The 1st Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR took place. Congresses of People's Deputies of the USSR

Creation of political parties and movements

Reform of the political system

AT June-July 1988 passed XIX Conference of the CPSU. At the conference, for the first time, the question of the need for reform of the political system. The following decisions were made at the conference: - creation new supreme body of state power – Congress of People's Deputies, which formed the bicameral Supreme Soviet.

- the position of Chairman of the Supreme Council was introduced.

- heading for creation of the rule of law! ( need to know where and when

A resolution was adopted on publicity. It was said that publicity is a condition for people to exercise their constitutional rights.

The aim of the economic reforms was to create planned market economy.

The essence of political reform consisted in dividing the responsibilities of party bodies and Soviets, in transferring power from the party to the Soviets, i.e. state, in the democratization of elections.

In December 1988, an amendment was made to the Constitution: a new supreme legislative body, the Congress of People's Deputies, was created. Elections of deputies were proclaimed on an alternative basis. From among the deputies, a permanent Supreme Council was formed - in fact, the parliament. A similar system of power was created in each republic.

At the end of 1988, a law was adopted to change the system of elections to the Soviets. From now on, the election of deputies was to be carried out on alternative basis.

In December 1988, the creation of mass political organizations in the Baltic began. Many of them took the name People's Front. In the Baltic States, they demanded to recognize illegal Molotov-Ribbentrop pact 1939 They also demanded the withdrawal of Soviet troops from the Baltic states, the termination of allied laws in the territory of Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia.

AT 1989. in the Baltic republics began the struggle for independence. The deputies of the popular fronts won the elections in these republics.

In the same 1989 the inhabitants of Tbilisi (the capital of Georgia) came out with anti-Soviet slogans, demanded the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Georgia. On orders from Moscow, the demonstrators were dispersed by troops. 16 girls died. The shooting of people in Tbilisi caused mass indignation throughout the country.

In 1989-1990 creation began opposition parties. In 1990 was created Democratic Party of Russia and others (See Orlov, pp. 456-457).

First Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR - May-June 1989 The elections were held on an alternative basis (when several candidates compete for one seat).

A political opposition arose at the congress - the Interregional Deputy Group. Its leaders are B.N. Yeltsin, Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov (physicist, leader of the dissident movement, human rights activist), and others. This group proposed to cancel Article 6 of the Constitution of the USSR on the CPSU as the core of the political system. But the majority of deputies voted against this decision.

Second Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR - December 1989

Sakharov, on behalf of the Interregional Group, demanded the abolition of Article 6 of the Constitution. After his speech at the congress, he suddenly died. Yeltsin became the leader of the Interregional Group.

At the congress, the report of the commission A.N. Yakovlev about the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact. The Congress recognized the existence of the secret protocols of August 23, 1939.

The entry of troops into Afghanistan in 1979 was recognized as a political mistake.

From May 25 to June 9, 1989, the whole country literally froze in front of the TVs, afraid to miss the live broadcast of the sessions of the First Congress of People's Deputies for a minute. People saw with their own eyes that events, contrary to decades of practice, were not developing according to the scenario written in the Central Committee. Immediately after the official opening of the congress, an unknown Riga deputy V.F.Tolpezhnikov came to the podium and offered to honor the memory of the demonstrators shot in Tbilisi. For the first time, people saw really people's deputies who wanted to solve exactly those issues that worried the whole country: to assess the Afghan war, to understand the causes and find a way out of the conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh, to make public the documents related to the conclusion of the Ribbentrop-Molotov pact. The congress formed the first permanent parliament in history - the bicameral Supreme Soviet of the USSR, elected Gorbachev Chairman of the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Council, and decided on the need to develop a new constitution. But at the same time, everyone saw how really important decisions literally "get bogged down" in procedural issues, how Gorbachev more and more often scolds the deputies, tries to impose his point of view on them. The logical consequence of this was the emergence "constructive political opposition", which after the end of the congress at the end of June 1989 finally took shape in Interregional Deputy Group (MDG). Yu.N. Afanasiev, B.N. Yeltsin, V.A. Palm, G.Kh.

During the two weeks of the congress, the the process of radicalization of the consciousness of the whole society, its polarization. This was manifested in a new phenomenon for Soviet life - strike movement, which in the summer of 1989 covered almost all the coal basins of the USSR. The miners of Kuzbass, Donbass, Karaganda and Vorkuta demanded broad economic independence of enterprises and real powers for local authorities. At first, the miners did not include any "sudden movements" in relation to the party bodies, the advancement of political demands. After the Ryzhkov government satisfied the economic demands of the workers, the strike movement spread to other industries, health care institutions and the socio-cultural sphere. Political demands were heard more and more often, and by the spring of 1990, it is they who become the main. The political opposition, of which the MDH remained the core, managed to establish contact with the miners and other leaders of the strike movement, which allowed them to win a decisive victory in the elections to the republican and local councils in the spring of 1990.

The crisis of confidence in Gorbachev, his course, which did not correspond to the new situation, grew rapidly. In essence, by the end of 1989, only the Supreme Council enjoyed the people's trust. At the Second Congress of People's Deputies, which took place in December 1989, the MDG unsuccessfully tried to include the issue of repealing the 6th article of the Constitution on the agenda. It was this topic that was devoted to the last speech at the Congress of Academician Sakharov, who died in December 1989.

Meanwhile, the situation was changing rapidly. In 1989-1990 almost all countries of Eastern Europe are experiencing so-called "velvet revolutions", as a result of which power is peacefully transferred from the communists to their political opponents. Internal and external factors also influence the mood within the CPSU, in which, in January 1990, a Democratic platform. Its leadership at the initial stage included some members of the MDG - Afanasiev, Yeltsin, Popov. The democratic platform focused on revising the dogmatic guidelines of the party program, abolishing the principle of democratic centralism, and changing the attitude towards market mechanisms in the socialist economy. In the spring of 1990, during the elections to republican and local councils, the demand for the abolition of Article 6 of the Constitution became the core of political discussions and received mass support at rallies. The discussion of the CPSU monopoly on power led to the complete discrediting of the party in broad sections of society, turning it into a kind of "concentrated evil" that was based solely on force in the past and had no prospects for the future. Party affiliation, which was an undeniably positive fact yesterday, in a fairly short period of time turns into a sharply negative moment in personal biography, and any connection with party structures deprives candidates of all chances of success. In this situation, the Plenum of the Central Committee, held in February 1990, decided to abandon the party's monopoly on power and continue to fight for the support of voters within the framework of a multi-party system. At the extraordinary Third Congress of People's Deputies in March 1990, the 6th article of the Soviet Constitution was canceled .

The main issue of the Third Congress was the establishment of the post President of the USSR, who was now seen as a central institution in the political system. According to the Constitution, the President of the USSR was endowed with broad powers, and his elections were to become popular. Against the backdrop of a crisis of public confidence in Gorbachev personally, in the party as a whole, the only way for him to "stay afloat" is getting the presidency. Therefore, "procedural issues" were resolved in such a way that the election of the first President of the USSR took place directly at the congress on March 15, 1990. Gorbachev was the only candidate and received 60% of the votes of people's deputies. At the same time, from the point of view of legitimacy, the election of the President at the congress, and not by popular vote, made Gorbachev's position not quite durable.

NEW POLITICAL CONFIGURATION

Under the conditions of “perestroika” (the reform program carried out by the leader of the USSR Mikhail Gorbachev since 1985), a partial modernization of the structure of the state bodies of the USSR was carried out, which, according to the initiators, was supposed to strengthen the union state and prevent its collapse. Changes made to the constitution in November 1988 declared the Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR to be the supreme body of state power. He could consider and decide any issue related to the jurisdiction of the Union. The exclusive competence of the Congress included the adoption of the constitution and the introduction of amendments (by a two-thirds majority), the regulation of the state structure and relations between the republics, the determination of the main directions of domestic and foreign policy, the approval of state plans and programs, the election of the Supreme Council and its chairman, the approval of the chairmen of the Council ministers, the Supreme Court, the Attorney General, making decisions on holding a referendum, etc. The congress could approve or cancel the laws of the Supreme Council and government decisions.

The congress consisted of 2250 deputies elected by popular vote for 5 years. Of these, 750 were elected from territorial districts with an equal population, 750 from national-territorial districts (32 from each union republic, 11 from each autonomous republic, 5 from each autonomous region and 1 from each autonomous district) and 750 from all-union public organizations (100 each from the Communist Party, trade unions and cooperative organizations, 75 each from the Communist Youth Union, women's councils, veterans', scientific, etc. organizations, creative unions, etc.). Regular meetings of the Congress were convened once a year.

The Congress of People's Deputies elected a permanent legislative, administrative and control body - the Supreme Council (analogous to the Parliament). He determined the structure of the government, appointed its head and, on his recommendation, ministers, made appointments to the highest military and judicial posts, established the foundations of union legislation and carried out economic regulation, ratified international treaties and agreements, etc. The Supreme Council consisted of two equal chambers - the Council of the Union and the Council of Nationalities, both of which were elected at the Congress of People's Deputies by secret ballot of all deputies. Since 1989, each chamber has had 271 members. The Council of the Union was elected from among the deputies elected from the territorial districts and public organizations, and the Council of Nationalities - from the deputies elected from the national-territorial districts and public organizations (according to the norm: 11 each from the union, 4 each from the autonomous republic, 2 each - from the autonomous region, 1 each - from the autonomous district). The congress annually renewed one-fifth of the members of both chambers. Disagreements between the chambers were submitted to a conciliation commission, and if no agreement was reached, to the Congress of People's Deputies.

The functions of the head of state essentially passed to the chairman of the Supreme Council as the highest official of the state. He represented the USSR inside the country and abroad, supervised the preparation of legislative acts and signed the acts of the Congress and the Supreme Council, presented reports on the situation in the country and the world and on candidates for top positions. Mikhail Gorbachev was elected Chairman of the Supreme Council in 1989.

Encyclopedia "Circumnavigation"

http://krugosvet.ru/enc/istoriya/SOYUZ_SOVETSKIH_SOTSIALISTICHESKIH_RESPUBLIK_SSSR.html?page=0,2#part-5

CONGRESS OPENING

Chairman of the Central Election Commission for the Election of People's Deputies of the USSR VP Orlov.

presiding.

Dear Comrades People's Deputies of the USSR! It has been a great honor for me. In accordance with the Constitution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, I, as the Chairman of the Central Election Commission, will have to open the Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR.

The elections and the preparations for them were held in conditions of wide openness and openness that had never been seen before, and a rapid growth in the political activity of the working people. This was especially convincingly confirmed on March 26, Sunday, when more than 172 million Soviet people - almost 90 percent of all voters included in the lists - came to the polls to express all shades of public opinion and support perestroika.

The elections confirmed that the people see in Lenin's party a force capable of uniting Soviet society, ensuring its consolidation, and finding effective ways to solve pressing problems and overcome difficulties. We have not yet had a more powerful, nationwide referendum in favor of the Communist Party, its course of renewal.

Today, 2,155 People's Deputies of the USSR out of 2,249 elected are present at the Congress. Detailed data on the results of the elections, on the composition of the deputies will be reported by the Credentials Commission, which will be elected by the Congress and to which the Central Election Commission will transfer all the documentation necessary to verify the powers of the deputies.

It should be said that in this hall today there are workers, collective farmers, production commanders, scientists, cultural figures, military personnel - people of different professions, different generations, representatives of the people with great political and intellectual potential.

The composition of the deputies reflects the multinational character of our country. Among them are representatives of 65 nations and nationalities.

INTERREGIONAL DEPUTY GROUP

The core of the future Interregional Group actually took shape already in the first days of the First Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR around the democratic part of the Moscow delegation, thanks to which these deputies immediately received the name of the "Moscow group", although it included both Leningraders and representatives of many other regions of the Union. The most notable speeches of the "Moscow group" at the Congress were those of Academician Andrei Sakharov, historian Yuri Afanasyev, Moscow economist Gavriil Popov, Leningrad economist Anatoly Sobchak and former world champion weightlifter Yuri Vlasov.

The Interregional Group took shape at its first meeting on June 7, 1989 in the conference hall of the Moscow Hotel, on July 29-30 the 1st general conference of the Interregional Group was held, at which it was determined how many people's deputies and who exactly were included in the MDG. The "Abstracts for the Program of Practical Activities for the Deepening and Implementation of Perestroika" were adopted, and a Coordinating Council of 25 people and 5 co-chairs was elected. The conference was attended by 316 deputies, of which 268 people were identified as members of the MDG. Taking into account those who had previously signed up for the group, but could not come to the conference, the number of the Interregional Deputy Group as of 30.07.89 was 388 people.

Academician Andrei Sakharov, Boris Yeltsin, Yuri Afanasiev, Gavriil Popov, Anatoly Sobchak (Leningrad), Nikolai Travkin, Arkady Murashev, Yuri Chernichenko, Alexander Obolensky (Apatity), Gennady Burbulis (Sverdlovsk), Yuri Karyakin, Milen Martirosyan were elected to the MDG CC (Ukraine), Sergey Stankevich, Evdokia Gaer (Vladivostok), Vladimir Volkov (Sverdlovsk), Academician of VASKhNIL Vladimir Tikhonov, Viktor Palm (Estonia), Valentin Logunov, Alla Yaroshinskaya-Zgerskaya (Ukraine), Mikhail Bocharov, Telman Gdlyan, Viktor Goncharov ( Ukraine), Mikhail Poltoranin, Alexei Emelianov, Corresponding Member. USSR Academy of Sciences Alexei Yablokov. B. Yeltsin, Yu. Afanasiev, G. Popov, V. Palm and A. Sakharov became co-chairs of the CC, Arkady Murashev became the secretary.

Among the deputies - members of the MDG there were several people directly connected with the informal movement: the leader of the Popular Front of Karelia Sergey Belozertsev, a member of the Coordinating Council of the Moscow Popular Front Sergey Stankevich, a representative of the Yaroslavl Popular Front Igor Shamshev, one of the founders of the Apatity Voluntary Society for the Promotion of Perestroika (DOSP) Alexander Obolensky. Nevertheless, most of the members of the MDG belonged to the ranks of the Soviet status intelligentsia and held far from radical views. Only 49% of the participants in the 1st MDG conference unequivocally spoke in favor of a multi-party system, another 40% favored a discussion on the introduction of a multi-party system (5% were in favor of maintaining a one-party system). To a large number of deputies from the MDG, the views of Academician A.D. Sakharov seemed overly radical, and it was Sakharov who received the smallest number of votes out of the 5 co-chairs (69; Yeltsin - 144).

At the 2nd MDT Conference, which was held at the Moscow Cinema House on September 23-24, 1989, the MDT Platform was adopted. The platform included the demand for the abolition of Article 6 of the USSR Constitution on the "leading role of the CPSU", the democratization of the electoral system, the democratic law on the press, laws on land, property, and a new Union Treaty. A significant part of the requirements of the MDG was actually adopted during 1989-90, including the abolition of Article 6 - despite the fact that in proportional terms, the MDG never made up more than 12% of the total number of people's deputies of the USSR.

The interregional deputy group had a strong influence on the formation of the general program of the democratic movement in Russia, including the process of eliminating the ideology of "true socialism" that prevailed in the movement in 1987-88. To a large extent, on the basis of the MDH platform, the program documents of the PEOPLE'S FRONT of the RSFSR (a confederation of democratic movements of Russia) and the Interregional Association of Democratic Organizations (MADO - a coalition of democratic movements of the USSR), as well as the electoral bloc "DEMOCRATIC RUSSIA" proclaimed in October 1989, were built. 1990

During the work of the II Congress of People's Deputies, the Interregional Deputy Group experienced a serious crisis. A. Sakharov and Yu. Afanasiev called on the MDG to openly declare itself a parliamentary opposition that does not take responsibility for the actions of the CPSU government. S. Stankevich and A. Sobchak opposed this point of view. The death of Academician Sakharov put a stop to the sharp controversy within the MDG. After the funeral of A. Sakharov, a compromise solution was found: some members of the MDG signed a collective statement that they consider themselves "opposition", some did not sign, but both of them retained their organizational unity within the group. About 200 members of the MDG joined the "opposition".

V. Pribylovsky. Interregional Deputy Group (MDG)

“AGGRESSIVE-OBEDIENT MOST”

presiding. Comrades! We have accumulated urgent requests from deputies here. Deputy Afanasyev asks during the course of the Congress to let him speak. Please.

Afanasiev Yu.N., Rector of the Moscow State Institute of History and Archives (Noginsk Territorial Electoral District, Moscow Region). Dear Comrade Deputies! We are all called upon to critically evaluate the situation in the country. I think we should and must also critically evaluate our own activities at the Congress. And in this sense, for a number of reasons, about which I came out to speak, yesterday's work of your Congress made a depressing impression on me.

Firstly, around midnight we did not hear the voice of the Karabakh delegation, or, to be more precise, did not react to it in any way. And in the end, he was left without any reaction from our side. A little earlier, we all together essentially left the Lithuanian delegation in a state of political isolation, which came out with a proposal formulated, in my opinion, in a completely unfortunate way, but nevertheless with a proposal that has a basis. And we launched the usual machine. Several moralizing and stigmatizing speeches, including speeches by Zalygin and Medvedev, whom I respect, followed by a stupefying majority vote. (Applause).

Even earlier, we hastily formed the composition of the Supreme Council. In a hurry, in which we did not hear a number of sensible proposals, from my point of view. In particular, the proposal of Rodion Shchedrin. And in the end, the voice of Rodion Shchedrin disappeared, and with it the deputy Travkin, who was discussed, disappeared into oblivion. Further, I was present, like many here, at a meeting of the Russian delegation that did not lead to any normal conclusions, which was held in a hurry and which could not normally discuss very many issues. Comrades, I think that everyone here is free to express their opinion, including myself, and that's why I'm talking.

Once again I carefully looked at the composition of our Supreme Soviet. I am obliged to say this, because I think this and I am convinced of this: if we keep in mind the level of qualification of the deputies against the background of the tasks that this Supreme Council has to solve, if we keep in mind the level of their professionalism, which is required in these difficult for our country conditions, then we formed the Stalin-Brezhnev Supreme Soviet ... (Noise in the hall, applause). Now about the majority that has formed...

presiding. Yuri Nikolaevich, three minutes have expired.

Afanasiev Yu. N. I'm already finishing. This, too, is the depressing thing I wanted to talk about. And I appeal to you, to this, I would say, aggressively obedient majority, which yesterday flunked all those decisions of the Congress that the people expect from us ... (Noise in the hall).

presiding. Quiet, comrades. I think a serious conversation is going on.

Afanasiev Yu. N. I'm finishing up But I'm just asking you not to clap and not to shout, because that's what I came here to say. So, respected aggressively obedient majority, and you, Mikhail Sergeevich, either attentively listening to this majority, or skillfully influencing it. We can continue to work like this. We can be obedient, not line up, neatly submit notes. We can be blissful, as Father Pitirim called us to that. But let's not forget for a minute about those who sent us to this Congress. They did not send us here to behave kindly, but to make a decisive change in the state of affairs in the country. (Applause).

Reader on the history of Russia. From the USSR to the Russian Federation. 1985-2001

Russia - 2000. Contemporary Political History (1985-1999), vol. 1, Chronicle and Analytics.

Chronology

• 1989, May - July I Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR
• 1989, December II Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR
• 1990, March III Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR. Election of M.S. Gorbachev President of the USSR
• 1990, June 12 Declaration on State Sovereignty of the RSFSR
• June 12, 1991 Elected President of the RSFSR B.N. Yeltsin

Congresses of People's Deputies of the USSR

At the May 1989 I Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR

the unfolding discussion revealed the presence of a wide group of radical deputies, such as A. Sobchak, E. Yevtushenko, A. Adamovich, Yu. Chernichenko, B. Yeltsin. Academician A. Sakharov became the leader of the democratic wing. The radicals did not have a clear program and strategy of behavior at the Congress. Their opposition line developed spontaneously, gradually rallying like-minded people around them. All aspects of Gorbachev's course were criticized by the radicals, first of all, the economic one. By the beginning of the Congress, the economy was in a crisis state, the commodity deficit and hidden inflation were constantly deepening. The most necessary goods disappeared from the shelves: soap, salt, washing powder, bread, milk, shoes, bed linen. The people believed less and less in the CPSU headed by the General Secretary.

The reflection of the economic crisis in the country was the intensity of political passions at the Congress. Deputy Yu.A. Chernichenko, speaking at the Congress, called the supporters of M.S. Gorbachev by an “aggressively obedient majority”, and G. Popov openly declared his opposition to this majority and called for the formation of an interregional independent deputy group. In fact, at the Congress there was a division of the united camp of supporters of perestroika into moderate headed by M.S. Gorbachev and radicals(A. Sakharov and B. Yeltsin played the leading role among them).

I Congress of People's Deputies formed Supreme Soviet of the USSR. M.S. was elected its chairman. Gorbachev.

For 1989. conflict between M.S. Gorbachev and the radicals deepened. The radicals opposed preservation of the USSR, against socialism, against party monopoly.

On the II Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR held in December 1989, they advocated repeal of the sixth article Constitution (on the leading role of the CPSU). After the sudden death of Academician Sakharov on December 14, 1989, leadership in the radical movement passed to B.N. Yeltsin.

By this time, radicals from the Baltic states had achieved tangible success. The Baltic People's Fronts declared the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact illegal, and, consequently, illegal the entry of Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia into the USSR.

In early 1990, Russian radicals developed a new strategy in connection with the upcoming elections for the Congress of People's Deputies of Russia. They proceeded from the fact that the Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR is conservative, which means that it is necessary to achieve the sovereignty of Russia and carry out reforms in it.

III Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR held in March 1990, canceled Article 6 of the Constitution. At the III Congress M.S. Gorbachev was elected USSR President, but less than 60% of deputies voted for it. This clearly indicated a decline in his popularity.

In June 1990, the radicals won the elections at the First Congress of People's Deputies of the RSFSR, and Chairman of the Supreme Council of the Russian Federation was elected B.N. Yeltsin. G. Popov and A. Sobchak headed the state authorities in Moscow and Leningrad, respectively. At the same congress, the Declaration on the State Sovereignty of Russia was adopted.

AT July 1990. took place XXVIII congress of the CPSU, which began a mass exodus of radicals from the ranks of the CPSU. New parties were formed that advocated pure liberalism - the Democratic Party of Russia, the Constitutional Democratic Party, the Republican Party, etc. There is a decisive transition of the radicals to anti-communist positions. At the same time, at the opposite pole they concentrate conservatives. Are being created Russian Communist Party headed by I. Polozkov(subsequently he was replaced in this post by G. Zyuganov), the faction “ Union”, who accused M.S. Gorbachev in the collapse of the USSR. According to representatives of this faction, Gorbachev succeeded in what foreign interventionists from Napoleon to Hitler failed to do - turn a great power into a minor state.

Thus, in 1989 - 1990. M.S. Gorbachev was forced to maneuver between the opposition on the left and on the right, he tried to hold on centrist positions. In many respects, this was possible thanks to the support of the West, which continued to rely on him, and not on B. Yeltsin as the leader of democratic reforms in Russia.

By mid-1990, the Soviet leadership decided to introduce private ownership of the means of production. If at the first stage of perestroika attempts were made to improve the socialist system, then with the recognition of economic pluralism, the dismantling of the foundations of socialism began. The President was offered several programs for the transition to a market economy. The most famous was the program called "500 days", aimed at a quick and decisive transition to the market, created under the leadership of G. Yavlinsky. The President gave preference to a more moderate program of the government.

A layer of entrepreneurs appeared in the country and began to legalize. At the same time, the standard of living of the population was declining more and more rapidly. Store shelves were empty, private trade prices were out of reach for most wage earners. A strike movement arose in the country, miners were especially active. Failures in the economy increasingly undermined the positions of the reformers headed by M.S. Gorbachev.

The weakening of the central government led to the aggravation of interethnic conflicts and the growth of separatism.

On the IV Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR(December 1990) the question of the further existence of the Union was raised. The congress spoke in favor of the preservation of the USSR. In accordance with the decision of the congress, an all-Union referendum was held. 76.4% of those participating in the referendum voted for the preservation of the USSR. However, the movement to secede from the USSR intensified. In 1988 - 1990. Declarations on state sovereignty have already been adopted by Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Azerbaijan and Moldova.