.
  • Similarity - similar in some way is perceived together.
  • Closure - a person tends to fill in the gaps in the figure.
  • Integrity - a person tends to see continuous forms, rather than complex combinations.
  • Adjacency - close in time and space is perceived as one.
  • Common zone - stimuli identified in one zone are perceived as a group.

  The result of perception

  The result of the process of perception is the constructed image.

  Image - subjective vision of the real world, perceived with the help of sense organs.

  Having received an image, a person (or other subject) produces definition of the situation, that is, evaluates it, after which it makes a decision about its behavior.

  Perception in zoopsychology

  Perception is inherent mainly in higher living beings; in weak forms, which allow us to speak only of the rudiments of perception, something similar can be found in beings of the middle stages of evolution.

  The mechanisms of social perception include: reflection, identification, causal attribution.

  Perceptual Effects

  Social perception has some special manifestations of perceptual inaccuracies called laws, effects, or perceptual errors.

  • Effects of stereotyping:
  • Halo effect (halo effect, halo or horn effect) - a general favorable or unfavorable opinion about a person is transferred to his unknown features.
  • Sequence Effects:
  • The effect of primacy (the effect of the first impression, the effect of acquaintance) - the first information is overestimated in relation to the next.
  • The effect of novelty - new information about the unexpected behavior of a well-known, close person is given more importance than all the information received about him earlier.
  • Role effect - behavior determined by role functions is taken as a personality trait.
  • The effect of presence - the better a person owns something, the better he does it in front of others than in solitude.
  • Advance effect - the lack of previously attributed non-existent virtues leads to disappointment.
  • The effect of condescension - the leader exaggerates the positive features of his subordinates and underestimates the negative ones (typical for a leader of a conniving and, to some extent, democratic style).
  • The effect of hyper exactingness - the leader exaggerates the negative traits of subordinates and underestimates the positive ones (typical for an authoritarian style leader).
  • The effect of physiognomic reduction - a conclusion about the presence of a psychological characteristic is made on the basis of appearance features.
  • Beauty effect - more positive traits are attributed to a more attractive person.
  • Expectation effect - expecting a certain reaction from a person, we provoke him to it.
  • Intra-group favoritism - "their own" seem better.
  • The effect of negative asymmetry of initial self-esteem - over time there is a tendency towards the opposite intra-group favoritism.
  • Presumption of reciprocity - a person believes that the "other" treats him the way he treats the "other".
  • The phenomenon of the assumption of similarity - a person believes that "their" relate to other people in the same way as he does.
  • Projection effect - a person comes from the fact that others have the same qualities as him.
  • The phenomenon of ignoring the informational value of what did not happen - information about what could have happened, but did not happen, is ignored.

  Attribution

  Attribution - attributing characteristics to oneself or another person.

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  1. The minimum difference between two stimulus intensities that causes a noticeable difference in the intensity of sensation is called ...
  absolute lower limit
  threshold of discrimination
  temporary threshold of sensations
  intensity sensitivity range

  2. Exteroreceptive include ... sensations
  visual
  organic
  vibrating
  temperature

  3. Perception is often referred to as...
  touch
  apperception
  perception
  observation

  4. Spatio-temporal characteristics of the objective world reflect ... processes
  cognitive
  motivational
  emotional
  strong-willed

  5. The basic psychophysical law is usually called the law ...
  Weber-Fechner
  Bunsen-Roscoe
  Stevens
  Helmholtz

  6. Changing sensitivity to adapt to external conditions is known as ...
  synesthesia
  sensitization
  adaptation
  accommodation

  7. The ability to perceive changes in the stimulus or to distinguish between close stimuli is called ...
  absolute sensitivity
  differential sensitivity
  sensitization
  adaptation

  8. The basis for the division of perception into voluntary and involuntary is ...
  lead analyzer
  object of perception
  form of existence of matter
  purposefulness of the nature of the activity of the subject

  9. Perception is the process (result) of constructing an image of an object in the perceptual space of the subject when ...
  its direct interaction with this object
  its indirect interaction with this object
  the absence of a perceived object
  lack of interaction

  10. Understanding another person by identifying oneself with him is called ....
  empathy
  identification
  socio-psychological reflection
  stereotyping

  11. An example of a drawing, which is perceived either as a vase or as two human profiles, illustrates the law ...
  transpositions
  figures and background
  symmetry
  constancy

  12. The minimum value of the stimulus that causes a barely noticeable sensation is ... the threshold of sensations.
  lower absolute
  differential
  temporary
  upper absolute

  13. The dependence of perception on the content of a person’s mental life and on the characteristics of his personality is called ...
  insight
  perception
  apperception
  sensibility

  14. The basis for the allocation of visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory and other types of sensations is ...
  time of occurrence during evolution
  stimulus modality
  location of receptors
  the presence or absence of direct contact with the irritant

  15. Obtaining primary images is provided by ...
  sensory-perceptual processes
  thinking process
  submission process
  imagination process

  16. The maximum value of the stimulus that the analyzer is able to adequately perceive is called ... the threshold of sensations.
  lower absolute
  differential
  temporary
  top absolute

  17. In the ability of a person to recognize an object by its incomplete or erroneous image, such a property of perception is manifested as ...
  integrity
  objectivity
  constancy
  structure

  18. The main criterion for dividing the types of perception into the perception of space, time, movement is ...
  lead analyzer
  object of reflection
  form of existence of matter
  subject activity

  19. Such qualitative characteristics of sensations as color in vision, tone and timbre in hearing, etc., refer to ... characteristics.
  modality
  spatial
  temporary
  intense

  20. A certain area of ​​the cortex and subcortex, where ascending sensory impulses are addressed, is ...
  central analyzer section
  receptor
  conductor department
  peripheral department

  21. The strength of the acting stimulus and the functional state of the receptor is determined by ...
  quality of sensations
  sensation intensity
  spatial localization of stimuli
  duration of sensations

  22. The anatomical and physiological apparatus, designed to receive the effects of certain stimuli from the external and internal environment and process them into sensations, is presented ...
  conductor department
  receptor
  analyzer
  reflex

  23. A new kind of sensitivity, due to the transfer of the qualities of one modality to another, is ...
  synesthesia
  accommodation
  convergence
  sensitization

  24. Sensations arising from the impact of external stimuli on receptors located on the surface of the body are called ...
  exteroceptive
  interoreceptive
  proprioceptive
  interactive

  25. Receptors that specialize in receiving and processing influences from the internal environment of the body are called ...
  exteroreceptors
  interoreceptors
  proprioceptors
  external

  26. The pathways along which excitations arising in the receptor are transmitted to the overlying centers of the central nervous system are called ...
  afferent
  efferent
  efficient
  affective

  27. Does not belong to the main properties of sensations ...
  quality
  intensity
  duration
  volume

  28. The property of a person, manifested as the ability to notice little-known but significant details in the perceived, characterizes ...
  illusions
  perceptual actions
  observation
  touch

  29. An increase in the sensitivity of some sense organs with simultaneous exposure to stimuli on other sense organs manifests itself as ...
  adaptation
  sensitization
  synesthesia
  modality

  30. The property of perception closely related to thinking and understanding the essence of objects is called ...
  constancy
  meaningfulness
  selectivity
  integrity

  31. Erroneous perceptions of real things or phenomena are called ...
  agnosia
  hallucination
  illusion
  delirium

  32. A qualitative characteristic of sensations, indicating their belonging to certain sense organs (visual, auditory, tactile, etc.), is known as ...
  adaptation
  sensitization
  synesthesia
  modality