Laws of development of organisms. Laws and patterns in inanimate and living nature

Dictionary of Natural Wisdom

This is one of the main pages of the site. Now you have a UNIQUE opportunity to learn about the true natural laws of the universe. They are received from very referential for me source.

Continuation of the topic on this page .

Laws

The first and most important law of the Universe:

The Law of Free Will and Free Choice

The second most important law of the universe:

All forms in the universe, starting with atoms, strive for self-preservation

(This does not mean that atoms are conscious to strive for self-preservation, just that according to the laws of quantum physics, and the second law of thermodynamics, atoms are always in the most stable, equilibrium state with the lowest energy potential).

From these two laws follow two principles :

The universe is built on the principles of self-affirmation and domination

The universe is built on the principles of cooperation and self-sacrifice

From these two laws and principles follow the following two laws:

Law of Evolution

The Law of Evolution assumes that all entities in the Universe, including the so-called Gods, went through all stages of evolution, starting from the simplest. There are no entities in the Universe that exist eternally and unchangingly. After the Big Bang or the beginning of the Day of Brahma, everything in the Universe develops anew each time.

Law of Hierarchy

The Law of Hierarchy presupposes that in the living world the more organized beings live at the expense of the less organized ones, providing the latter with opportunities for rooted evolution. In human society, the Law suggests that the position in the human hierarchy should correspond to the level of human evolutionary development, and that more evolutionarily mature entities should govern less evolutionarily mature entities, and the latter, in turn, should obey the Elders.

But again, these laws are not given by someone from above - these are the basic properties of Matter, both in its atomic and wave aspects. The evolution of all living beings obeys the basic laws. The driving force behind evolution is hedonism- getting pleasure and enjoyment by assimilating the maximum possible amount of energy and information from the outside world and self-preservation.

"All living beings desire pleasure and try to avoid suffering." "Mahabharata".

Those living beings, species of living beings, or entire communities that live only on the basis of the principle of self-affirmation and domination, neglecting cooperation and self-sacrifice, are gradually or abruptly forced out and destroyed by Nature, those living beings, types of living beings, or entire communities that live only based on the principle of self-sacrifice, are inevitably forced out and destroyed by Nature. Consequently, in the process of evolution, Nature has developed the Golden Mean - only those living beings, species of living beings, or entire communities that live harmoniously combining the principles of self-affirmation and cooperation, domination and self-sacrifice, flourish and evolve. Because these principles are developed in the process of trillion quadrillion interactions of trillion quadrillion of all living beings throughout all 4 billion years of evolution. Information about all these countless interactions is the basis Anima Mundi, the Soul of the World.

The world soul stores information not only about successful interactions that led to prosperity and evolution, but also about unsuccessful ones that led to the death of a living creature, species or an entire community. World Soul nobody manages and does not have a single Consciousness or Mind - it is a gigantic continuum of consciousnesses of all living beings that have lived and still live on this planet. However, I repeat the World Soul has a single teleology - prosperity and preservation of life in all its diversity. Those living beings that contribute to the fulfillment of this task are supported by Nature, flourish and evolve, those who go against the current gradually degrade and annihilate. The laws according to which living beings interact are rules or algorithms of behavior, the implementation of which allows each living being, without violating the dynamic balance of the system, homeostasis, to evolve in accordance with the basic Laws. Violation of these laws leads to the destruction of the dynamic balance developed during 4 billion years of evolution. If an individual living being or communities of living beings systematically and maliciously violate the laws of Nature, then the system takes steps to eliminate violators. However, this happens not by the will of "God" or "Servants of Karma", but due to the inherent immunity of the entire World Soul, Nature and each individual organism against destructive external influences or destructive endogenous mutations. In our body, billions of old and mutated cells are destroyed every day, because if the body's immunity is strong, then not a single mutated cell or a foreign organism that has penetrated can develop further and is immediately destroyed. You won’t say that all these processes are a manifestation of the will of a certain “Creator” or “Servants of Karma”, this is just a healthy immunity, but if you think that everything is different in Nature and somewhere there is a certain Creator who has mercy on someone, and someone punishes, I sympathize with you ...

So, revealed following laws :

You need - you do

Do not ask, do not climb

Do not promise, promised - keep the promise

Don't refuse a request

Nature has nothing superfluous and harmful

Don't interfere

Don't criticize

Don't get stuck

Ask permission everywhere

Live here and now

Do not set goals, the main thing is movement

Do not transmit the received information if it has not been worked out

Everything impossible is possible

Sin is what you yourself consider sin

Avoiding small difficulties - asking for big ones

Do not tempt fate three times (twice is possible)

The main thing is to stop in time

Do not regret what was and what was not

Helping others helps ourselves

You don't owe anything to anyone

Nobody owes you anything

Do what you want to do

Don't do to others what you don't want them to do to you

If in doubt, don't

Started business - finish

How it turned out - it's better

Own will is good, someone else's will is evil

Don't speak without being asked

If you don't know for sure, don't say

Don't misrepresent information

Don't tell nice lies

Never say never"

Learn to say "no!"

Do not make excuses

Who compares, he loses

Do not fight with egregores

Do not participate in the battles of egregors

Do not get attached to egregores

Do not break the laws of the society in which you live

You have to pay for everything

What you earn is yours

Don't reject what's come as a gift

Don't go with the crowd

Not knowing the ford, do not poke your head into the water

Don't pull the tiger's whiskers

Don't get in your sleigh

Don't go in the trash

Don't go back to what (or who) you said goodbye to

Don't Make Creatures

Don't break the line. Law of Hierarchy

Don't jump over the steps, you'll have to come back. Law of Evolution

This list is not final and may be objectionable. Let me explain with a couple of examples what it means to fulfill or violate the Law.

Don't pull the tiger's whiskers - the meaning of the law is that one should not risk one's life and health in vain and unnecessarily. The wise Romans said Premium vivere “First of all, live.” Any unreasonably risky behavior is a violation of this law. For example, now all sorts of extreme sports are widely promoted, when a person dies or is injured as a result of chasing adrenaline, this is the punishment for violating this law. No one is to blame, he asked for it.

Law Do not come back. It is impossible to return to the womb - in this world you can only move forward. Any attempts to return to the past end very badly. This law works rigorously in the field of sexual and family relations. If you broke up with a person, it means that you no longer need each other, you can’t renew relations, everything will end badly - it’s been checked repeatedly. In the state-religious sphere, one cannot return to the religious system that has been abandoned.

Violation of the Laws, as a rule, does not get away with White entities, although there may be different options. The behavior of the Black entities is mainly based on the violation of certain laws. For example: all the secret services of the world violate the laws: Do not distort information, Do not ask, do not interfere, Nature has nothing superfluous and harmful, Do not interfere, Ask permission everywhere, Do not do to another what you do not want to be done to you. It is on the violation of these Laws that all their activities are built - they are engaged in misinformation, climb where they are not asked, destroy people and organizations that are harmful from their point of view, put spokes in the wheels of all their potential opponents, extracting the secrets of other states, do not ask anyone for this permits, commit acts of sabotage, and become very indignant when their opponents do the same. However, with the exception of individual failures, members and especially the heads of special services receive decent salaries, titles, awards, honor and respect, and a solid pension. Why is that? Because the violation of the Laws covers the state egregor, society. Ordinary citizens, as a rule, pay for the violation of the Laws - it is they who die as a result of terrorist attacks that were provoked by the actions of special services.

In addition, there are so-called Conceptual laws , some of which were outlined by Richard Bach in his book “Illusions” and “The Only One”, Conceptual laws, again, are not given by someone from above, they reveal the structure of the Universe in both of its aspects - atomic and wave, and in the interaction of these aspects:

Nothing comes from nothing

Nothing happens without good reason

Every action has its consequence

Every phenomenon has its cause.

Like attracts like

The small contains the big

The outside is like the inside

As above, so below

You walk the path, the path goes through you

You are born in the world, the world is born in you

By changing yourself, you change the world

Humans are mortal gods

Gods are immortal people

Not all people and not all gods are people

Gods are mortal. People can become immortal

First, the best piece of the pie

No punishment without guilt

Your mission on Earth is not over as long as you are alive.

Every moment of life has meaning and meaning

You can only learn what you don't have

You teach best what you yourself need to learn

Everything that happens to you - you pulled to yourself

What happened once can happen again

Be true to yourself

The problem already has a solution

Rejoice in difficulties - you grow with them

Discontent is the stimulus of progress

Wishes come true

If there is a desire, then there is strength to achieve the desired

Every being has its own time and space

You take the place you deserve

In every life you have to make a choice between right and easy

Perfection in everything is the mastery of life

Better one's own dharma poorly executed than well-executed, but someone else's

The strong are always right, not because they are right, but because they are stronger.

Winners are not judged

The wise leave no trace

The master leaves no corpse

In addition, there laws of sexual relations :

A woman chooses with whom she has sexual relations, from whom to give birth, whom to marry

A man has no right to refuse a woman if she chose him - in the first two cases

A woman has the right to refuse a man, without justifying the reasons for refusal

A man should not take revenge on a woman for refusing

A young woman who refuses sex to men for no good reason faces old age alone

A state in which young women refuse sex to men for no good reason is degenerating and dying.

The earlier the first sexual intercourse occurs in a man, the more successful his life, the more the state prospers

If a woman has chosen a man, she has no right to refuse him sex.

If a woman has chosen a man, she has no right to humiliate him and demand from him what he is not able to do.

To a man: get along only with those women who themselves will be grateful for this (Antisthenes)

If a woman flirts, she is obliged to bring the matter to sex

If you don't want to have sex, don't flirt

Sexy clothes - sexual appeal: "I want!"

If you don't want to be molested, don't dress sexy

In nudity is the truth, in clothes is a lie

Women make a man impotent

A woman's goal is to get a man to ejaculate

The goal of a man is to delay ejaculation as much as possible.

Not a single drop of sperm should be wasted

No one has the right to tell a woman how many men there should be in her life.

No one has the right to tell a man how many women should be in his life.

No one has the right to specify, to anyone, the terms when you can start a sexual life, and when it should end.

Children and adolescents have a complete and inalienable right to a sexual life

Based on these Laws, you can conclude that in all Christian societies ALL laws of sexual relations are violated, especially the last one.

In addition, there the laws of the White Teachers , of which are the following:

Teaching beings for the good should be done without causing them suffering "Laws of Manu" 2. 159

Not displaying siddhis to attract disciples

Do not impose your vision of the world, only express

Do not impose your Path, only offer

Do not claim your Path as the only possible one

Promise nothing and guarantee nothing

Don't create your own cult

Do not build a pyramid with yourself at the head

First of all, appeal to the mind of the students

Asking wrong - do not answer

Don't use fear as a learning tool

The main motto of the training: "Go to everything yourself"

Do not bestow siddhis

Don't make dogmas

Follow Nature in everything

The main criterion of Truth is experience, observed reality

The mission of the White Teacher is completed when the Student appeared who surpassed the Teacher

Set reasonable tuition fees and ask nothing more than that

Respect everyone who came

Respect those who are gone

From these Laws, you can conclude that Jesus was an absolutely Black Teacher, or rather Black, disguised as White.

Is there some more Law of Magicians:

Strength over Wisdom

Initially, I had a desire to provide each law with a detailed commentary, but I will not do this, because everyone has to work out these laws for himself.

It should be said that all the problems of modern civilization are that about Most of humanity are Violators of Natural Laws. Of the most malicious Violators are religious and political movements.

Ulisses "The Path of Odysseus"

• < Привлечение благоприятных возможностей начинается с…
• Sexuality and the chakra scheme >

LITERATURE

1. Bauer E. S. Theoretical biology. M.: VIEM. 1935. 207 p.

Reissues: a) Budapest, 1982.

B) St. Petersburg. :Rostock. 2002.

B) Izhevsk. : R&C Dynamics. 2000.

2. I. P. Bazarov, Thermodynamics. M.: Higher school. 1991. 344 p.

3. Vasiliev Yu. M. Movable cell architecture. // Encyclopedia "Modern Education". T.2. M.: Nauka - Flint. 1999. S. 163-171

4. N. I. Kobozev, On the Mechanism of Catalysis. III. On the valence and energy form of heterogeneous and enzymatic catalysis // ZhFKh. 1960. T. 34. S. 1443-1459.

5. Khurgin Yu.I., Chernavsky D.S., Shnol S.E. Molecule of a protein-enzyme as a mechanical system // Mol. biol. 1967. T. 1. S. 419-424.

6. Erwin Bauer and theoretical biology (to the 100th anniversary of his birth). Pushchino-on-Oka. : Pushchino scientific. center. 1993. 256 p.

7. Rezhabek B.G. On the behavior of a mechanoreceptor neuron under conditions of its closure by an artificial feedback circuit. // DAN USSR. T.196, No. 4. S. 981-984

8. Rezhabek BG Stable non-equilibrium of living matter is the basis of selective sensitivity of biological objects to electromagnetic fields. // Electromagnetic fields in the biosphere. T.2. M.: Science. 1985. S. 5-16.

^ METHODOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THE PROBLEM OF AGING.

ORIGIN OF AGING IN EVOLUTION

V.E.Chernilevsky

The general biological approach to the study of aging that we proposed earlier made it possible to establish that the origin and causes of aging in organisms are related to the essence of life. Despite many theories to define the essence of life, this question in biology remains open. This is mainly due to the use of different approaches to the problem, and is often the judgment of a scientist.

In this paper, based on the methodology of scientific knowledge, approaches to the study of the essence of life and the origin of aging are considered.

METHODOLOGY

General scientific methods of cognition offer developed and reliable methods and tools for the correct formulation, successful solution of complex problems and obtaining reliable knowledge, allow us to evaluate the disadvantages and advantages of the methods and methods of cognition used.

^ Basic Principles of the Methodology

1. Structure of scientific knowledge- these are established facts, patterns, principles - generalizing groups of facts, postulates, theories, laws, scientific pictures of the world.

2.Logic and stages of scientific knowledge include: problem statement, theory development, problem solving, theory evaluation in practice.

2.1. Scientific problem arises when existing knowledge does not explain the observed facts or processes and does not indicate ways to solve them (for example, aging). The problem is solved by the creation of a theory.

2.2. Theory is a system of knowledge that explains the totality of phenomena and reduces the laws discovered in this area to a single unifying principle. The theory is built to explain reality, but describes ideal objects and processes with a finite number of essential properties. When creating a theory, an analysis of facts and processes is carried out, the following are used: general theoretical ideas and principles of biology, fundamental laws of nature and the natural-scientific picture of the world; categories and principles of philosophy; methods of scientific knowledge. To reveal unobservable phenomena and complex internal processes, theoretical methods: intuition, abstraction, idealization, generalization, analysis, synthesis, ideas, hypotheses, induction, deduction, historical and logical methods. An important role in the development of the theory is played by the intuition of the scientist. However, methodological principles facilitate the construction of the structure of the theory and limit the arbitrariness of the researcher. A scheme is preliminarily built, an idealization of the process, the facts that play a decisive role in it are highlighted, a simplified model of the real process is created. One way to reduce complexity to simplicity in theory is to cut off redundant information (“Occam's Razor”).

The theory is based on a system of empirical facts. Experimental data usually do not reveal the essence of the phenomenon; their systematization and generalization are required. Induction allows, through repeated experience, analysis and comparison of phenomena, to highlight their common essential properties, to classify and derive a general (inductive) judgment, a hypothesis on the basis of which the facts are studied. The logical technique here is abstraction - the allocation of a class of processes, phenomena, properties and relationships that are indistinguishable from each other with the so-called. the main feature and distraction from other processes, connections of properties and relationships. The focus is on the links between processes of the same class. However, the hypothesis in induction does not allow obtaining reliable knowledge, but is used to eliminate logical errors.

AT deduction a judgment is considered true, derived logically from accepted axioms, general scientific principles, postulates and laws. Many well-known facts are already summarized in them. In the hypothetical-deductive model, a hypothetical generalization is put forward, which is compared with the facts. To systematize the facts, a minimum number of principles and laws must be adopted to explain the maximum number of facts. Here the connections between

processes of the same class are more reliable, because they are based on objective laws, i.e. experimental data can be considered facts, empirical knowledge, which allows you to deduce consequences, predict events and is the basis for the theory. Extremal principles represent a generalization of many facts. One of them is the principle of least action, which allows solving the problem by the end results (deduction), when the processes are deeply hidden. However, here it is necessary to specify the objective function. This principle applies to living systems. From it follow the principles of energy saving, the optimal structure of organs and systems, the size and proportions of the body, etc.

2.3. ^ Solution. The theory should be based on a general law or an initial principle that has the greatest generality. When solving the problem of aging, this is the basic law of biology, reflecting the essence of life. In the absence of such a law we applied a general biological approach, using the well-known laws of theoretical biology, which represent an integral scientific system based on the unity of the biological form of the movement of matter, the common origin and systemic organization of the living. The system of biological laws is confirmed by the logical connection between them and generalizes empirical knowledge. This allowed us to answer the question what is aging associated with and self-renewal of organisms, and the essence of these processes should be derived from the essence of life.

^ THE PROBLEM OF THE ESSENCE OF LIFE

The efforts of many biologists and philosophers from antiquity to the present day are devoted to solving the problem of the essence of life. There are dozens of definitions of the essence of life, but there is no generally accepted one. Most general counts definition F. Engels, given by him in “Anti-Dühring”, 1878: “Life is a way of existence of protein bodies, and this way of existence consists essentially in the constant self-renewal of the chemical constituents of these bodies.” An essential moment of self-renewal is metabolism. F. Engels noted the shortcomings of this definition as a biological law. However, what is important here is that the essence of life, as the ultimate concept in biology, is derived not from biological axioms, but from the general laws of the existence and movement of matter with the help of philosophical categories, in particular, the dialectics of nature. Therefore, this definition reflects the common fundamental property of the living, inherent in all biosystems. To translate Engels' formula into a general scientific language, each concept in it requires a special study, and the most difficult question remains about the essence, causes and mechanisms of self-renewal, i.e. how a living thing reproduces and maintains itself.
^

Living nature is a single self-developing system

the existence of biosystems and their hierarchical subordination. At each level and sublevel there is a self-renewal of structures, cell division, reproduction of organisms, survival of species depending on the ways of their existence and development with the help of metabolism, energy and information with the environment. The peculiarity of this exchange is determined by the essence of life, i.e. this is such an exchange, which is aimed at self-renewal, reproduction of organisms and self-development of living things. At the same time, biosystems create and destroy themselves. Therefore, the exchange is possible with self-renewal of systems. Separating themselves from the external environment, biosystems at each level themselves create different environmental conditions. Thus, the conditions for the existence of all sublevels are determined by the organism through a genetically determined metabolism. DNA replication, organelle renewal occur in the cell, cell division and organ renewal are under the control of the body. The direct impact of the environment is replaced by an indirect one, the conditions of existence are created, transformed and reproduced under the leading influence of the laws of living nature. View, biocenosis, wildlife as a whole are more open systems. Some organisms, species serve as conditions for the existence of others. That. at the level of living nature there is a general exchange of substances, energy and information. Inanimate objects do not have such an exchange.

Consequently, the levels of biosystems, metabolism, energy, information and the conditions of existence can be considered the conditions for the self-development of living things.

^ LAWS OF LIFE NATURE

In the history of the development of living things, organisms and species naturally arose and disappeared, the conditions for their existence, the metabolism, energy and information changed. However, one property has been preserved from the origin of life as a general expression the basic law of the existence of living matter - self-preservation, self-maintenance and self-development of life. It also follows from the law, which we will designate The universal law of the existence of matter, or the law of self-preservation, self-maintenance and self-development of matter. This law operates through universal laws (conservation of energy (matter), gravity, self-organization, cyclicity, etc.) in their unity. In fact, this law reflects the World Spirit of Hegel's philosophy as the basis of the universe.

All other biological laws reflect the specifics of phenomena, but in connection with the basic law. In every law, two parties and the links between them must be indicated. In the basic law, on the one hand, this is constant self-renewal, reproduction, reproduction of biosystems (molecular structures, cells, organs, organisms, species, etc.); on the other hand, the means (condition) for the implementation of these processes is the exchange of substances, energy and information with the environment, aimed at self-renewal. Those. self-renewal is a specific exchange (their unity). To determine the connection between them, it is necessary to understand exactly how the main and other laws operate.

Laws in any process and phenomenon act simultaneously and express a single process of development (in our understanding - self-development). This is summarized in the laws of dialectics: the unity and struggle of opposites (the source of development), the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones, the law of negation of negation. According to dialectics, all events and processes in the development of any system occur in a certain, typical way; they pass through the so-called. triad: an event or process (thesis), an opposite event (antithesis) arises, the struggle between which (the resolution of the contradiction) ends with the denial of the thesis and

antithesis and finding a solution (synthesis), which becomes the thesis in the next triad. Development goes cyclically. In any law, connection is the relationship of two parties that act in unity, but also have differences. The objective basis of the connection between unity and difference is the internal inconsistency of all phenomena, development processes, old and new, renewal and destruction, etc. In the process of development, internal contradictions arise and are resolved between them, which determine the transition from one stage to a higher one and the reproduction of their own conditions of development. The fundamental law must manifest itself in main contradiction between the evolutionarily established process of self-renewal at all levels of biosystems and their continuous exchange of substances, energy and information with changing environmental conditions. These conditions at each level of biosystems are determined and limited by other levels. The structure of each level tends to isolate itself for its own preservation, using the lower levels, while external conditions (higher levels) require changes and development. So, organelles and cells have membranes, the preservation and isolation of the species is ensured by species-specific DNA, self-renewal at the molecular genetic level up to reproduction at the organismal level. At the same time, constantly updated biosystems of a higher level (organism) are at the same time the conditions for the existence of lower levels (organs, cells and organelles). going on self-preservation of biosystems and their self-change or destruction. The unity of these processes for an organism and the contradictions between them are determined and resolved by the species: for the non-extinction of the species, organisms must be preserved and in the process of development change to maturity. At the same time, self-renewal and changes in structures and metabolism (development) are aimed at achieving maturity by the body, at which developmental changes reach a critical level. Comes into effect law of negation: the contradiction between the old and the new is resolved by reproduction, negation, completion of development, the mother organism dies off, and its offspring ensures the renewal of the species. Cell death is a signal for stem cell division and organ renewal. The next cycle of conservation and change of the organism (and its sublevels) is determined by the species. Self-renewal and exchange in the process of preservation and change of the organism also change and come into conflict at the moment of maturation of the organism. Here self-renewal of the view is decisive. Therefore, the exchange switches to the processes associated with reproduction and becomes unable to provide self-renewal of the body structures that are responsible for this exchange. Contradiction is resolved by reproduction, the creation of new, renewed offspring and renewed exchange. The peculiarity of the species is that it consists of organisms of different quality with all their sublevels and a single genome of the species, all individuals have one species-specific type of metabolism and are identical in the most important features. These features provide self-preservation, self-change and adaptation kind under different conditions when interacting with the external environment, and natural selection, i.e. ability to evolve unlimited in time. The view becomes almost an open system. It is in evolution that the species-specific exchange between individuals, as well as between organisms and the environment, is manifested. Such an exchange contributes to the preservation and increase of the viability of organisms. This is also related to

complication of the structure of organisms, which makes them more closed systems. The mode of existence of living nature consists in its continuous unidirectional (irreversible) self-development and self-maintenance in time, which are provided by (reversible) cycles of self-renewal and destruction of biosystems due to the law of cyclic development of matter. The duration of cycles is small at the molecular genetic level and increases to infinity for wildlife in general. The cyclicity of processes is based on biorhythms (BR) at all levels of biosystems, which are largely determined by the revolution of the Earth relative to the Sun. The BR system of an organism determines the course of its biological time.

Many characteristic features of living characteristic of catalytic and other systems of inanimate nature: metabolism, energy and information; self-development, self-regulation of processes, reactions to external influences, adaptability, the ability to develop, exist, die, etc. However, their feature for living systems, like biological laws, is the goal aimed at fulfilling the basic law and the main criterion of the living. Thus, the difference between the metabolism, energy and information of living and non-living systems lies in the difference between the carriers of life, sources and methods of energy exchange and information flows. These properties are manifested in unity in organisms of the same species, therefore, each individual has one (species) type of metabolism, energy and information. It is aimed at self-renewal and reproduction of the organism for the self-preservation of the species. Many laws and principles of molecular biology: the law on the directions of transfer of genetic information, the principles of complementarity and self-assembly of macromolecules, the conservation of genetic information, the law of conservation of structures, etc. are implemented in vitro, but in organisms they are aimed at fulfilling the basic law.

Thus, the action of all laws is aimed at the self-preservation of the species and life in general, i.e. to comply with the fundamental law.

^ SELF-ORGANIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF LIFE

The Basic Law should explain why and how self-preservation and development of life occurs. E.S. Bauer derived (as a basic law) the principle of stable non-equilibrium: “All and only living systems are never in equilibrium and perform constant work against equilibrium due to their free energy ...”, from which all the laws of biology followed. Here, a stable disequilibrium, i.e. the removal of the system from equilibrium is a consequence of the constant renewal of the thermodynamic potential associated with the deformed state of the “living protein” molecules. Although this has not been confirmed, the analysis of this principle shows that it can work on the basis of cyclic coupled processes with feedback. Many such coupled biochemical processes are now known. In this regard, of greatest interest is the change in molecules in coupled reactions of enzymatic catalysis. In addition, a stable non-equilibrium of the concentrations of different ions is observed in many processes, for example: the difference in the concentrations of K + and Na + inside and outside cells, non-equilibrium concentration gradients of H + and other ions in the creation of an electrochemical potential, in the coupled synthesis of ATP, etc. All this is not cancels this principle as a characteristic property of the living, but it cannot be considered the basic law. The value of the heritage of E.S. Bauer lies in a deep methodological analysis

problems of the essence of life. E.S. Bauer, unlike F. Engels, did not use the general principles of science to derive the basic law, although he applied the categories of the dialectics of nature. Therefore, the formula of F. Engels is abstract, but more reflects the essential properties of the living, although it could not (could be) filled with specific biological content. This, of course, was realized by E.S. Bauer. Therefore he puts forward principle of qualitative certainty: what is common and what is the main difference between living and non-living, although this is a common logical device. Next, he applies generalizing method a abstraction: a generalized (joint) analysis of the particular laws of biology and all phenomena of life with the so-called. abstract- hypothetical the principle of stable non-equilibrium (method of induction). From t.z. E. Bauer, he used the deduction method, because considered this principle to be true, absolute. As a result, he obtains a general law as a confirmation of this hypothetical principle as a basic law. An analysis of this principle shows that stable non-equilibrium is dynamic (cyclic) and reflects the peculiarity of nonlinear processes in open and quasi-closed systems, i.e. not only in living, but also in inanimate matter (for example, the Belousov-Zhabotinsky reaction, etc.).

It should be specially noted here that the weaknesses of the known definitions of the essence of life lie in the impossibility of explaining the reasons for the self-development and self-renewal of the living. Without this, the definitions cannot be put into practice. Thus, F. Engels in "Anti-Duhring" displays self-renewal as the essence of the living, and metabolism is an essential point, but in "Dialectics of Nature" metabolism is put forward as the basis of self-renewal. To understand the reasons for the self-development of living things, it is necessary to proceed from their universal laws of matter: the laws of conservation, self-organization and the cyclical nature of the development of matter.

^ All levels of development of matter are characterized by 2 fundamental principle: self-organization(Co) - non-equilibrium ordering of systems and organization- equilibrium ordering, which are interconnected and cyclic. These principles reflect the laws of the dialectics of the development of matter. Co is a spontaneous, not connected with the action of external organizing forces, regular behavior of a nonlinear system. In this case, part of the free energy of the system is spent on work against equilibrium (E), and part is dissipated. With an increase in E, the degree of Co increases, the system becomes more complicated, becomes less open, and the irreversibility of processes increases in it. Therefore, in prebiological evolution, self-development and Co could be carried out in open catalytic systems based on a basic reaction with a large thermodynamic potential. The patterns of self-development of these systems are: the ability to increase the catalytic activity of the reaction due to a change in the nature of the catalysis center; an increase in the intensity of the basic reaction, the degree of organization of the system, and the intensity of information flows. In this case, there is a conjugation of the basic and reverse reactions (directed against equilibrium, a process similar to electromagnetic self-induction). This autocatalytic process proceeds cyclically with damping. From such systems is possible, but limited by a kinetic barrier: the growth of macromolecules occurs when the rate of their reproduction exceeds the rate of decay. For continuous renewal of systems, it is necessary to keep them far from thermodynamic equilibrium due to efficient energy production and the presence of energy-intensive structures that decay in the process. The development of systems may stop, i.e. they are “dying out”, their evolution is limited.

Ordered Co arises in nonlinear dynamical systems, which are hypercycles(Hz). At the beginning, excess free energy transfers the system to an excited state far from equilibrium. Further, its behavior is described by a system of nonlinear equations. The phase space of the system, whose coordinates are independent variables (degrees of freedom), which describes the dynamics of the system, can be represented as divided into areas of attraction to various attractors - relatively stable states that attract many trajectories of the system. One of the attractors may be the destruction of the system (apoptosis). Thus, the attractor is the goal, the direction of the process. The solution of nonlinear equations encounters significant difficulties. However, when we are interested in the final result (selection, stability, etc.), sufficiently developed qualitative methods for analyzing singular points are used: sinks - stable points, correspond to stationary states in open systems; saddle points - a system with one unstable state will move away from this point; source - a point that is unstable in all directions; centers around which there are many concentric trajectories (solutions), foci, etc. Thus, the result of the process corresponds either to a stable stationary state or to a continuously and periodically changing family of states. The stationary state is far from equilibrium, and this ensures the life of the system. Perhaps an unstable state, spontaneous emergence of chaos (self-destruction of the system), and from chaos the appearance of a regular structure, self-renewal. An example of Co in time is the occurrence of self-oscillations, autowaves (spiral, toroidal, concentric, etc.), which are the basis of biorhythms: biochemical cycles, rhythms of structures and cell division, the system of body biorhythms, life cycles, population and the biosphere as a whole. Nonlinear systems are very sensitive to weak influences. and management, especially at bifurcation points - branching points of decisions (in ontogenesis - this is a change in phases and stages of development, cellular differentiation, etc.). Therefore, in living systems optimal management of genetic information. Singular point analysis shows that linear or branched chain catalytic systems are unstable, unable to select and Co, do not integrate information, and decay. These properties appear at closing circuits in Hz, the system approaches the final state with regular fluctuations near the singular point, demonstrating the Co example associated with non-linear processes. In such Hz, information can be accumulated and stored for the complication and evolution of Hz. The Earth, which has undergone cosmic and geological evolution from temperatures on the order of billions of degrees to close to absolute zero, 4 billion years ago possessed a complete set of elements of the periodic system and the maximum variety of potential barriers: mechanical, chemical, electrical, nuclear, etc. These conditions were prepared for origin of life. Solar energy has been transformed into various forms: water cycle, atmosphere, chemical reactions, incl. catalytic. To explain the origin of life with the so-called. universal law Co matter, the most recognized method is M. Eigen's method. The prerequisites for Co are considered networks of catalytic reactions in combination with non-linear feedback mechanisms that ensure the autocatalytic development of systems. Molecules that perform the functions of "nucleic acids" (NA) and have the ability to reproduce themselves, act as

catalysts in the synthesis of molecules that act as enzymes that catalyze the self-reproduction of “NK”. The resulting Hz ensures the continuous survival of “NK” and proteins. That. Hz are built from autocatalysts (playback cycles) connected by autocatalysis superimposed on the system, i.e. based on nonlinear autocatalysis and are nonlinear dynamic systems. They are capable of complication in Hz of the 2nd or more orders. That. Hz is the principle of Co and the integration of self-replicating units, and arise Hz due to the laws of Co and the cyclicity of the processes of matter. The chances of survival for Hz of different sizes and dimensions are about the same. In competition among different types of Hz, Hz have the advantage, capable of reproducing their own kind, starting the cycle from the beginning . This is possible when creating a coded control mechanism. Among the various variants of such a mechanism, nature has created a genetic code and a translation mechanism. Its creation could take place in Hz, but in the presence of nucleotides and amino acids in the medium.

Remains a controversial mystery universality of the genetic code NK and how the code correspondence between DNA and proteins arose. The work reveals the formation of left-handed and right-handed H 8 O 4 tetramers of almost boiling water. 4 billion years ago on the hot surface of the Earth on mirror-symmetrical chains of cooling water, synthesis of chirally pure organics could take place (all amino acids (AA) in living matter are left-handed, and sugars are right-handed). AK should appear first as more heat-resistant. It is assumed that the first chain of 4 water tetramers was formed in a drop of water during the phase transition, and accidentally turned out to be left. It synthesized the first left-handed AA, which could be associated with only 3 tetramers. The next AA began to be synthesized on the 4th tetramer of the chain and then attached to it the second, also left-handed water chain, and continued synthesis on it. This is how the matrix protein synthesis proceeded. On the right chains, sugars were synthesized, which were interconnected by phosphate residues, forming the skeleton of DNA or RNA. Nitrogenous bases were attached to it through sugars, forming nucleotides and, ultimately, NA. The code of their bases reflected the matrix of amino acids. In the genetic code, there are triplet sets of nitrogenous bases - 3 for each AA, so only 20 variants of known AAs could be realized. It follows from the principles of extremality that the most economical way of encoding is given by binary or ternary codes, i.e. there is a standardized, universal, packaging of information using precisely these codes. These processes can be observed at the present time. So it is known that tons of organic compounds (AA, sugars, porphyrins, etc.) are formed during volcanic eruption.

An important function of Hz is the self-preservation and reproduction of macromolecules in the presence of information molecules among them that encode this function, while information is preserved. Among such molecules, NA have the property of self-assembly, and peptides can act as catalysts. Therefore, the first replicative units (of the tRNA type) apparently arose in the presence of certain types of nucleotides and catalytic proteins and did not exceed 100 nucleotides. An increase in the accuracy of self-replication of short NCs required the presence of a catalyst, which should also be reproduced by the translation mechanism. For the translation mechanism, several such units are sufficient, interconnected cyclically in Hz. That. Hz was a necessary condition for the nucleation of integrated self-reproducible

running systems. According to M. Eigen's calculations genetic code originated 3.8 billion years ago. New information in Hz arises as a result of accident choice "once and for all" and self-selection(not selection). Its value in self-selection is determined by the increase in the stability of the system in comparison with competing systems and the principle of minimal action (the least energy costs), i.e. information must be encoded. Wherein old structures are replaced by new ones after playback and destruction of the system in subsequent generations (information is remembered).

Further complication of Hz is possible with isolation both functional units and Hz themselves. Evolution from HZ switches to new level. This should lead to a new quality of systems - types unicellular organisms with a single DNA genome and enzymatic apparatus with high reproduction accuracy. The modern genetic code and mechanism of translation could have arisen in the process of evolutionary Co in Hz. The main stages of code formation, according to M. Eigen, are: RNA replication in the absence of enzymes (n=60 nucleotides), tRNA replication (n=100), tRNA replication using replicases (n=4500), DNA replication using polymerases ( n=4.10 6), DNA replication and recombination (n=5.10 9). These stages are associated with an upper limit on the amount of information. In prokaryotes, the excess information capacity (n=104) of a single-stranded molecule requires the participation of double-stranded templates and enzymes. The new limit of n=10 7 set by the mechanism of DNA replication in prokaryotes could not be surpassed until the advent of genetic recombination used by all eukaryotes.

The source of development in the evolution of organisms is the contradiction between self-preservation (stability, stability) of the system and freedom of choice. The accuracy of reproduction, the complication and growth of the organization requires the maximum value of information and the absolute stability of the system, i.e. restricts freedom of choice and further development. The contradiction is removed by dividing development into ontogenesis and phylogeny. Species, having a low level of organization and ample opportunities for choice, provide unlimited development. And organisms show a tendency to isolate themselves from the environment with the help of membranes, ensure the preservation and transmission of information. Remaining open systems, they can exist for the efficient use of energy and resources if there is a spatial separation of components within certain structures that ensure the functioning, maintenance of homeostasis and renewal of the body. The non-equilibrium distribution of substances and energy, the movement of substances against the gradient of osmotic forces (the processes of absorption, secretion, selective absorption of substances, etc.) are associated with a drop and restoration of free energy due to these structures. At the same time, the body can function in a more economical mode than in a stationary mode, turning on its subsystems alternately according to signals about the need, i.e. actively selects and changes its information. Evolutionary selection reinforces such exchange type matter and energy with the environment.

reproduction of all kinds associated with a universal mechanism genome recombination, leading to the variability of offspring - a condition for natural selection. In prokaryotes, this is conjugation, transformation, transduction; in eukaryotes, the sexual process. It is important to emphasize that after breeding offspring development resumes from the beginning. The appearance of excess DNA in the genome is associated with the emergence of eukaryotes. to every organism

laid down the species genome. This ensures the development of organisms in any habitat conditions of the species, while only a part of the genome is manifested in the phenotype, and most of it is transmitted to the next generations, while recombining the genome. Selection in the evolution of the value of recombination types should lead to meiosis and appearance sexual process, as well as other traits important for the survival of eukaryotes that correlate with genome redundancy: the duration of mitosis, meiosis, and development; cell size, metabolic rate, resistance to cold, hunger, drought, etc.

The first organisms on earth were archeobacteria, which formed views of almost every element of the periodic table, extracting energy from them. Plants used the energy of the Sun, and heterotrophs - energy from plants. Aerobic organisms extracted 9 times more energy than the anaerobic method. Here we can trace the complication of organisms and the need for homeostasis, which requires energy consumption. In bacteria, they make up almost half of their rest energy, in highly organized organisms, almost all of their energy. As a result, the efficiency of the simplest when building new structures is 75%, while for highly organized ones it decreases to a fraction of a percent. For aerobic organisms, a contradiction arose between self-preservation and development, which was resolved by the formation life cycles(LC) development. The life cycle period is determined by the number of generations in the life cycle and has a relatively stable species duration, limited by the lower and upper boundaries. The life span of individuals is determined by the breeding period and they have one genotype. J C became unit of development with a large number of degrees of freedom, more viable than an individual. To solve the general tasks of the Life Cycle, individuals in the Life Cycle must have phenotypic differences (similar to the somatic cells of animals) to perform different functions. Such differentiation of individuals in the life cycle occurs during their reproduction. Here a new contradiction arises between the development and preservation of the life cycle: how to close and restore the life cycle and fix it as the original unit. This became possible in eukaryotes when meiosis and sexual processes, completely restoring the beginning of development. That. The life cycle after a series of asexual reproduction of individuals (agamonts) ends with the sexual process. The sexual process was fixed as a new stage in the progressive evolution of species. For the species, the main thing is to preserve the structure of the life cycle at any cost. Therefore, the purpose of the development of the life cycle is to prepare for the sexual process. It occurs in sexual individuals (gamonts), the last in the life cycle, which are formed in the process of “sexual differentiation” of a cell clone. The life cycle ends due to the release of “sex substances” by the agamonts into the environment (puberty maturation (PS) of the clone), meiosis, genome reduction in sexual individuals, and their mating. Here clone aging appears, which is expressed in slowing down the divisions of individuals, changes in the nuclear apparatus and a decrease in cell viability. The life cycle is destroyed and the same life cycle with a different genotype appears. The life cycle of unicellular organisms is a more open system, and its expansion in evolution is possible to increase viability; however, for life cycle closure, it is limited by the relatively small possibilities of meiosis in unicellular organisms. This contradiction is resolved by the appearance unicellular colonies. Their aging occurs during PS of colonies. The lower colonies of Pleodorina differentiate into mortal catfish- 4 cells out of 32. Here aging first appears inside the colonial organism: after PS, somatic cells die and the colony disintegrates.

Lifecycle repeatability made possible separation of the somatic part of the body and the sexual (reproductive)) cell lines. In the colonies of the Volvox family, during the division of the zygote, reproductive cells are formed. Usually, after the 32-cell stage of the colony, the formation of sexual and asexual reproductive cells occurs, from which sexual or asexual colonies are formed. In addition, several hundred-thousands of mortal somatic cells are formed. This process took hold “once and for all”. Thus, there is an analogy with the ontogenesis of higher animals: blastula, separation of primary germ cells from somatic cells (the beginning of sexual differentiation of the organism), aging of the organism after PS. The colonies created the conditions for the emergence of diversity multicellular organisms.

All types of organisms have 2 ways of reproduction: asexual and sexual, which are represented by a variety of forms of reproduction in different species. For J C many kinds invertebrates characteristic is the alternation of several asexual, morphologically different, generations of individuals (division, budding, etc.) or phases of development with metamorphosis (in insects, etc.), which ends with the sexual, last, generation. Here the viability of organisms is higher and the life span is longer than that of unicellular organisms. Life cycle of higher animals and humans represented by stages of development and coincides with ontogeny. This is a more closed system, the life cycle is compressed in one organism and a high level of organization is created with increased viability associated with the state of information stability, which is ensured by the morphophysiological coherence of the entire organization of the system with the participation of the body's biorhythm system.

In the theory of life cycle, important questions are usually not discussed: what explains that the life cycle begins from the beginning; why asexual organisms or their fragments produce their own kind; why germ cells and zygote give rise to development, the beginning of life cycle, while somatic cells age? This can be explained by the presence of the so-called. germinal plan zmy (ZP) in some stem cells (SC) of asexual organisms, in the egg and zygote of sexual organisms, and its absence in somatic cells. ZP is a combination of cytoplasmic factors (in the form of granules) that determine the development of germ cells and their isolation from somatic ones (the beginning of sexual differentiation of the body). In mammals, this separation occurs during embryonic development. When the zygote divides, one nucleus enters the ZP zone. Blastomeres with such a nucleus are totipotent SCs that give rise to germ cells. That. totipotency SC (sexual or asexual) provides the beginning of the life cycle of the body and is transmitted to the next generations, providing self-maintenance of life on the ground. SC, while maintaining multipotency, ensure the development and viability of the organism, producing somatic cells that lose their potency and have a limited division potential. That's why all multicellular organisms in the life cycle after reaching puberty (PS) grow old and die.

The foregoing allows us to formulate basic law, essence, living: life is a way of existence of living matter, which consists in self-maintenance, self-preservation and self-development of living things through a continuous process of self-renewal, self-reproduction and evolution at all levels of organization of living things with the help of metabolism, energy and information of organisms with the environment. The action of biological laws is aimed at fulfilling the basic law.

^ The main criterion of living matter (unlike non-living) is self-renewal and self-reproduction at all levels of the living, based on the universal genetic code of NK, the biochemical unity of the living, self-organizing development programs, species-specific metabolism, energy and information aimed at reproduction.

^ Living Matter represented by the levels of organization of living things: organisms, species (units of evolution), communities, the biosphere in their unity. unit of life are organisms that have common species-specific structures for development, self-renewal, reproduction and metabolism, energy and information with the environment. The development unit is the life cycle organism. Aging is universal for the life cycle of organisms of all species and is a species trait typical for all individuals of the species. In multicellular organisms, it manifests itself only in sexual individuals in the life cycle after puberty; it is not characteristic of asexual individuals. Aspects of aging are described in detail by the author in. Based on the essence of life, slowing down aging in order to prolong human life is possible by influencing the metabolism, energy and information with the environment within the limits of the existence of the species.

The further evolution of the human species is seen through the expansion of consciousness, its transition to an open system, i.e. into unity with the Universe, mastering its energy and information, and the ability of immortal existence according to the laws of the Universe.

LITERATURE

1. 
   Bauer E.S. Theoretical biology. M. L.: VIEM. 1935. 206 p.
2. 
   Kolyasnikov Yu.A. The secret of the genetic code is in the structure of water // Bulletin of the Russian Academy of Sciences. 1993. V.63, No. 8. pp.730-732.
3. 
   Rudenko A.P. Self-organization and progressive evolution in natural processes in terms of the concept of evolutionary catalysis. //Ros. chem. w-l. 1995. V.39, No. 2. S.55-71.
4. 
   Eigen M., Schuster P. Hypercycle. –M. :World. 1982. 218 p.
5. 
   Chernilevsky V.E. General biological approach to the study of the causes of aging // Biological problems of aging and increasing life expectancy. M.: Science. 1988. S.21-32.

Every living organism, despite the diversity and diversity of its forms and adaptive adaptations to the conditions of existence and functioning, in its structure and development is subject to strictly defined biological laws.

1. The law of historical development. All living plant and animal organisms, regardless of their level of organization, have come a long way in their historical development. This law, first noticed by M. V. Lomonosov (1747) and formulated by C. Darwin (1859), was further developed in the works of A. N. Severtsov (1912, 1939) and especially I. I. Shmalgauzen (1934, 1964), who substantiated the monophyletic theory of the origin of terrestrial vertebrates.

2. The law of the unity of the organism and the environment, first clearly substantiated by I. M. Sechenov (1861), states that the Organism without an external environment that supports its existence is impossible, therefore, the scientific definition of the organism must also include the environment that affects it " . All the diversity of animal forms and differences in their structure is due to the peculiarities of the adaptation of organisms to certain conditions of existence and functioning. The unity of the organism and the environment is the basis for the evolution of organic forms, which is provided by the nervous system. The leading role of the nervous system in this process acts as "the finest instrument that balances the organism with the environment" (IP Pavlov, 1927).

3. The law of integrity and indivisibility of the organism. This law is expressed in the fact that each organism is a single whole, in which all organs and systems are in close genetic, morphological and functional interconnection, interdependence and interdependence. First expressed by the classics of natural science in the second half of the 13th century, this law found convincing justification in the works of I. M. Sechenov (1866) and especially I. P. Pavlov (1924, 1927).

4. The law of unity of form and function. The vital activity of every living organism is based on physiological and adequate morphological reactions, which undergo changes under the influence of environmental factors and purposeful human influence.

Anton Dorn (1875), who played a major role in the development of zoology and comparative anatomy on the principles of Darwinism, developed the doctrine of the change of functions. He was the first to point out the ways to study the evolution of their life activity. In the future, the teachings of A. Dorn found wide development in the works of N. Kleinberg (1886), L. Plate (1913), A. N. Severtsov (1912, 1939) and I. I. Schmalhausen (1934, 1964), which indicated that every part and every organ of the body has several functions.

5. The law of heredity and variability. Heredity is a property of living organisms that has historically developed in the process of generational change to require certain conditions for their development, growth and life activity. The hereditary basis, or the genotype of an organism, are genes that are highly stable and ensure the relative constancy (conservatism) of species characteristics, that is, they determine the phenotype of living organisms.

A phenotype is a set of external and internal signs of an organism, due to the interaction of the hereditary basis of the organism and environmental conditions. By controlling the laws of variability (modification, mutation, citrplasmic), it is possible to change not only the phenotype of an organism, but also its genotype, which is widely used in breeding work. Knowledge of the laws of transmission of hereditary traits is of great importance in medical and veterinary practice.

6. The law of homologous series states that "the closer the genetic species, the sharper and more accurately the similarity of the series of morphological and physiological characters is manifested." This law was prepared by a significant number of researchers who attached great importance to the study of homologous (similar in development) organs (I. Goethe, J. Cuvier, Vic d "Azir, E. Haeckel, K-Gegenbaur), but found its final form in the works N. I. Vavilova (1920, 1922).

7. The law of economy of material and space, according to which each organ and each system is built so that, with a minimum expenditure of building material, they could perform the maximum work Shch. F. Lesgaft, 1895). Confirmation of this law can be seen in the structure of all organs of a living organism, and it is especially expressed in the structure of the central parts of the nervous system, heart, kidneys, liver, which have exceptionally high potential in the performance of their functions.

8. All vertebrates are characterized by general principles for the construction of the body and homologous organs, namely:

a) uniaxiality, or bipolarity, expressed in the presence of two differentiated poles of the body - the head, or cranial, and the posterior, or caudal; b) segmentation, or metamerism;

c) antimeria (anti - against, meros - part), bilateral, or bilateral (bi - two, latus - side), symmetry, characterized by a mirror resemblance of the right and left halves of the animal's body. Bilateral symmetry, like bipolarity, is a reflection of the development of rectilinear, translational movement, characteristic of most chordates;

d) the law of tubular construction. All systems and apparatuses of the animal organism develop as tubular formations (digestive, respiratory, urinary, reproductive, nervous). For most tubular organs, the three-layer principle is inherent. Tubular structures are the result of reflecting the law of economy of material and space.

6. The concept of the norm, variant, anomaly and pathology.

The norm of the structure of the body of an animal is understood as “a harmonic set of structural and functional data of an organism that is adequate to its environment and provides the organism with optimal vital activity” (G. I. Tsargorodtsev).

From the point of view of anatomy, the norm is the most common variant of the structure of a particular animal species, characterized by a dynamic correspondence of the morphological and physiological characteristics of the organism to changing environmental conditions. Within the framework of the species norm and along with it, there is age and sex variability in forms and structure, which also determines the general, but not for the whole species, but for a certain group of animals (population, breed) age and sex norms.

Variants are varieties of the generally accepted norm, which can be progressive if they increase the vitality of the organism or meet the requirements of selection, and regressive when they show signs of the path of evolutionary development. A pronounced regressive trait is called atavism (atavus - ancestor).

Anomalies - deviations from the norm, characterized by an unusual topography of organs or parts of the body, their excessive or, conversely, poor development, not accompanied by profound disturbances in the vital activity of the body. The absence or overcompleteness of organs or parts of the body of an animal, leading to severe impairment of the entire vital activity of the organism or even inability to exist, is called deformity. The latter often occur when closely related breeding animals or under the influence of any teratogenic factors (increased radiation, exposure to chemicals, etc.). The science that studies deformities and their causes is called teratology (teratus - deformities).

Pathology is the science of diseases, disease states of an animal. This name comes from the word pathos, which means suffering, illness. The basis of pathology is the doctrine of violations of the normal relationships between the body and the external environment.

The body is constantly exposed to various stimuli from the external environment. The organism is adapted to normal, ordinary stimuli in the course of its development, although they are subject to various fluctuations. These fluctuations are balanced by the protective and regulatory mechanisms of the body. However, the influences often deviate from the normal, acquiring the character of extraordinary, unusual, perverted ones, and then pathological processes develop.

T E O R I I

LAWS

biogenetic law (F. Müller, E. Haeckel, A. N. Severtsov). The ontogeny of an organism is a brief repetition of the embryonic stages of the ancestors. In ontogenesis, new paths of their historical development - phylogenesis - are laid.

Law of germinal similarity (K. Baer). In the early stages, the embryos of all vertebrates are similar to each other, and more developed forms pass through the stages of development of more primitive forms.

Law of irreversibility of evolution (L. Dollo). An organism (population, species) cannot return to its previous state, already realized in the series of its ancestors.

Law of evolutionary development (Ch. Darwin). Natural selection based on hereditary variability is the main driving force behind the evolution of the organic world.

Laws of Succession (G. Mendel, 1865).

Gamete frequency hypothesis (G. Mendel, 1865): the pairs of alternative traits found in each organism do not mix during the formation of gametes and one from each pair passes into them in a pure form.

The Law of Linked Inheritance (T. Morgan, 1911) Linked genes located on the same chromosome are inherited together and do not show independent distribution

Law of homologous series of hereditary variability (N. I. Vavilov, 1920) Genetically close species and genera are characterized by similar series of hereditary variability.

Law of genetic balance in populations (G. Hardy, V. Weinberg). In an infinitely large population, in the absence of factors that change the concentration of genes, with free crossing of individuals, the absence of selection and mutation of these genes, and the absence of migration, the numerical ratios of the genotypes AA, aa, Aa from generation to generation remain constant. The frequencies of members of a pair of allelic genes in populations are distributed in accordance with the expansion of the Newton binomial (pA + qa) 2 .

Law of energy conservation (I. R. Mayer, D. Joule, G. Helmholtz). Energy is not created and does not disappear, but only passes from one form to another. During the transition of matter from one form to another, the change in its energy strictly corresponds to the increase or decrease in the energy of the bodies interacting with it.

Law of the Minimum (Yu. Liebig). The endurance of an organism is determined by the weakest link in the chain of its ecological needs, i.e., by the minimum factor.

Factor interaction rule: the body is able to replace the deficient substance or other active factor with another functionally similar substance or factor.

Law of biogenic migration of atoms (V. I. Vernadsky). The migration of chemical elements on the earth's surface and in the biosphere as a whole is carried out either with the direct participation of living matter (biogenic migration), or proceeds in an environment whose geochemical features are determined by living matter, both the one that currently makes up the biosphere and the one that which has existed on Earth throughout geological history.

C O N O M E R N O S T I

cell theory(T. Schwann, M. Schleiden, R. Virchow).
All living beings - plants, animals and unicellular organisms - consist of cells and their derivatives. The cell is not only a unit of structure, but also a unit of development of all living organisms. All cells are characterized by similarities in chemical composition and metabolism. The activity of an organism is made up of the activity and interaction of its constituent independent cell units. All living cells arise from living cells.

Chromosomal theory of heredity(T. Morgan).
Chromosomes with genes localized in them are the main material carriers of heredity.

• Genes are located on chromosomes and within one chromosome form one linkage group. The number of linkage groups is equal to the haploid number of chromosomes.
• Genes are arranged linearly on the chromosome.
• In meiosis, crossing over can occur between homologous chromosomes, the frequency of which is proportional to the distance between the genes.

Theory of the origin of life on Earth(A. I. Oparin, J. Haldane, S. Foke, S. Miller, G. Meller).
Life on Earth arose in an abiogenic way.

1. Organic substances were formed from inorganic substances under the influence of physical environmental factors.
2. They interacted, forming more and more complex substances, resulting in the emergence of enzymes and self-reproducing enzyme systems - free genes.
3. Free genes have acquired diversity and began to combine.
4. Protein-lipid membranes formed around them.
5. Autotrophic organisms evolved from heterotrophic organisms.

Evolution theory(Ch. Darwin).
All the numerous forms of plants and animals that now exist are descended from simpler organisms that existed earlier by gradual changes accumulating in successive generations.

The theory of natural selection(Ch. Darwin).
In the struggle for existence under natural conditions, the fittest survive. Natural selection preserves any vital signs that act for the benefit of the organism and the species as a whole, as a result of which new forms and species are formed.

Membrane theory(M. Traube, W. Pfeffer, C. Overton).
It comes from cell theory. Explains the properties of the cell (permeability, the ability to selectively accumulate substances, the ability to maintain osmotic stability, and the ability to generate electrical potentials) by the properties of its plasma membrane, represented by a double layer of phospholipids penetrated partially or completely by proteins, with "sodium", "potassium" and others (about 30 varieties) channels. Currently, it is gradually recognized as insolvent.

Phase theory(B. Moore, M. Fisher, V. Lepeshkin, D.N. Nasonov, A.S. Troshin, G. Ling)
Derived from Dujardin's sarcode theory. It is an alternative to the generally accepted membrane theory. Represents the membrane as a boundary of polarized oriented water and, on the basis of this, explains the properties of the cell, considering the cell itself as protoplasm - a colloidal system, the phases of which are formed by an ordered set of protein molecules, water and ions, combined into a single whole by the possibility of mutual transitions.

Laws

• biogenetic law(F. Müller, E. Haeckel, A. N. Severtsov). The ontogeny of an organism is a brief repetition of the embryonic stages of the ancestors. In ontogenesis, new paths of their historical development - phylogenesis - are laid.
• Law of germinal similarity(K. Baer). In the early stages, the embryos of all vertebrates are similar to each other, and more developed forms pass through the stages of development of more primitive forms.
• Law of irreversibility of evolution(L. Dollo). An organism (population, species) cannot return to its previous state, already realized in the series of its ancestors.
• Law of evolutionary development(Ch. Darwin). Natural selection based on hereditary variability is the main driving force behind the evolution of the organic world.
• Laws of Succession(G. Mendel, 1865):
  1. The law of uniformity of hybrids of the first generation (Mendel's first law) - with monohybrid crossing, only dominant traits appear in hybrids of the first generation - it is phenotypically uniform.
  2. The law of splitting (Mendel's second law) - during self-pollination of hybrids of the first generation in the offspring, the characteristics are split in a ratio of 3: 1, and two phenotypic groups are formed - dominant and recessive.
  3. The law of independent inheritance (Mendel's third law) - with hybrid crossing in hybrids, each pair of traits is inherited independently of the others and gives different combinations with them. Four phenotypic groups are formed, characterized by a ratio of 9:3:3:1.

Gamete frequency hypothesis(G. Mendel, 1865): pairs of alternative traits found in each organism do not mix during the formation of gametes and one from each pair passes into them in a pure form.

• The Law of Linked Inheritance(T. Morgan, 1911) Linked genes located on the same chromosome are inherited together and do not show independent distribution
• Law of homologous series of hereditary variability(N. I. Vavilov, 1920) Genetically close species and genera are characterized by similar series of hereditary variability.
• Law of genetic balance in populations(G. Hardy, V. Weinberg). In an infinitely large population, in the absence of factors that change the concentration of genes, with free crossing of individuals, the absence of selection and mutation of these genes, and the absence of migration, the numerical ratios of the genotypes AA, aa, Aa from generation to generation remain constant. The frequencies of members of a pair of allelic genes in populations are distributed in accordance with the expansion of the Newton binomial (pA + qa)2.
• Law of energy conservation(I. R. Mayer, D. Joule, G. Helmholtz). Energy is not created and does not disappear, but only passes from one form to another. During the transition of matter from one form to another, the change in its energy strictly corresponds to the increase or decrease in the energy of the bodies interacting with it.
• Law of the Minimum(Yu. Liebig). The endurance of an organism is determined by the weakest link in the chain of its ecological needs, i.e., by the minimum factor.
• Factor interaction rule: the body is able to replace the deficient substance or other active factor with another functionally similar substance or factor.
• Law of biogenic migration of atoms(V. I. Vernadsky). The migration of chemical elements on the earth's surface and in the biosphere as a whole is carried out either with the direct participation of living matter (biogenic migration), or proceeds in an environment whose geochemical features are determined by living matter, both the one that currently makes up the biosphere and the one that which has existed on Earth throughout geological history.

patterns

1. determinism- predestination due to genotype; a regularity, as a result of which a certain tissue, a certain organ is formed from each cell, which occurs under the influence of the genotype and environmental factors, including neighboring cells (induction during the formation of the embryo).
2. The unity of living matter- an inseparable molecular-biochemical combination of living matter (biomass), a systemic whole with features characteristic of each geological era. The destruction of species violates the natural balance, which leads to a sharp change in the molecular and biochemical properties of living matter and the impossibility of the existence of many currently flourishing species, including humans.
3. Pattern of geographical distribution of centers of origin of cultivated plants(N.I. Vavilov) - the concentration of centers of morphogenesis of cultivated plants in those regions of the globe where their greatest genetic diversity is observed.
4. The pattern of the ecological pyramid- the ratio between producers, consumers and decomposers, expressed in their mass and depicted in the form of a graphical model, where each subsequent food level is 10% of the previous one.
5. Zoning- the natural location on the globe of natural zones that differ in climate, vegetation, soils and wildlife. Zones are latitudinal (geographical) and vertical (in the mountains).
6. Variability- the ability of organisms to change their characteristics and properties; genotypic variation is inherited, phenotypic variation is not.
7. Metamerism- repetition of the same type of parts of the body or organ; in animals - the jointed body of worms, larvae of molluscs and arthropods, the chest of vertebrates; in plants, the nodes and internodes of the stem.
8. Heredity- the ability of organisms to transfer their characteristics and properties to the next generation, i.e., to reproduce their own kind.
9. Polarity- the opposite of the ends of the body: in animals - anterior (head) and posterior (tail), in plants - upper (heliotropic) and lower (geotropic).
10. Fitness- the relative expediency of the structure and functions of the body, which was the result of natural selection, eliminating those unadapted to the given conditions of existence.
11. Symmetry- regular, correct arrangement of body parts relative to the center - radial symmetry (some invertebrates, axial organs of plants, regular flowers) either relative to a straight line (axis) or plane - bilateral symmetry (part of invertebrates and all vertebrates, in plants - leaves and irregular flowers).
12. Cyclicity- repetition of certain periods of life; seasonal cycles, daily cycles, life cycles (the period from birth to death). Cyclicity in the alternation of nuclear phases - diploid and haploid.

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