Physiological aspects of stress and its consequences. emergence

Numerous studies have established the dependence of the development of psychological stress on the following individual and personal characteristics of a person:

general health;
type of nervous response and temperament;
locus of control;
self-esteem;
psychological endurance (resilience).

Age. It has been established that children and the elderly are the most vulnerable to stress. As a rule, they are distinguished by a high level of anxiety and tension, insufficiently effective adaptation to changing conditions, a prolonged emotional reaction to stress, and a rapid exhaustion of internal resources.

General health. It is obvious that people with good health generally adapt better to changing environmental conditions, more easily tolerate negative physiological changes that occur in the body under the influence of a stressor, and have a greater supply of internal resources to maintain the resistance phase. In people suffering from diseases of the cardiovascular system, gastrointestinal tract, hypertension, bronchial asthma, neuropsychiatric disorders and a number of other diseases, under the influence of stress, a sharp exacerbation of these diseases occurs, entailing serious consequences for their health.

Type of nervous response and temperament. The individual reaction of a person to a stressful effect is largely predetermined by the innate properties of his nervous system. The concept of types of the nervous system (or types of higher nervous activity) was introduced by I. Pavlov. Initially, two main types of the nervous system were considered: strong and weak. The strong type, in turn, was subdivided into balanced and unbalanced; and balanced - on mobile and inert. These types were compared with the classical ideas about the types of temperament.

Temperament- this is a set of corresponding dynamic properties of behavior, uniquely combined in each individual. (Gippenreiter, 2002).

According to most researchers, temperament is an innate biological foundation on which a holistic personality is formed. It reflects the energy and dynamic aspects of human behavior, such as mobility, pace and rhythm of reactions, as well as emotionality.

In popular science literature on psychology, one can often find mention of four types of temperament: sanguine (strong, balanced, mobile), phlegmatic (strong, balanced, inert), choleric (strong, unbalanced) and melancholic (weak).

These types of temperament were first described by Hippocrates, and later ideas about them were developed by numerous researchers in the field of physiology and psychology. At present, such an idea of temperament has more historical than scientific value, since in reality the totality of the dynamic properties of human behavior and their combinations are much more diverse. Nevertheless, based on the indicated typology, it is possible to consider in general terms the influence of temperament on the development of a stress response in a person.

Temperament is characterized mainly by the energy reserve of the individual and the speed of metabolic processes. It determines how the actions are implemented and does not depend on their content. For example, the influence of temperament on attention is reflected in the stability and switchability of attention. Influencing memory, temperament determines the speed of memorization, the ease of recall and the strength of retention. And its influence on thinking is manifested in the fluency of mental operations. The efficiency of problem solving does not always correlate with the high speed of mental operations. Sometimes a leisurely melancholic, carefully considering his actions, achieves better results than an ultra-fast choleric.

In an extreme situation, the influence of temperament on the method and efficiency of activity is enhanced: a person falls under the control of innate programs of his temperament, which require a minimum energy level and regulation time.

How do people with different temperaments differ from each other? First of all, they have a different emotional organization, manifested in sensual mobility and in the tendency of people of different temperaments to respond to a situation mainly with one of the innate emotions, which differ only in power. The choleric person is especially prone to the manifestation of negative emotions of anger and rage, the sanguine person is predisposed to positive emotions; the phlegmatic is generally not prone to a violent emotional response, although potentially, like a sanguine person, he gravitates toward positive emotions, and a melancholic quickly succumbs to negative emotions of fear and anxiety.

These types of temperament are clearly characterized by generalized everyday definitions: they say about choleric people that they are emotionally explosive, about sanguine people that they are distinguished by emotional liveliness, about phlegmatic people they are emotionally inexpressive, and melancholic people are considered emotionally sensitive and vulnerable.

Choleric and sanguine people cope better with tasks in which there is a place for creativity, phlegmatic and melancholy - with tasks that require strictly regulated performance.

In general, people with a strong type of higher nervous activity tolerate the impact of a stressful situation more easily, more often use active methods of overcoming, coping, while people with a weak type of nervous system tend to avoid, avoid stressful effects, shifting responsibility to other people or external circumstances. The most violent, sthenic (irritation, anger, rage) emotional reaction to stress is characteristic of people with a choleric temperament, they react especially sharply to the emergence of a sudden obstacle on the way to achieving their goal. However, they do well with urgent unexpected tasks, as the presence of strong emotions “spurs” them to be active. Sanguine people have a slightly calmer emotional background: their emotions arise quickly, have medium strength and short duration. The source of stress for both types is more likely to be monotony, monotony, boredom than events that require active action and cause strong emotions. Phlegmatic feelings take possession slowly. He even slowed down in emotions. He does not need to make an effort on himself to maintain composure, so it is easy for him to resist a hasty decision. In a situation of stress, a phlegmatic person will cope well with practiced, stereotypical actions, while at the same time one should not expect effective solutions from him in a rapidly changing environment. The melancholic suffers the most from stress. They are initially prone to emotions of fear and anxiety, their feelings are lingering, suffering seems unbearable and beyond all consolation. When necessary to act in a stressful situation, melancholics will show a lack of energy and perseverance, but high self-control can be their advantage.

As already noted, it should be borne in mind that the indicated typology of temperament is a simplified scheme, far from exhausting the possible features of the temperament of each individual person.

Locus of control. Locus of control determines how effectively a person can control the environment and influence its change. People's positions on this issue are located between two extreme points: external (external) and internal (internal) locus of control. Externals perceive most of the events that take place as the result of chance or the action of external forces beyond the control of a person. The Internal, on the contrary, believes that only certain events are outside the sphere of human influence. Even catastrophic events, from their point of view, can be prevented by well-thought-out human actions.

Psychological endurance (stability). Experts refer to psychological endurance a number of factors, including the previously noted locus of control and self-esteem, as well as the level of criticality, optimism, the presence of internal conflicts, beliefs and moral values that affect the giving of personal meaning to a stressful situation.

Each person has their own individual ability to cope with a stressful situation. Everyone has their own "threshold level" of stress. Criticality reflects the degree of importance for a person of security, stability and predictability of events. The more important a sense of security, stability and predictability is for a person, the more painfully he will endure a stressful event. It was also noted that optimistic, cheerful people are psychologically more resilient. Of great importance is a person's personal understanding of the meaning of the ongoing stressful event. The famous psychiatrist V. Frankl convincingly showed in his works (in particular, in the book “Man in Search of Meaning”) that a person can endure anything, if he sees the meaning in it.

Self-esteem. Self-esteem is an assessment of one's capabilities. If people evaluate themselves and, accordingly, their capabilities highly enough, then it is likely that they will perceive stressful situations as manageable, and therefore less difficult in terms of emotional response. Thus, when stress occurs, people with adequately high self-esteem cope better than people with low self-esteem, which gives them additional information about their capabilities and, in turn, further strengthens their self-esteem.

conclusions

Faced with difficult situations, a person daily adapts to his physical and social environment. Psychological stress is a concept used to refer to a wide range of emotional states and human actions that arise as a response to a variety of extreme influences (stressors).

The development of psychological stress is influenced by numerous factors, among which are the characteristics of a stressful event, the interpretation of an event by a person, the influence of a person’s past experience, awareness (awareness) about the situation, individual and personal characteristics of a person. In turn, stress has an impact on the mental processes of a person, in particular on higher mental functions.

A person reacts to stress on a physiological, emotional and behavioral level. The type of response, in particular the choice of coping strategy, largely determines what the consequences of each specific stress will be.

Stress- a state that occurs in response to extreme exposure and is a combination of non-specific physiological and psychological reactions (adaptation, whatever it may be).

Selye. As a medical student, he drew attention to the fact that all patients suffering from a variety of diseases, there are a number of common symptoms (loss of appetite, muscle weakness, high blood pressure and temperature, loss of motivation to achieve). One of the latest definitions of stress is as follows: "non-specific reaction of the body to any demand from the outside"

Types of stress.

Selye believed that the stress response is a non-specific set of psychophysiological changes that does not depend on the nature of the stress-producing factor. However, later it was proved that both the qualitative originality of the stimulus and the individual characteristics of the organism contribute to its formation. In connection with the peculiarities of the stimulus, it is customary to distinguish at least two variants of stress: physiological (first signal) and psychological (second signal).

The stimulus that triggers the stress response is called stressor. A stimulus can become a stressor as a result of its cognitive interpretation, i.e. the value that a person ascribes to a given stimulus (psychological stress).

Physiological stress results from exposure to a stimulus through some kind of sensory or metabolic process. For example, too much physical activity acquires the role of stressors that provoke physiological stress.

The special role of the duration of the impact of an unfavorable factor should be emphasized. So, some stimuli can cause a stress reaction as a result of a sufficiently long exposure to a person. In the case of short-term stress, as a rule, already established programs of response and resource mobilization are updated.

From the point of view of the stress response, it does not matter whether the situation we are facing is pleasant or unpleasant. Mother example.

Psychological aspects of stress

V. A. Bodrov, summarizing the basic knowledge about stress, gives the following definition: psychological stress is considered as a functional state of the body and psyche, which is characterized by significant violations of the biochemical, physiological, mental status of a person and his behavior as a result of exposure to extreme factors of a psychogenic nature (threat, danger, complexity or harmfulness of living conditions and activities).

cognitive theory of stress, developed by R. Lazarus and his colleagues, focuses on the psychological assessment of the threat and its adverse impact. The threat is considered as a psychological factor and reflects the state of expectation by the subject of the harmful, undesirable influence of external conditions and incentives of a certain type.

According to Lazarus, between the influencing stressor and the response of the organism, intermediate variables of a psychological nature are included. He attaches the main importance to the threat assessment factor, i.e. anticipation by a person of possible dangerous consequences of a situation affecting him.

Mental processes associated with threat assessment occur due to a person's analysis of a certain situation and attitude towards it. They are of a complex nature, consisting not only of perceptual functions, but also of memory processes, the ability to think abstractly, elements of past experience, learning outcomes, and so on.

In his research, Lazarus pays special attention to the processes of assessing and overcoming (coping) stress, which are important in the interaction of a person with the environment. According to R. Lazarus, psychological stress differs from all other types of stress in the presence of a mediating variable in the structure of the development of this state - the threat of some future collision of a person with some dangerous situation for him. Symbols of a traumatic future impact are evaluated by a set of cognitive processes.

Stress begins when a person feels that a situation (real or imagined) represents a certain physical or mental danger for him (primary assessment) and when he realizes that he will not be able to effectively respond to this situation (secondary assessment). Stress can stop if a person changes the significance of the event to a level where it no longer poses a danger to him, and also if a person uses any method of overcoming (stopping) to eliminate the feeling of danger.

R. Lazarus proposed to distinguish three types of stress assessments. The first type is a traumatic loss, the loss of someone or something that is of great personal importance (death, long separation, loss of a job, loss of health, etc.). The second type is threat assessment, when the situation requires a person to have more stopping abilities than he has. The third type is an assessment of the complexity of the task (problem), its responsibility and the potential riskiness of the situation.

Each stressful situation causes a comprehensive assessment, which includes the processes of coordination and adaptation of a person with stressors, which continue until control over them is established with the help of stopping effects or until the stress spontaneously stops its action. According to the principles of feedback, a relationship is established between the stopping effect and the subject, who receives information about the effect of these effects and the significance of the event itself. While the feedback is in effect, the person is constantly reassessing the situation, adjusting, if possible, stopping strategies and the significance of the event.

Author information theory of emotions P. V. Simonov believes that the strength and polarity of emotions depends on the presence or absence of a person's awareness. “Emotion arises when there is a lack of information necessary to achieve the goal. By replacing, compensating for this shortcoming, it ensures the continuation of actions, promotes the search for new information, and thereby increases the reliability of a living system.

It was noticed that the implementation of even a very complex, but familiar stereotype of actions is not accompanied by a person's emotional stress. It does not appear even with some change in the system of external signals that do not affect changes in the dynamic stereotype. But as soon as the conditioned signals begin to require the body to change the established actions, signs of emotions begin to appear.

P.V. Simonov comes to the conclusion that with a certain already established stereotype, a person has complete information about how and what to do, while when it is destroyed and a new one is created, there is a lack of information, the need for a search for organizing new activities for satisfaction of their needs. Emotions appear in the event that the satisfaction of the need does not occur and the actions performed do not lead to the achievement of the desired goal.

P. V. Simonov considers the scheme of the dynamics of emotions in the range from calm and comfortable to the state of deep depression. This makes it possible to trace the emotional change depending on the increase in needs and information deficit, as well as its connection with the work of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system.

In the absence of an information deficit and the satisfaction of all needs, a person experiences a comfortable, calm state and equanimity. At this point, the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems are "normal". Such relaxation is associated with the process of primary (preventive) inhibition in the nervous system.

With the increase in tension associated with the emergence of needs and a small amount of lack of information, the general condition of a person begins to change. Initially, when the tension is still insignificant, emotions of joy and pleasure arise, self-confidence appears. A person experiences increasing excitation and, accordingly, changes occur in the sympathetic system - an increase in activity, and in the parasympathetic - its decrease.

With an even greater increase in tension and, finally, reaching its maximum value, maximum excitation occurs, at which the indicators in the sympathetic system also reach the maximum value and the minimum in the parasympathetic system. At this time, a person experiences such emotions as active fear, rage, disgust. With such excitation, preventive inhibition is reduced to zero and transmarginal inhibition begins to appear, which increases as the person moves to the next stage.

The last interval of the scheme ends with a state in which there is a maximum lack of needs or a maximum lack of information. There is an increase in transmarginal inhibition, accompanied by a decrease in the work of the sympathetic nervous system to a minimum value and a maximum value in the work of the parasympathetic departments. A person experiences states of shock, grief, depression, numbness, frenzy, prostration (corresponds to the "stage of exhaustion" according to G. Selye).

Psychology of emotional phenomena. — Stress. Physiological and psychological aspects of the study of stress.

Stress. Physiological and psychological aspects of the study of stress.

Stress (from the English stress - pressure, tension) is a term used to refer to a wide range of human conditions that occur in response to a variety of extreme effects. The concept of stress was introduced by G. Selye. The concept of stress originated in physiology to denote a non-specific reaction of the body - a general adaptation syndrome - in response to any adverse effect. Selye identified and analyzed the stages of stress depending on the duration of exposure: the stage of anxiety - the stage of resistance - the stage of exhaustion.

Depending on the stressor and the nature of its influence, various types of stress are distinguished, in the most general classification - physiological stress and psychological stress. Psychological stress is divided into informational and emotional stress. Information stress occurs in situations of information overload, when a person does not cope with the task, does not have time to make the right decisions at the required pace, with a high degree of responsibility for the consequences of the decisions made. Emotional stress appears in situations of threat, danger, resentment, etc. At the same time, its various forms (impulsive, inhibitory, generalized) lead to changes in the course of mental processes, emotional shifts, and disturbances in motor and speech behavior. Physiological stress is characterized by a violation of homeostasis and is caused by the direct action of an adverse stimulus on the body. An example of physiological stress is when you put your hand in ice water.

It must be taken into account that stress can have both a positive, mobilizing, and negative impact on activity (distress), up to its complete disorganization. Therefore, the optimization of any type of activity should include a set of measures that prevent the causes of stress.

Neuroscience and stuff

In today's comfortable life, we are rarely in danger, we are fed and protected from most of the problems that our ancestors used to deal with. Our minds and bodies have not yet adapted to this turn of events, and therefore we often cause the greatest harm to ourselves by reacting to events too strongly, giving them the wrong assessment and falling into emotions that require immediate action according to the laws that determined our behavior for a long time. before the rise of modern civilization.

Cardiovascular disease is the number one cause of death in the world, and it makes no biological sense - the human body overreacts to what it recognizes as danger, and instead of fighting or running away, it falls dead as a clump of its own cells stuck together interferes with blood flow . The danger has passed by, and the dead body will no longer rise and say “fuh, it seemed!”.

In this case, the body did not cope with the challenge and did not have time to cope with it. However, throughout life we cope with a huge number of situations of varying degrees of trouble and surprise. How does it happen?

With any external influence that changes or can change the constancy of the internal environment of the body, a non-specific reaction of the body occurs, which is called the word "stress". The definition found in most books and articles on the subject has two pitfalls to keep in mind.

The "non-specificity" of the reaction means that it does not depend on the type of stimulus, on what kind of influence was applied. A cold, a sharp sound, a need to move, a reminder of a loss - all this causes the same stress reaction, which is why it is called non-specific. Are there many chances for such a reaction to be adequate to the stimulus? Yes, when you are a human living in the wild and your natural enemies are predators and a neighboring tribe. No, if you live in a city, communicate with people, obey the cultural customs of your area and do not want to incur trouble with inappropriate behavior.

Let's move on to a more difficult topic to explain. Our psyche always tries to work ahead of the curve. The best chances of survival were those of our ancestors who could see the danger before it became imminent. This was the impetus for the development of the brain, but it also plays a cruel joke on us, forcing us to experience fear or anger in situations where there is no reason for these feelings.

So, stress can be caused by any stimulus of sufficient intensity and is not always adequate to the situation. But suppose it has come, the point of no return has been passed, and the stimulus has already been recognized by the brain as a potential danger. What happens to the body?

First, the activation of the sympathetic nervous system causes multiple changes, the purpose of which is to prepare the body for the best possible response to immediate danger. The release of norepinephrine causes vasoconstriction of the internal organs, which is balanced by adrenaline, which stimulates the blood supply to the skeletal muscles, lungs, heart and brain, and also increases the heart rate. As a result, a person gets the opportunity to spend resources more efficiently for running or physical attack.

Secondly, corticoliberin enters the bloodstream, which in turn causes the release of corticotropin (ACTH, adrenocorticotropic hormone). This hormone enhances the delivery of cholesterol to the mitochondria, which provides a rapid effect of the release of glucocorticosteroids (GCS), mainly cortisol. In addition, it provides a long-term effect of increasing the production of KGS, which lasts for several hours.

The main function of cortisol is to increase blood glucose levels, suppress the immune system, and increase protein catabolism, along with fat anabolism. In other words, this hormone helps to ensure that the muscles receive as much glycogen and glucose as possible, and the price of this is a decrease in anabolic and inflammatory processes, as well as the activity of the immune system.

In the long term, the least desirable for us is the decrease in immunity, which is a consequence of the increase in cortisol levels, since it causes apoptosis and inhibition of the maturation of lymphocytes. At a relatively low level of cortisol, its effect may even be immunostimulating, however, as the concentration increases, the level of mature lymphocytes in the blood decreases, and the proportion of immature immune cells increases. Phagocytic activity and production of antibodies are inhibited. In addition, inflammatory processes weaken, as the permeability of the walls of blood vessels and mast cell membranes decreases, and the sensitivity of tissues to histamine and serotonin decreases. These properties of cortisol are used to relieve allergy symptoms.

Thirdly, under stress, the blood-brain barrier allows much more hormone-like substances to enter the brain, which stimulates the activity of neurons and allows you to make the necessary decisions faster. However, with prolonged stress, hyperactivity of neurons can cause traumatic changes in the individual's psyche. The plasticity of the nervous tissue is significantly reduced if the stimulation of one of the sensory modalities was excessively intense, especially against the background of insignificant signals from other receptors. Dendrites and dendritic spines become shorter and may even disappear, which reduces the ability of nerve cells to participate in long-term storage and processing of information.

The ability of the hippocampus to initiate, modulate, or suppress the stress response by recalling relevant memories is also reduced, and with prolonged exposure to stress, this area is seriously damaged, which leads to the snowball effect: the inability to choose an adequate response to events only intensifies each time.

Neuropeptide-Y, if released in sufficient concentration, reduces pain, promotes faster and more favorable recovery from PTSD, and also improves appetite. Dopamine, released during stress, also improves pain tolerance, and in addition, reduces the severity of activation of the sympathetic nervous system and the release of corticoliberin and ACTH. In addition, it helps to get rid of depressive disorders and learned helplessness syndrome caused by the stress of social interactions.

The dynamics of the development of a stress reaction, as a rule, has clear phases:

resource mobilization, anxiety stage

compensation, stage of resistance

exhaustion stage

So, stress contributes to the rapid selection and application of a physical response to danger (the so-called “fight-or-flight” response). In this case, the most energy-consuming functions are suppressed. Delayed dangers like infections, tumors, cognitive decline are nothing compared to the chance of being killed here and now. But in today's world, more people die from slow-acting factors! From too strong activation of the sympathetic NS against the background of weak blood vessels, from cancer and infectious diseases. Under such conditions, stress itself becomes the enemy.

In general, the intensity of the stress response of people is not the same. Both the degree of the body's response (pulse, blood pressure) and the duration of possible compensation for stressful effects, as well as the speed of recovery, differ. What determines the response to stress?

First, from genetic factors. The main one is the amount of certain cytokines in the blood - namely, interleukin-6, a mediator of acute inflammation. Experiments have shown that animals whose blood contained more interleukin-6 had a tendency to develop depression-like behavioral changes after social defeat. (Depression-like states in rodents include anhedonia, which means that the animal ceases to prefer sweeter water to less sweet water, as well as a decrease in the desire for safe social interactions.) With any method of reducing the amount of interleukin, the propensity of mice to develop depression also decreased after it. after stressful situations.

In this case, it is especially noticeable that the response to stress is determined by the characteristics of our immune system, which has nothing to do with the brain - which, it would seem, should be responsible for regulating behavior and response to stress. However, it seems that the opposite is true - the choice of behavior occurs due to the impact on the nervous system of substances produced outside it, and their amount is determined by the expression of certain genes in the bone marrow.

The long-known testosterone-to-cortisol ratio, which has been associated with social status and dominance, also affects stress tolerance. Studies with British officials have suggested that higher rank in the hierarchy (which is associated with higher testosterone levels) leads to an increase in the frequency of heart attacks, since leaders are more responsible. This hypothesis was not confirmed; moreover, when layoffs began in the organization, many more ordinary employees suffered from such diseases, while among managers this situation almost did not cause an increase in the frequency of heart attacks.

Further experiments, already conducted on primates, showed that along with an increase in testosterone in individuals who received an increase in social status, a constant level of cortisol falls, which leads to less depletion of the body's resources even when experiencing stressful situations.

In psychological work on stress, one can sometimes see assurances about the positive role of stress: in particular, the activation of the endogenous opioid system, which is associated with motivation for action, is often considered a positive consequence of it, and in some works even stress is called adaptogenic.

However, in the works of other scientists who use a more systematic approach to understanding stress, it is shown that the endogenous opioid system “plays a significant role in minimizing vital and mental functions during stress and shock, causing the extinction of reactions associated with damage or the threat of damage. Under stress, activation of the EOS provides an increase in sensory (primarily pain) thresholds and limits the activation of the sympathetic-adrenal and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal systems, which enhances the protective resources of the stress reaction.

In simple terms, the endogenous-opioid system slightly limits the activation of parasympathetic inputs, as well as the release of hypothalamic and pituitary hormones. However, this is still not enough to consider the entire result positive - its task is only to slightly compensate for the stress reaction. At the same time, every time the situation is not resolved before the onset of the stage of exhaustion, the body is harmed. Most of all, the brain structures responsible for coordinating hormonal activity and assessing the situation suffer the most.

Stress-induced adaptation is more of a psychological phenomenon that follows the stress response: if the situation is resolved successfully, the next time the stress reaction to it may be less significant. This does not mean that there was no traumatic impact; but this may mean that the comfort zone for the psyche is slightly expanded, and in the next situation the stress response will perhaps be weaker.

With a positive outcome, after experiencing the excitement, the endogenous opioid system rewards us with a good dose of dopamine, which motivates us to seek solutions and generally healthy behavior. The effects of stress, thanks to her, disappear faster. Thanks to nature for small pleasures.

It turns out that prolonged or often experienced stress can seriously undermine the immune system, lead to depression by disrupting the metabolism of serotonin and dopamine, cause cognitive impairment, or even provoke a heart attack (as well as chronic ischemia or stroke) if the compensatory mechanisms are not strong enough.

The intensity of the effect of stress on the body depends on the following factors:

Past experience - the more stressful impacts, the worse the prognosis;
Social status - allows you to significantly reduce the harmful effects of stress;
Genetics - affects the intensity and consequences of stress reactions;
The general level of anxiety and the ability to correctly assess situations is a whole set of factors that depend on both genetics and developmental characteristics. Many courses of "self-development" offer their adherents to work on this factor, although it is very difficult to influence conscious control.

From all of the above, a very simple conclusion follows: you need to protect yourself from situations that cause stress. And expand the number of situations that do not cause stress.

neurochimerism.wordpress.com

Physiological aspects of stress and its consequences. emergence

Stress is a state of the human body that occurs under the action of emergency and pathological stimuli and leads to intense activity of non-specific adaptive mechanisms of the body. The term "stress" was introduced into medicine in 1936 by G. Selye, who defined stress as a state of the body that occurs when any requirements are presented to it.

The compensatory capabilities of the human body, allowing it to adapt to changes in the external and internal environment, are large. The conditions necessary for the formation of a full-fledged adaptation are: the optimal state of the adaptation mechanisms (human health), the intensity and duration of exposure to stimuli of the external and internal environment of the body and the time required for the formation of the adaptation process.

Changes in the activity of the heart, respiratory apparatus, metabolism and the immune system are among the mechanisms that carry out the adaptation of the body. In the formation of adaptive mechanisms, a huge role belongs to the nervous system and endocrine organs (pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal glands, etc.).

Stress reactions can occur under the influence of a wide variety of stimuli (injury, burns, illness, etc.), as well as emotional impact - emotional stress. The state of stress in most of the population is provoked or caused by numerous adverse environmental factors. Living conditions and habits formed in large groups of people are suboptimal for maintaining health. An ever-increasing flow of information received by an individual voluntarily or in addition to it becomes environmentally dangerous.

Often there are situations of information stress. Pop music imposed on the population in the morning by radio programs disrupts the natural rhythm of entering the working state of the body, especially among middle-aged and elderly people. The high-speed, emotional rhythm of modern life, especially in cities, creates a load on the functioning of the main centers of the nervous system. Various stimuli give stress their own characteristics, due to the occurrence of specific reactions to qualitatively different influences.

Scientific and technological progress creates more and more new stressful situations: high pace of life, information overload, overstrain during nervous responsible work, mental overload, fatigue from monotonous monotonous work. Scientific and technological progress in highly developed countries has led to an increase in the share of intellectual labor. The nature of workers' labor has changed as a result of the widespread introduction of mechanization and automation of production processes. Workers are increasingly servicing machines and mechanisms, doing not physical, but intellectual labor. The increased flow of information has swept not only scientists.

From the invention of printing to 1945, i.e. in 500 years, about 30 million different books were published in the world, the same number of books were published over the next 25 years. The volume of curricula of schools and universities has become more complex and increased, the teaching load has increased. The amount of time devoted to watching television programs and movies has increased dramatically. Many of them, especially with plots of horror, violence and murder, cause strong, negative emotional reactions, accompanied by a sharp increase in the content of adrenaline in the blood (heartbeat, increased blood pressure).

The occurrence and nature of stress are largely determined by the reactivity of the organism itself, which, in turn, depends on the functional state of physiological systems, the hereditary properties of the organism, previous diseases, age and other factors.

Modern life is full of external stressful stimuli that cannot be avoided. The city generates noise and air pollution along with high speeds, crowds, crime and rudeness. Any stressful stimulus, such as noise, does not need to be loud to be harmful. The stress effect occurs with any repetitive uncontrolled noise.

emotional stress

Emotional stress (excitement, excitement, tension) is a subjective state of a pronounced psycho-emotional experience by a person (pleasure or displeasure, joy, fear, anger, etc.) of conflict life situations that acutely or for a long time limit the satisfaction of his social and biological needs.

Responsible reactions of the body to emotions depend on behavioral reactions, psychological characteristics and upbringing of a person. The complexity of this problem lies in the fact that, unlike a savage, a civilized person is obliged to restrain his emotions, i.e. stay patient, calm. Such a person seeks to extinguish the fire that has arisen in the body, i.e. restrain somatic manifestations, motor responses and speech reactions. And here the conflict manifests itself: by an effort of will, a person suppresses motor reactions. As a result, a vegetative storm hits the heart and blood vessels. The lower the body's fitness for extreme loads, including psychogenic-emotional ones, the more the state of maximum mobilization of the cardiovascular system increases. It is important to emphasize that the individual characteristics of a person, his adaptive ability to withstand stressful situations are very different. So, in particular, psychological and behavioral types of body responses are distinguished.

Emotions arise due to the primary activation of specialized brain structures. Excitation of some structures causes positive emotions that the body seeks to strengthen, prolong or repeat. The activation of other structures is accompanied by the appearance of negative emotions, which the body seeks to eliminate or weaken.

The biological significance of emotions is determined by their evaluative function, as a result of which the body seeks to respond in advance and quickly to changes in the environment, to mobilize the energy resources necessary for actions aimed at meeting immediate needs.

Emotions underlie the process of acquiring individual life experience (learning), contributing to the development, consolidation and preservation of biologically expedient forms of behavior. Emotions serve as a means of increasing the reliability and expanding the adaptive capabilities of the body, as well as one of the main mechanisms for the internal regulation of mental activity and behavior. Human emotions are mainly socially conditioned. They, as well as human actions, are determined by the norms of morality and law. Higher forms of emotions arise on the basis of social (moral) and spiritual (aesthetic, intellectual) needs.

Emotional excitations are built on the basis of specific neurochemical mechanisms (neurotransmitters). Peripheral components of emotions are divided into arbitrarily controlled (movement, muscle muscle activity, speech function, breathing) and uncontrolled (activity of the heart, vascular smooth muscles, bronchi, intestines and endocrine glands).

Of all the stresses, one should especially highlight those that cause negative emotions. “Among the influences that shorten life, a predominant place is occupied by fear, sadness, cowardice, despondency, melancholy, envy,” he wrote back in the 18th century. H.F. Hufeland. Indeed, sadness, fear, melancholy depress mental activity, muscle activity, inhibit any response of the body. Anger, rage, hatred, on the contrary, increase energy supply, stimulate the activity of muscle receptors, the central nervous and cardiovascular systems.

Positive emotions include joy, hope, etc., which bring health, strength, and performance. "Cheerful people always get better" (Ambroise Pare). As noted by N.I. Pirogov, the wounds of victorious soldiers heal faster than those of the defeated. Positive emotion is proportional to the magnitude of the relieved stress state. Positive emotions are especially important for the functioning of the cardiovascular system.

Adrenaline, which floods the human body during stress, causes a whole cascade of reactions: blood pressure rises, muscles tense, breathing becomes shallow and fast, the brain is at the peak of vigilance, and the senses are sharpened to the limit. It is said that Julius Caesar chose for himself those warriors who blushed, and did not turn pale, under sudden stress. It turns out that during a fear reaction in the human body, the release of adrenaline increases, which causes vasoconstriction and pallor, and during an anger reaction, norepinephrine is released, which causes vasodilation, and the person turns red.

Socially determined stressful situations as a result of interpersonal conflicts associated with humiliation, betrayal, deceit, and disappointment are widespread. In such a situation, the conflict of people who find themselves in a difficult situation lies in the need to implement a defensive reaction of self-preservation and the impossibility of implementing it under the created conditions. However, the majority of people placed in hopeless situations do not die, but acquire some degree of resistance to these stressful situations.

When exposed to various extreme factors (physical, mental), neuroendocrine-humoral changes occur in the body, aimed at overcoming the actions of these factors by adapting the body to the requirements. The severity of the adaptation syndrome depends on the intensity of stress, the functional state of the physiological systems of the body and the nature of human behavior.

Everyday life experience, as well as data from experiments on animals, observations on patients indicate that the emergence of emotions often precedes our actions, that it is emotions that turn out to be the reason for actions. Emotional arousal can occur before a person has time to draw up a program of action, and even before he can even consciously assess the situation. Emotion is often the first impulsive response to a sudden emergency. Only then follows the analysis and assessment of the situation and the necessary deliberate actions.

Lisovsky V.A., Evseev S.P., Golofeevsky V.Yu., Mironenko A.N.

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Hosted at http://www.allbest.ru/

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

Federal State Autonomous Educational

Institution of Higher Professional Education

"North-Eastern Federal University named after M.K. Ammosov"

Institute of Psychology

Department of General Psychology

Course work

Psychological aspects of stress

Completed:

Germogenov M.V.

Student Group IP-10-1

Scientific adviser:

Art. teacher Savvina E.V.

Yakutsk 2012

Introduction

Chapter 1. The concept of stress

1.1 Scientific definition of stress

2.2 Emotions and stress

2.3 Research by M. Friedman

Conclusion

Introduction

The topic of the course work I have chosen is quite relevant at the present time, since stressful situations are the most common affect that has a significant impact not only on the psychological state of a person, but also on his physical health. They are a state of excessively strong and prolonged psychological stress that occurs in a person when his nervous system receives an emotional overload. Stress disorganizes human activity, disrupts the normal course of his behavior. This term itself - "stress" - has already become an ordinary word for people, which includes the idea of behavioral changes and a whole range of feelings and experiences that arise in difficult situations or in increased danger, which have become an integral part of the modern way of life.

The purpose of my work is to consider this psychological state of a person, his behavior in this state, as well as the impact of stress as an inseparable psychological pressure on a person in everyday life.

The concept of stress can be attributed to one of the basic scientific categories, which has become the subject of study of a whole range of disciplines: biology and medicine, physiology and psychology, demography, etc. My thesis objectives are:

Detailed and detailed consideration of the concept of "stress"

Disclosure of the problem of stress in the psychological aspect

Chapter 1. The concept of stress

At the present time, stress is a fairly common and very common phenomenon. It becomes an integral part of our existence. However, it is worth noting that minor stresses are not as destructive as the inhabitants attribute to them. Excessive stress can create serious embarrassment for people and organizations.

Stress is the state of the body in which an interaction appears between the person and the environment, causing tension and anxiety. Stress requires an external threat to arise. This psychological phenomenon occurs when a normal habitual reaction to a stimulus is not enough. The appearance of stress can be tied to subjective reasons, depending on the characteristics of a particular individual. Much depends on the personality factor, since the reasons can be purely individual.

Being at the same time an independent physiological, mental and social phenomenon, stress in its essence is another type of emotional state. This condition is characterized by increased physiological and mental activity. At the same time, one of the main characteristics of stress is its extreme instability. Under favorable conditions, this state can be transformed into an optimal state, and under unfavorable conditions, into a state of neuro-emotional tension, which is characterized by a decrease in the efficiency and effectiveness of the functioning of systems and organs, and depletion of energy resources.

1.1 Scientific definitions of stress

The Canadian physiologist Hans Selye was the first to define stress. According to his definition, stress is everything that leads to rapid aging of the body or causes disease. Translated from English, stress is pressure, pressure, tension, and distress is grief, unhappiness, malaise, need. According to G. Selye, stress is a non-specific (i.e., the same to various influences) response of the body to any requirement presented to it, which helps it adapt to the difficulty that has arisen, to cope with it. Any surprise that disrupts the usual course of life can be a cause of stress. At the same time, as G. Selye notes, it does not matter whether the situation we are faced with is pleasant or unpleasant. What matters is the intensity of the need for adjustment or adaptation.

I. Borodin believes that "stress is the engine of progress, there is an assumption that our ape-like ancestors lived in the upper tier of the tropical forest and had almost no enemies. But now the forests began to give way to the savannah, and the prehuman had to face many dangers. And Stress was everywhere." "And in order to survive - the scientist claims - future people took the path of creating a non-specific adaptation - they acquired intelligence." “Unfortunately,” Borodin notes, “the addition of stress only intensified. Animals react only to immediate danger, they are not able to predict. And a person adds future stresses to momentary ones.”

A. Dobrovich believes that stress is a state opposite to peace; the moment of single combat of the living with that which hinders his life; a ringing, tearing trumpet of alarm, which is "heard" by any cell of the organism, standing face to face with difficulty.

T. Cox believes that stress is a threat to the normal course of a person's life, a threat to his mental and physical health.

The Concise Oxford Dictionary gives several definitions of the word "stress":

It is a motivating or coercive force.

This is an effort or a large expenditure of energy.

These are the forces that act on the body.

The main scientific approaches to the problem of defining stress have also been discussed by such authors as Lazarus, Anclay and Trumbell, Levine and Scotch, Cox and others.

First, the approach treats stress as a dependent variable, defining it as the body's response to a disturbing or harmful environment. Second, the approach treats stress in terms of the stimulating effects of this disturbing or harmful environment, and thus usually treats stress as an independent variable. Thirdly, the approach considers stress as a response to the lack of "match" between the individual and the environment. In this form, stress is studied in terms of the impact of factors that precede it and their consequences. In all three approaches, the word "environment" is used in the broadest sense and refers to both the inner and outer world of the individual, to his physical and psychosocial environment.

1.2 The main provisions of the concept of stress G. Selye

The phenomenon of stress was discovered by the Canadian physiologist G. Selye in 1936 to denote a non-specific reaction of the body ("general adaptation syndrome") in response to any adverse effect.

Initially, G. Selye focused on the biological and physiological aspects of the problem of stress. The understanding of stress as a physiological reaction of the endocrine glands, controlled by the pituitary gland, to the action of various negative factors has become traditional.

Hans Selye, the founder of the Western doctrine of stress and nervous disorders, defined the following stages of stress as a process:

1. direct reaction to the impact (anxiety stage);

2. maximum effective adaptation (resistance stage);

3. violation of the adaptation process (depletion stage).

In a broad sense, these stages are characteristic of any adaptation process.

The first stage is the anxiety stage (within 48 hours after the onset of exposure), during which the body's resistance decreases ("shock phase"), and then defense mechanisms are activated, the body's adaptive resources are mobilized. At this stage, a person is in a state of tension and alertness. Physically, the person feels very good, is in high spirits. However, in this phase, often there are diseases that belong to the category of so-called "psychosomatic". With a large force of influence, the alarm reaction can end in the death of the organism. But if the body tolerates this stage of the syndrome, then the second stage begins.

The second stage is the stage of resistance, or resistance (begins 48 hours after the damaging effect), when the adaptation of the organism to new conditions is achieved by the stress of the functioning of the systems. At this stage, a balanced expenditure of adaptive capabilities is carried out. Man develops optimal energy by adapting to changing circumstances. He seems to have "worked in" and is ready for a more or less prolonged effort to overcome difficulties. If the damaging effect was not so strong, G. Selye notes, then the body's resistance increases, and in the later period of the second stage, the appearance and functions of the organs practically return to normal. But if the action of the damaging agent continues further, then after this stage the organism loses its resistance, which leads to the third stage.

The third stage is the stage of exhaustion, in which the insolvency of protective mechanisms is revealed and the violation of the coordination of vital functions increases. At the stage of exhaustion, energy is exhausted, physiological and psychological defenses are broken. Man no longer has the ability to defend himself. Unlike the first stage, when the stressful state of the body leads to the disclosure of adaptive reserves and resources, the state of the third stage is more like a "call for help", which can only come from outside - either in the form of support or in the form of eliminating the stressor. In the absence of "help" the death of the organism occurs.

The mental manifestations of the syndrome described by G. Selye were given the name "emotional stress". The content of this term includes both primary emotional mental reactions that occur during critical psychological influences, and emotional and mental syndromes generated by bodily injuries, and affective reactions during stress, and the physiological mechanisms underlying them.

According to G. Selye, there are two types of stress: eustress and distress. Eustress mobilizes, activates the internal reserves of a person, improves the flow of mental and physiological functions. Distress is a destructive process that disrupts behavior.

Of particular importance for a person is psychological stress, since many events lead to stress in a person not because of their objective features, but because a particular person perceives the event as a source of stress. From this follows an important principle of overcoming psychological stress: it is easier to change a person's idea of the world than the world itself.

What can be a source of stress:

* Trauma or crisis

* Small daily troubles

* Conflicts or communication with unpleasant people

* Obstacles that prevent you from achieving your goals

* Feeling of constant pressure

* Unfulfilled dreams or too high demands on yourself

* Monotonous work

* Constant accusation, reproach to yourself that you did not achieve something or missed something

* Blaming yourself for everything bad that happened, even if it wasn't your fault

* Hard work

* Financial difficulties

* Strong positive emotions

* Quarrels with people and especially with relatives (observation of quarrels in the family can also lead to stress)

* Moving from one country to another

Risk group:

* Elderly people and children

*People with low self-esteem

* Extroverts

* neurotics

* People who abuse alcohol

*People with a genetic predisposition to stress

Chapter 2. Psychological aspects of stress

2.1 Human psychological response to stress

About the experiences associated with the psychological aspect of stress, they do not always say simply "I'm stressed." Much more often this state is described in connection with emotions such as: anger, rage, anxiety, guilt, shame, jealousy. Thus, the experience associated with stress is undoubtedly an emotional experience. Most psychologists divide emotional experiences into two types: pleasant or positive emotions and unpleasant or negative emotions.

A large number of studies have been devoted to the study of psychological reactions to stress, although many of them do not have this specific name. Several clearly defined areas of research should be indicated. When studying animals, researchers were interested in the behavioral components of emotions (especially negative ones, such as fear), the impact on behavior of punishment and behavior in conflict situations. In human studies, interest has focused on clinical, industrial, and military situations. When studying clinical situations, the main attention was paid to the etiology of nervous disorders and the changes in the mental state preceding them. When considering industrial or military situations, interest was also focused on the study of the state of the individual, his activity in extreme conditions was studied in more detail. The main problem in understanding the psychological reactions of a person to stress concerns his ability to cope with a stressful situation. As a result of all these studies, several different models have been developed to explain the psychological reactions to stress, each of which more or less corresponds to its specific conditions, but is only partially adequate as a general model. None of the existing models can provide a complete explanation of stress. The experience of stress in a person is considered as a cause that causes a violation of psychological balance, which sets in motion mechanisms aimed at weakening this violation. These are coping mechanisms that are part of the behavior. If the normal coping response does not succeed in reducing or coping with stress, it can lead to disorganized behavior. If the duration and persistence of stress is stronger, then this can lead to a collapse of behavior. The concept of overcoming owes much to the writings of Lazarus, "overcoming," he writes, "is best thought of as a form of problem solving whose goal is the well-being of the individual, while it is not entirely clear to the individual what needs to be done." This is especially true for difficult situations that are perceived as stressful. By overcoming a person makes an attempt to master the situation. According to Lazarus, coping involves two processes, one is immediate motor response and the other is temporary relief.

Direct motor response refers to real behavior aimed at changing the relationship of a person with the environment. It has forms in the form of: preparation for protection from harmful influences, aggression, avoidance and passivity. By "avoidance" Lazarus means removing himself from a real danger or threat. Preparing for protection from harm is a form of true avoidance behavior in which a person can take certain actions in relation to danger. The reaction of students in exams is a good example of preparation for protection from harmful influences. Since exams usually follow a well-defined format, students have months to prepare for them. As the danger approaches (failing the exams with all the ensuing consequences), an increasing number of students begin to study intensively, constantly increasing the time of classes and the depth of study of the material. Aggression, apparently, often accompanies stress, but is not always an adequate and, therefore, effective form of coping. It is expressed in the attack of the individual on the source of problems, which can be perceived either as a specific person, group of people, or organization. Destroying or at least partially defeating the source that causes problems can save a person from danger or reduce the experience associated with stress. A man may attack his wife when the true source of his problems is his immediate supervisor at work. However, his wife may be a more vulnerable target with less ability to counteract. For such an indirect attack to be an effective form of coping, a man must perceive his wife as a source of harm in his stressful situation. If it is obvious that this is a misperception, then later on, guilt may arise, which will further increase the experience of stress. An argument between neighbors that led to verbal abuse of each other in an apparent outburst of rage accompanied by appropriate posture and arm waving. This event can be analyzed as follows: the goal is a specific individual, the nature of the aggression is verbal abuse with appropriate behavior, the emotion is anger. Such behavior can resolve the dispute from the position of the strongest and eliminate the source of stress, or increase self-esteem (in connection with victory) and thereby reduce the experience of stress.

Flight is the third form of immediate motor response, just as anger is often referred to as the emotional correlate of aggression, and fear is associated with the concept of flight. Cases of soldiers fleeing the battlefield or deserting can serve as an example of running away from fear. Lazarus sees aggression and flight as a response to stress. The fourth form is passivity. This fading as a direct reaction to the effects of stress. Passivity can also be seen as an ongoing response to chronic stress. This can be associated with depression and feelings of hopelessness. Depression is a common clinical response to long-term exposure to severe chronic stress. This is one of the forms of relative passivity, obviously expressed in extreme slowness and lethargy of reactions to any stimuli [cit.6; p.103] "Some challenging situations may leave no hope of relieving stress or eliminating actual harm. Probably due to the lack of any obvious coping strategies, the person will not develop their desire to cope with difficulty and completely lose the ability to do this, - says Lazarus - passivity may be the result of a clear hopelessness of the situation. "

"It has not yet been decided," says Cox, "what is hopelessness - the inability to overcome or one of the forms of coping with stress, a parallel freezing reaction, or perhaps a simulation of death."

Overcoming can be expressed not in the form of a direct motor reaction, but in the form of temporary relief. Temporary relief is expressed in the mitigation of suffering associated with the experience of stress, and in the reduction of psychophysiological effects. Temporary relief can be achieved in several ways. According to Lazarus, two, symptomatic and intrapsychic. The first method includes the use of alcohol, tranquilizers and sedatives, muscle relaxation training and other methods aimed at improving the physical condition of a person. The intrapsychic method of temporary relief is considered in terms of cognitive defense mechanisms. The description of these mechanisms owes much to the development of psychoanalysis. Freud used the expression "defense mechanisms" to refer to an unconscious psychological mechanism by which a person can deceive himself about the presence of a threat or external danger. The meaning of this "protection" is that the perception of the threat of danger is reduced, and not the threat itself. Intrapsychic temporary relief according to Lazarus is considered from the point of view of these mechanisms, and are called: identification, displacement, suppression, denial, reaction formation, projection and intellectualization. Aggressiveness shifting can be observed, for example, when a person restrains his aggressive behavior directed at a stronger opponent and shows aggression towards another less powerful one. (In the case when the husband shows aggression towards his wife, although the boss is to blame). In denial, a person overcomes a threat or danger simply by denying that it exists. Denial is usually considered to be closely related to suppression in that suppression implies the denial of internal threatening impulses. For denial to be effective, it may be necessary to create complex cognitive mechanisms for the perception of information that makes the denial false. For example, a doctor who informs a patient with a severe heart attack about the severity and seriousness of his disease, from the position of denial, can be discredited in the eyes of the patient, and the doctor's information will not be taken into account. Intellectualization is a method of protection in which a person can react to a threatening situation dispassionately, evaluating it analytically as an object for improvement or an interesting phenomenon. A professional doctor, psychologist or nurse for this reason does not like to treat those who are emotionally close to them. In such a situation, it is difficult to remain dispassionate.

Between 1971 and 1977 at the Clinical Stress Research Laboratory in Stockholm, Levy and Kogan developed Selye's view of stress and developed a theoretical model for describing psychological factors as mediators of physical illness.

Their main hypothesis is that psychosocial situations may be the cause of a number of such disorders. Levy and Kogan suggest that in most cases, changes in the conditions of existence cause a physiological stress response that prepares the individual for active physical resistance to the stressor. Levy and Kogan represent this process in a diagram in the form of a flowchart. External influences, defined as psychosocial stimuli, are intertwined with genetic and environmental influences. These individual factors Levy and Kogan call the "psychobiological program". Together, the psychosocial stimuli and the psychobiological program determine the response to stress, which in turn can induce the predisease state and then the disease itself.

The studies of V. Kennon (1927-1929) also showed that the body seeks to ensure the constancy of its internal environment, the constancy of the levels of functioning of its systems, when new conditions arise, a restructuring takes place, which, through a chain of transformations, restores the previous balance, but at a different level. New conditions can be determined not only by physical stimuli, but also by psychological methods.

According to Schmidt, several points stand out in the scheme:

Psychological stress itself leads to symptoms of tension, it is adaptive and may be useful. Anxiety phenomena can impede sports activity, causing muscle tension, changing the developed skill. This also determines preventive measures in this period: reducing anxiety and preventing changes in muscle tone;

Only at subsequent stages, namely, starting with the appearance of disintegration, negative symptoms are revealed, in which mental disorders are always noted;

The development of negative symptoms has a certain progress. Between the normal adaptive stress response and the formation of neurosis or pronounced psychosomatic diseases, intermediate, temporary states of functional disorders (including mental ones) are found;

As the role of mental stress increases, there is no doubt that research requires a combination of biomedical, psychosocial, and clinical methods, because mental stress is a complex problem.

2.2 Emotions and stress

PC. Anokhin was able to clearly show how emotions are related to stress. According to the theory of functional systems, the behavior of any living being, the activity of its tissues and organs, is invariably aimed at achieving some useful results. Chaos inside functional systems - that's what stress is according to Anokhin.

“One has only to imagine for a moment the life of people devoid of emotions, as a deep abyss of mutual misunderstanding and the complete impossibility of establishing purely human relationships will immediately open before us. The world of such people would be a world of soulless robots, devoid of the whole gamut of human experiences and unable to understand the consequences of everything that happens in the outside world, nor the meaning of their own actions for others. A terrible and gloomy picture!

L.N. Tolstoy counted 97 smiles and 85 eye expressions in a person. Many emotional shades were noticed not only by writers, but also by artists and sculptors. Scientists, however, are more strict here, they believe that there are only nine basic emotions. Emotions of joy, surprise, sadness, anger, disgust, fear, interest, contempt and shame. All these emotions, scientists believe, are innate: they are expressed and understood in exactly the same way by all people. Emotions are expressed in facial expressions, intonation of voice, body movement. Emotions are a "lightning rod" for stress. The muscles of the face during emotional stress use some of the nervous energy. Chronic forced suppression of emotions promises trouble; psychic energy will fall upon the sensitive internal organs and cause diseases.

"Passion! These are the winds that inflate the sails of the ship, they sometimes sink it, but without them it cannot swim." Voltaire's words fit perfectly into the theme of emotions and stress. After all, according to Selye - life without stress means death. And as we have already found out, stress is nothing without our emotions. Psychological stress is caused by relationships between people, as well as their position in society. At some point there is a clash of interests - a stressor, then balanced impulses appear - orders to resist or endure. Stress resilience and adaptability are often tested by life's extremes, such as heart attack, severe burns, bereavement, mutilation, isolation from others, car accident, attempted murder or rape.

The evidence of the recent catastrophe in Moscow, in connection with the taking of hostages, was that only a few were able to cope with this situation.

Isolation from the outside world, stiffness of the posture, hunger, thirst and a huge fear for one's life incapacitated not only the participants in this tragedy, but almost everyone who watched it. Consider another example of an extreme situation - rape. Rape is a crisis of self-preservation. This experience of great fright, fear for one's life and therefore forced intercourse in this situation is the price to pay for the opportunity to save one's life. The threat of attack occurs when the victim realizes that a direct danger to her life lies in a sexual attack. Coping at this stage usually manifests itself in victims in the form of an attempt to "avoid" the situation. Most of the victims use verbal defense - time delay, persuasion, jokes, threats. Others try to defend themselves through physical force - attack or flight. There are still others who are usually unable to do anything in response to a life threat. Some were physically paralyzed, others were in a state of prostration, and some were broken before they could resist. psychological stress selye friedman

The effects of stress can be long lasting, even when the stressor has ceased. Our own positive or negative feelings benefit or harm us in the most direct way, just as we benefit or harm ourselves by arousing these feelings in others.

In interpersonal relationships, the gain is in arousing feelings of friendship, love, gratitude, and benevolence; the loss is in the fact that other people have hatred, frustration, and a thirst for revenge.

A stable position in society is best ensured by arousing positive feelings in the maximum number of people. After all, no one has a desire to harm the person he loves, for whom he has confidence and reverence. Feelings of indifference, at best, can lead to a relationship of mutual tolerance. They make peaceful coexistence possible, but no more. Ultimately, our feelings are the most important factor that governs our behavior in everyday life. Such feelings determine our peace of mind or anxiety, our sense of security or threat, accomplishment or failure. They determine whether we can succeed in life by enjoying stress and not suffering from distress. Different people require different levels of stress to be happy. Only in rare cases is a person inclined towards a passive, often vegetative life. Even the least ambitious people are not satisfied with a minimum standard of living that provides only food, clothing, housing. People need something more. Most people dislike both the absence of stress and the excess of it in equal measure. Therefore, everyone should carefully examine himself and find the level of stress at which he feels most "comfortable", no matter what activity he chooses. Those who fail to study themselves will suffer from distress caused by the lack of worthwhile work or constant overwork.

2.3 Research by M. Friedman

Conducting a series of studies in the field of behavior of people involved in managerial activities, M. Friedman concluded that the total mass of people engaged in active mental work can be divided into two main types:

A. Stressed

B. Resistant to stress.

A type A behavioral pattern is a set of behavioral traits or lifestyles characterized by extreme hostility, the desire to win at all costs, extreme haste, impatience, excessive anxiety, extreme aggressiveness (sometimes difficult to control), expressive speech and alertness, which is accompanied by tension of the whole organism. People with a strong Type A behavior pattern resist time pressure and responsibility (Jenkins, 1979). Type A is not a practical result of stress and a reaction to tension or discomfort. Rather, it is a style of problem solving. At the other end are Type Bs. They are more relaxed, cooperative, less spontaneous at work, and seem more satisfied with their daily lives and surroundings.

The intensity and frequency of behavioral type A increases with industrialization, increased competition and the pace of life. Behavioral type A is more common in cities than in rural areas, more common among managers and trade workers compared to representatives of technical professions, among skilled workers and creative intelligentsia, and among business women, unlike housewives.

For at least two decades, there has been a systematic effort to help people with type A interactive behavior change it and move towards type B behavior. Francisco in the eighties. Repeated examinations over several years have shown that many people have changed, and that the number of myocardial infarctions has decreased in people who were treated with a behavioral type A reduction scheme, compared with those who only received advice on how to behave in cardiovascular disease (Thorson and Povel, 1992).

Intervening in a Type A behavior pattern is often difficult to achieve, as this style of behavior is characterized by many productive traits, particularly in the areas of career and earnings. Therefore, the program should be drawn up very carefully so that it can give the necessary psychological effect; the group approach seems to be more effective than talking and advising individuals.

Conclusion

In my work, I tried to define the concept of stress as an emotional state. In the first chapter, the definition of stress was considered and expanded, as a result of which we can conclude about the root causes of this term. The concept of stress was expanded and began to be used to characterize the characteristics of human states in non-standard conditions at the physiological, psychological and other levels.

So, stress is a tense state of the body, or in other words, the body's response to an external stimulus of various origins (stressful situation). Under the influence of stress, the body experiences tension.

To understand the nature of these states, the characteristics of stress on the part of the extreme factors that cause it, or stressors, are of particular importance. At the same time, not only clearly harmful effects are considered extreme, but also "limiting, extreme values of those elements of the situation that, in their average values, serve as an optimal working background or, at least, are not felt as sources of discomfort."

Also in this work, it was possible to determine the main features of a person's stressful state: 1) the state of the body, its appearance obliges interaction between the body and the environment; 2) a more tense state than usual, which requires a sense of threat for its occurrence; 3) these phenomena take place when the usual reaction is insufficient.

Since stress arose mainly from the perception of a threat, its occurrence in a certain situation may arise for subjective reasons related to the characteristics of a given person.

In the second chapter, the features of the influence of stress on people, their reaction to stressful situations were revealed. Two main types of people in a stressful situation were considered.

Thus, I think that the goal of the course work has been achieved and I was able to determine the characteristics of the psychological aspects of stress in people.

List of used literature

Aleksandrovsky Yu.A. States of mental maladjustment and their compensation. M., 1976

Berezin F.B. Psychological and psychophysiological adaptation of a person. L., 1988

Vasilyuk F.E. Psychology of experience. M., 1984

Gubachev Yu.M., Iovlev B.V., Karvasarsky B.D. and others. Emotional stress in the conditions of normal and human pathology. L., 1976

Carnegie D. How to win friends and influence people. R n/a. 1990

Cox T. "Stress". M., 1981

Molz M. I am I. Edited by Zinchenko V.P., M. 1991

Selye G. Stress without distress. M., 1991

Sudakov K.V. Systemic mechanisms of emotional stress. M., 1981

Hars K., Mayer K. Stress - the price of success? 1993, translated by Akonova G.V. R n/a 1996

Khjell L., Ziegler D. Theory of Personality. Sp. 2001

Chirkov Yu.G. Stress without stress. M., "Physical culture and sport" 1988

Hosted on Allbest.ru

3.2 .

The occurrence of stress in a certain situation may occur for subjective reasons related to the characteristics of the individual.

Feeling a vague threat;

Feeling of diffuse apprehension and anxious expectation;

represents the most powerful mechanism of mental stress. This follows from the already mentioned sense of threat, which, in turn, is the central element of anxiety and determines its biological significance as a signal of trouble and danger.

Anxiety, which is inadequate in intensity and duration to the situation, prevents the formation of adaptive behavior, leads to a violation of behavioral integration and a general disorganization of the human psyche. Thus, anxiety underlies any changes in mental state and behavior due to mental stress.

2) hyperesthesia reactions - anxiety increases, previously neutral stimuli acquire a negative connotation, irritability increases;

6) anxious-fearful excitement - the disorganization caused by anxiety reaches a maximum, and the possibility of purposeful activity disappears.

Anxiety, despite the abundance of different semantic formulations, is a single phenomenon and serves as an obligatory mechanism of emotional stress. Occurring with any imbalance in the “man-environment” system, it activates adaptive mechanisms, and at the same time, with significant intensity, underlies the development of adaptive disorders. An increase in the level of anxiety causes the inclusion or strengthening of the mechanisms of intrapsychic adaptation. These mechanisms can contribute to effective mental adaptation, ensuring the reduction of anxiety, and in case of their inadequacy, they are reflected in the type of adaptive disorders, which correspond to the nature of the borderline psychopathological phenomena that are formed in this case.

The effectiveness of mental adaptation directly depends on the organization of microsocial interaction. In conflict situations in the family or industrial sphere, difficulties in building informal communication, violations of mechanical adaptation were noted much more often than in effective social interaction. Also, the analysis of factors of a certain environment or environment is directly related to adaptation. The assessment of the personal qualities of others as an attracting factor in the overwhelming majority of cases was combined with effective mental adaptation, and the assessment of the same qualities as a repulsive factor was associated with its violations.

But not only the analysis of environmental factors determines the level of adaptation and emotional tension. It is also necessary to take into account individual qualities, the state of the immediate environment and the characteristics of the group in which microsocial interaction is carried out.

The phenomenon of stress was discovered by the Canadian physiologist G. Selye in 1936 to denote a non-specific reaction of the body (“general adaptation syndrome”) in response to any adverse effect.

Hans Selye, the founder of the Western doctrine of stress and nervous disorders, defined the following stages of stress as a process:

1. direct reaction to the impact (anxiety stage);

2. maximum effective adaptation (resistance stage);

3. violation of the adaptation process (depletion stage).

In a broad sense, these stages are characteristic of any adaptation process.

The first stage is the anxiety stage (within 48 hours after the onset of exposure), during which the body's resistance decreases ("shock phase"), and then defense mechanisms are activated, the body's adaptive resources are mobilized. At this stage, a person is in a state of tension and alertness. Physically, the person feels very good, is in high spirits. However, in this phase, diseases often occur that belong to the category of so-called "psychosomatic". With a large force of influence, the alarm reaction can end in the death of the organism. But if the body tolerates this stage of the syndrome, then the second stage begins.

The second stage is the stage of resistance, or resistance (begins 48 hours after the damaging effect), when the body's adaptation to new conditions is achieved by the stress of the functioning of the systems. At this stage, a balanced expenditure of adaptive capabilities is carried out. Man develops optimal energy by adapting to changing circumstances. He seems to have “worked in” and is ready for a more or less prolonged effort to overcome difficulties. If the damaging effect was not so strong, G. Selye notes, then the body's resistance increases, and in the later period of the second stage, the appearance and functions of the organs practically return to normal. But if the action of the damaging agent continues further, then after this stage the organism loses its resistance, which leads to the third stage.

The third stage is the stage of exhaustion, in which the failure of protective mechanisms is revealed and the violation of the coordination of vital functions increases. At the stage of exhaustion, energy is exhausted, physiological and psychological defenses are broken. Man no longer has the ability to defend himself. Unlike the first stage, when the stressful state of the body leads to the disclosure of adaptive reserves and resources, the state of the third stage is more like a "call for help" that can only come from outside - either in the form of support or in the form of eliminating the stressor. In the absence of "help" the death of the organism occurs.

What can be a source of stress:

* Trauma or crisis

* Small daily troubles

* Conflicts or communication with unpleasant people

* Obstacles that prevent you from achieving your goals

* Feeling of constant pressure

* Unfulfilled dreams or too high demands on yourself

* Constant accusation, reproach to yourself that you did not achieve something or missed something

* Blaming yourself for everything bad that happened, even if it wasn't your fault

* Strong positive emotions

* Quarrels with people and especially with relatives (observation of quarrels in the family can also lead to stress)

* Moving from one country to another

* Elderly people and children

*People with low self-esteem

* People who abuse alcohol

*People with a genetic predisposition to stress

Psychological aspects of stress

The psychological response of a person to stress

About the experiences associated with the psychological aspect of stress, they do not always say simply “I'm stressed”. Much more often this state is described in connection with emotions such as: anger, rage, anxiety, guilt, shame, jealousy. Thus, the experience associated with stress is undoubtedly an emotional experience. Most psychologists divide emotional experiences into two types: pleasant or positive emotions and unpleasant or negative emotions.

A large number of studies have been devoted to the study of psychological reactions to stress, although many of them do not have this specific name. Several clearly defined areas of research should be indicated. When studying animals, researchers were interested in the behavioral components of emotions (especially negative ones, such as fear), the impact on behavior of punishment and behavior in conflict situations. In human studies, interest has focused on clinical, industrial, and military situations. When studying clinical situations, the main attention was paid to the etiology of nervous disorders and the changes in the mental state preceding them. When considering industrial or military situations, interest was also focused on the study of the state of the individual, his activity in extreme conditions was studied in more detail. The main problem in understanding the psychological reactions of a person to stress concerns his ability to cope with a stressful situation. As a result of all these studies, several different models have been developed to explain the psychological reactions to stress, each of which more or less corresponds to its specific conditions, but is only partially adequate as a general model. None of the existing models can provide a complete explanation of stress. The experience of stress in a person is considered as a cause that causes a violation of psychological balance, which sets in motion mechanisms aimed at weakening this violation. These are coping mechanisms that are part of the behavior. If the normal coping response does not succeed in reducing or coping with stress, it can lead to disorganized behavior. If the duration and persistence of stress is stronger, then this can lead to a collapse of behavior. The concept of overcoming owes much to the writings of Lazarus, "overcoming," he writes, "is best thought of as a form of problem solving whose goal is the well-being of the individual, while it is not entirely clear to the individual what needs to be done." This is especially true for difficult situations that are perceived as stressful. By overcoming a person makes an attempt to master the situation. According to Lazarus, coping involves two processes, one is an immediate motor response and the other is temporary relief.

Direct motor response refers to real behavior aimed at changing the relationship of a person with the environment. It has forms in the form of: preparation for protection from harmful influences, aggression, avoidance and passivity. By "avoidance," Lazarus means moving himself away from a real-life danger or threat. Preparing for protection from harm is a form of true avoidance behavior in which a person can take certain actions in relation to danger. The reaction of students in exams is a good example of preparation for protection from harmful influences. Since exams usually follow a well-defined format, students have months to prepare for them. As the danger approaches (failing the exams with all the ensuing consequences), an increasing number of students begin to study intensively, constantly increasing the time of classes and the depth of study of the material. Aggression, apparently, often accompanies stress, but is not always an adequate and, therefore, effective form of coping. It is expressed in the attack of the individual on the source of problems, which can be perceived either as a specific person, group of people, or organization. Destroying or at least partially defeating the source that causes problems can save a person from danger or reduce the experience associated with stress. A man may attack his wife when the true source of his problems is his immediate supervisor at work. However, his wife may be a more vulnerable target with less ability to counteract. For such an indirect attack to be an effective form of coping, a man must perceive his wife as a source of harm in his stressful situation. If it is obvious that this is a misperception, then later on, guilt may arise, which will further increase the experience of stress. An argument between neighbors that led to verbal abuse of each other in an apparent outburst of rage accompanied by appropriate posture and arm waving. This event can be analyzed as follows: the goal is a specific individual, the nature of the aggression is verbal abuse with appropriate behavior, the emotion is anger. Such behavior can resolve the dispute from the position of the strongest and eliminate the source of stress, or increase self-esteem (in connection with victory) and thereby reduce the experience of stress.

Flight is the third form of immediate motor response, just as anger is often referred to as the emotional correlate of aggression, and fear is associated with the concept of flight. Cases of soldiers fleeing the battlefield or deserting can serve as an example of running away from fear. Lazarus sees aggression and flight as a response to stress. The fourth form is passivity. This fading as a direct reaction to the effects of stress. Passivity can also be seen as an ongoing response to chronic stress. This can be associated with depression and feelings of hopelessness. Depression is a common clinical response to long-term exposure to severe chronic stress. This is one of the forms of relative passivity, obviously expressed in extreme slowness and lethargy of reactions to any stimuli [cit.6; p.103] “Some triggering situations may leave no hope that the stress can be alleviated or the actual harm removed. Probably, due to the lack of any obvious ways of overcoming, a person will not develop his desire to cope with difficulties and will completely lose the ability to do this, Lazarus believes - passivity can be the result of a clear hopelessness of the situation.

“It has not yet been decided,” says Cox, “what is hopelessness - the lack of the ability to overcome or one of the forms of overcoming stress, a parallel freezing reaction, or perhaps a simulation of death.”

According to Schmidt, several points stand out in the scheme:

Only at subsequent stages, namely, starting with the appearance of disintegration, negative symptoms are revealed, in which mental disorders are always noted;

As the role of mental stress increases, there is no doubt that research requires a combination of biomedical, psychosocial, and clinical methods, because mental stress is a complex problem.

Psychological aspects of stress

Chapter 1 The Scientific Explanation of Stress p. 3

Chapter 2. Human psychological response to stress p. 9

Chapter 3. Human adaptation to stressful situations p. 20-23

Before I sat down and wrote this paper, I thought for a long time about what I know about stress.

I. Borodin believes that “stress is the engine of progress, there is an assumption that our ape-like ancestors lived in the upper tier of the rainforest and had almost no enemies. But now the forests began to give way to the savannah, and the pre-man had to face many dangers. And the stress was everywhere." “And in order to survive,” the scientist claims, “future people took the path of creating a non-specific adaptation—they acquired intelligence.” “Alas,” notes Borodin, “the addition of stress only intensified. Animals react only to immediate danger, they are not able to predict. And a person adds future stresses to momentary stresses. ”[cit.12; page 8]

it is a motivating or coercive force.

it is an effort or a great expenditure of energy.

These are the forces that act on the body.

The main scientific approaches to the problem of defining stress have been discussed by various authors, such as Lazarus, Anclay and Trumbell, Levine and Scotch, Cox and others. The first approach treats stress as a dependent variable, defining it as the body's response to a disturbing or harmful environment (see Figure 1). The second approach treats stress in terms of the stimulating effects of this disturbing or harmful environment, and thus usually considers stress to be an independent variable (see Figure 2). The third approach considers stress as a response to the lack of "match" between the individual and the environment. In this form, stress is studied in terms of the impact of factors that precede it and their consequences. In all three approaches, the word "environment" is used in the broadest sense and refers to both the inner and outer world of the individual, to his physical and psychosocial environment.

1.1 General adaptation syndrome G. Selye

Special attention to stress appeared after the work of Hans Selye. Selye was most interested in the physiological mechanism of stress. And this led to a close association between the response-based model.

About environment Personality

C thymul Reaction

Figure 1. Response-based stress model. Selye. [taken from 6; p.18]

Environment Personality

Figure 2. Leiman stress model. [taken from 6; p.17]

There are three main points in Selye's concept of stress. First, he believes that the physiological response to stress does not depend on the nature of the stressor, as well as on the type of animal. Second, that this defensive response to continued or repeated exposure to a stressor goes through three distinct stages, which he called the "general adaptation syndrome." Thirdly, that a defensive reaction, if it is strong and prolonged, can turn into a disease, the so-called "adaptation disease". The disease will be the price that the body will pay for the fight against stress-causing factors. Influences (stressors) can be very different, but regardless of their same type of changes that provide adaptation. Selye considers the endocrine-humoral system to be the leading link in this chain of adaptation. The general adaptation syndrome has (according to Selye) three stages (see Fig. 3):

Reaction Resistance stage Depletion stage

Figure 3. General adaptation syndrome G. Selye. [taken from 6; p.20]

The data of Mason (1971) indicate that some harmful physical conditions do not cause a general adaptation syndrome. The author had in mind physical activity, starvation and heat. [cit.6; p.21]

“Important questions in defining stimulus-based stress are: what conditions can be considered stressful and what are their general characteristics? Similar questions have to be answered in relation to the stress response when a response-based definition of stress is used,” notes T. Cox.

1.2 Model of transactional analysis by T. Cox.

Cox and colleagues believe that stress can best be described as part of a complex and dynamic system of human-environment interaction (see Figure 4). [cit.6; p.32] Five stages can be defined in this system. The first stage is represented by the source of requirements for a person, and is part of his environment. A person has psychological and physiological needs, their satisfaction is important for him, and this determines his behavior. These needs are combined into a common internal requirement. Man's awareness of this requirement and his own ability to cope with them constitute the second stage. If the situation demands too much from a person, and he does not imagine the limits of his capabilities, he will work without being exposed to stress until it becomes clear to him that he is not able to cope with such a situation. Then he will understand that there is no balance between the requirement and the possibility, and he will fall into a state of stress. Psychophysiological changes can be considered as the third stage of this model and represent a response to stress. Responses to stress are sometimes considered the final link in the stressful process, they should be considered as ways available to a person to cope with a stressful situation; The fourth stage, the most important and often overlooked, concerns the consequences of the stress response. The fifth stage is feedback, which is noted in all other stages of the stress system and which is effective in shaping the outcome of each of these stages. [cit.6; p.33]

Psychological aspects of stress
Content:
Instead of introducing s. 2
Chapter 1 The Scientific Explanation of Stress p. 3

1.1 General adaptation syndrome. G. Selye p. 3-6

1.2 T. Cox's model of transactional analysis p. 6-7

1.3 Classification of stressful situations McGrath p. 7-8
Chapter 2. Human psychological response to stress p. 9

2.1 Psychological aspects of stress p. 9-14

2.2 Emotions and stress p. 14-16

2.3 Research by M. Friedman and R. Roizenman p. 16-17

2.4 Anxiety. Anxiety. Stress. With. 17-19
Chapter 3. Human adaptation to stressful situations p. 20-23

3.1 Stress or Distress p. 23-24

3.2 How to manage stress p. 24-29
Conclusion page 30
Literature page 31

Instead of an introduction
Before I sat down and wrote this paper, I thought for a long time about what I know about stress.

Everyone has experienced it, everyone is talking about it, but almost no one takes the trouble to find out what stress, stress-threat, trouble, attack is. The employee is suffering from the unfair attacks of his boss, and his stomach ulcer is most likely the result of stress. Stress is a complex of pain and fear in a personwhen a drill drills a cavity in a diseased tooth. Stress is like a car accident. Stress is war. Stress is passing an exam for a student. Stress is any threat to existence.

An airport dispatcher who knows that a moment's distraction is probably hundreds of dead air passengers. The athlete is a weightlifter, straining every muscle to the limit and insanely thirsting for victory at the Olympic Games. A journalist trying to get to the editorial office in time with sensational material. A husband helplessly watching his wife slowly and painfully die of cancer - all these people experience stress and its dire consequences. “Inflationary” stress has become a new concern for psychiatrists in the West, they are now talking more and more with patients about money, trying to almost plan their expenses. People often talk about the stress of administrative work, pollution, retirement, physical stress, family problems, or the death of a relative. Scientists study stress in Antarctic winterers, in people working in high altitude conditions, in workers "tied" to a conveyor belt, in night shift workers, and so on. Researchers in laboratories try to simulate stress in experiments with animals, testing a variety of stress-causing factors. Even the gentle touch of the owner's hand can be stressful for a dog chewing on a bone. Even plants are believed to experience stressful conditions, especially when transplanting, or sudden changes in temperature.

The word "stress" as well as "success", "failure" and "happiness" has different meanings for different people. Therefore, it is very difficult to define it, although it has become part of our everyday speech. What is this fatigue, pain, fear, trauma, unexpected joy, grandiose success that turned your whole life upside down? Any condition can cause stress, but none of them can be singled out and said to be “stress.”

After reading a lot of literature, I tried to formulate

What have I learned about stress?

How relevant is this question today?

Is it worth it to deal with stress and in what ways.

So, let's begin…

Chapter 1. Scientific explanation of stress.
I. Borodin believes that “stress is the engine of progress, there is an assumption that our ape-like ancestors lived in the upper tier of the rainforest and had almost no enemies. But now the forests began to give way to the savannah, and the pre-man had to face many dangers. And the stress was everywhere." “And in order to survive,” the scientist claims, “future people took the path of creating a non-specific adaptation—they acquired intelligence.” “Alas,” notes Borodin, “the addition of stress only intensified. Animals react only to immediate danger, they are not able to predict. And a person adds future stresses to momentary stresses. ”[cit.12; page 8]

T. Cox believes that stress is a threat to the normal course of a person's life, a threat to his mental and physical health. [cit.6; p.11] The founder of the theory of stress G. Family wrote: "Stress is a non-specific (physical) response of the organism to any requirement imposed on it by the environment." [cit.8; p.25]

The Concise Oxford Dictionary gives several definitions of the word "stress":

it is a motivating or coercive force.
it is an effort or a great expenditure of energy.
These are the forces that act on the body.

The main scientific approaches to the problem of defining stress have been discussed by various authors, such as Lazarus, Anclay and Trumbell, Levin and Scotch, Cox and others. The first approach treats stress as a dependent variable, defining it as the body's response to a disturbing or harmful environment (see Figure 1). The second approach treats stress in terms of the stimulating effects of this disturbing or harmful environment, and thus usually considers stress to be an independent variable (see Figure 2). The third approach considers stress as a response to the lack of "match" between the individual and the environment. In this form, stress is studied in terms of the impact of factors that precede it and their consequences. In all three approaches, the word "environment" is used in the broadest sense and refers to both the inner and outer world of the individual, to his physical and psychosocial environment.
1.1 General adaptation syndrome G. Selye
Special attention to stress appeared after the work of Hans Selye. Selye was most interested in the physiological mechanism of stress. And this led to a close association between the response-based model.
Environment Personality

Psychological stress

stressor stress

physiological stress

Stimulus Response
Figure 1. Response-based stress model. Selye. [taken from 6; p.18]

Environment Personality

Tension Suffering

coping stress

Difficulties

Fatigue

Stimulus Response

Figure 2. Leiman stress model. [taken from 6; p.17]
There are three main points in Selye's concept of stress. First, he believes that the physiological response to stress does not depend on the nature of the stressor, as well as on the type of animal. Second, that this defensive response to continued or repeated exposure to a stressor goes through three distinct stages, which he called the "general adaptation syndrome." Thirdly, that a defensive reaction, if it is strong and prolonged, can turn into a disease, the so-called "adaptation disease". The disease will be the price that the body will pay for the fight against stress-causing factors. Influences (stressors) can be very different, but regardless of their same type of changes that provide adaptation. Selye considers the endocrine-humoral system to be the leading link in this chain of adaptation. The general adaptation syndrome has (according to Selye) three stages (see Fig. 3):

1. Alarm reaction, during which the body's resistance decreases ("shock phase"), and then defense mechanisms are activated.

2. The stage of resistance ("resistance"), when the stress of the functioning of the systems is achieved by the adaptation of the organism in accordance with the new conditions.

3. The stage of exhaustion, in which the failure of protective mechanisms is revealed and the violation of the coordination of vital functions is growing. [cit.6; p.20]

Normal

resistance resistance

to stress to stress

Reaction Resistance stage Depletion stage

anxiety (collapse)
Figure 3. General adaptation syndrome G. Selye. [taken from 6; p.20]
The data of Mason (1971) indicate that some harmful physical conditions do not cause a general adaptation syndrome. The author had in mind physical activity, starvation and heat. [cit.6; p.21]

When describing stress, words such as “excessive”, “extreme”, “powerful” are most often used. The use of superlatives emphasizes the power of stress. Hans Selye, wishing to bring greater clarity to the understanding of the word “stress”, writes the following: “... stress arises not only from harmful influences. Frankly, I am to blame for the fact that in all languages of the world the word "stress" has a negative meaning, is associated with something bad, harmful, which should be avoided. The fact is that for a long time I myself believed that stress is always negative, that only negative factors cause it. Not without reason my first message was called "About one syndrome caused by various harmful factors". The mechanism of stress can be turned on by a blow of a whip and a passionate kiss. When a mother receives a message that her son died in battle, she experiences terrible stress ... But after a while, the son comes home in good health: the message about his death turned out to be a mistake. And instantly the mother again experiences the strongest stressful situation ... That is why in the modern formulation adopted at the international congress, this phenomenon is already defined as "a non-specific reaction of the body to any effect on it." The term "stress" should be considered a generic concept for the concepts of two subspecies: distress - "bad" and eustress - "good stress" ... "(1975)

“In my opinion, there are four degrees of nervous tension. The first degree trains, tempers. The second is also useful, but on the condition that it ends with a discharge. The third, of course, is harmful - it causes oppression. The fourth degree is already a neurosis, a disease. The art consists in being able to regulate your relations with the outside world, counting on that measure of tension that will “work” for you, and not the other way around. I think this is the greatest wisdom of life.”

G.I. Kositsky. Corresponding member of AMN. [cit.12; p.62]

“Important questions in defining stimulus-based stress are: what conditions can be considered stressful and what are their general characteristics? Similar questions have to be answered in relation to the stress response, when a definition of stress based on responses is used, ”notes T. Cox.

In 1970, Weitz made an attempt to classify various situations that could be classified as stressful. He described eight of them, which included the need for faster information processing. Harmful environmental stimuli, perceived threat, impaired physiological function, isolation and confinement, group pressure and frustration. In addition, Lazarus considers a perceived threat to be a central characteristic of a stressful situation, and especially if the most important values and goals for a person are threatened. [cit.6; p.29] Welford suggested that stress occurs when there are deviations from the optimal level of requirements that a person is unable to correct or corrects with great difficulty. [cit.6; p.43]

1.2 Model of transactional analysis by T. Cox.
Cox and colleagues believe that stress can best be described as part of a complex and dynamic system of human-environment interaction (see Figure 4). [cit.6; p.32] Five stages can be defined in this system. The first stage is represented by the source of requirements for a person, and is part of his environment. A person has psychological and physiological needs, their satisfaction is important for him, and this determines his behavior. These needs are combined into a common internal requirement. Man's awareness of this requirement and his own ability to cope with them constitute the second stage. If the situation demands too much from a person, and he does not imagine the limits of his capabilities, he will work without being exposed to stress until it becomes clear to him that he is not able to cope with such a situation. Then he will understand that there is no balance between the requirement and the possibility, and he will fall into a state of stress. Psychophysiological changes can be considered as the third stage of this model and represent a response to stress. Responses to stress are sometimes considered the final link in the stressful process, they should be considered as ways available to a person to cope with a stressful situation; The fourth stage, the most important and often overlooked, concerns the consequences of the stress response. The fifth stage is feedback, which is noted in all other stages of the stress system and which is effective in shaping the outcome of each of these stages. [cit.6; p.33]

actual actual feedback

possibility requirement

conscious conscious

possibility requirement
cognitive assessment

Feedback

violation

equilibrium

stress physiological

reaction

cognitive

uh emotional response to defense

experience stress psychological

reaction

behavioral

Reaction
Figure 4. Cox's transactional stress analysis model.

1.3 Classification of stressful situations McGrath.
McGrath (1970), in suggesting a formulation of concepts for the social and psychological study of stress, noted a number of weaknesses commonly associated with a definition based on the body's responses. He argued that if this type of definition is to be followed, then any stimulus capable of eliciting a stress response should be considered a stressor.

In addition, McGrath argued that the same reaction can be caused by different situations, and some of them cannot be recognized as stressful (see Fig. 4). [cit.6; pp. 24-25]

Reaction 1

FROM situation 1

Other reactions

Reaction 2

FROM Situation 2 Reaction 3

Reaction 4

FROM situation 3 situation 4

Reaction 5 Previously "unknown" situation

Three situations classified causes stress due to

as "stressful" causing what is classified as

stress and other reactions "stressful"
Figure 5. Classification of stressful situations, definition based on McGrath reactions. /1970/
From all of the above, we can conclude that: stress is a physiological response of the body to any stimulus. Changes in the body require restructuring. This requirement is non-specific, it consists in adapting to the difficulty, whatever it may be. Any stressors cause our need to carry out adaptive functions and thereby restore the state. From the point of view of the stress response, only the intensity of the need for restructuring or adaptation does not matter. Let's take a look at what stress is not. Stress is not just nervous tension. Stress is not always the result of injury. Any normal activity - playing chess and even a passionate hug - can cause significant stress without causing any harm, unlike distress, which is always unpleasant.
Chapter 2
2.1 Psychological aspects of stress
About the experiences associated with the psychological aspect of stress, they do not always say simply “I'm stressed”. Much more often this state is described in connection with emotions such as: anger, rage, anxiety, guilt, shame, jealousy. Thus, the experience associated with stress is undoubtedly an emotional experience. Most psychologists divide emotional experiences into two types: pleasant or positive emotions and unpleasant or negative emotions.

A large number of studies have been devoted to the study of psychological reactions to stress, although many of them do not have this specific name. Several clearly defined areas of research should be indicated. When studying animals, researchers were interested in the behavioral components of emotions (especially negative ones, such as fear), the impact on behavior of punishment and behavior in conflict situations. In human studies, interest has focused on clinical, industrial, and military situations. When studying clinical situations, the main attention was paid to the etiology of nervous disorders and the changes in the mental state preceding them. When considering industrial or military situations, interest also focused on the study of the state of the individual, his activity in extreme conditions was studied in more detail.[cit.12; pp.12-13] The main problem in understanding the psychological reactions of a person to stress concerns his ability to cope with a stressful situation. As a result of all these studies, several different models have been developed to explain the psychological reactions to stress, each of which more or less corresponds to its specific conditions, but is only partially adequate as a general model. None of the existing models can provide a complete explanation of stress. The experience of stress in a person is considered as a cause that causes a violation of psychological balance, which sets in motion mechanisms aimed at weakening this violation. These are coping mechanisms that are part of the behavior. If the normal coping response does not succeed in reducing or coping with stress, it can lead to disorganized behavior. If the duration and persistence of stress is stronger, then this can lead to a collapse of behavior. The concept of overcoming owes much to the writings of Lazarus, "overcoming," he writes, "is best thought of as a form of problem solving whose goal is the well-being of the individual, while it is not entirely clear to the individual what needs to be done." [cit.6; p.99] This is especially true for difficult situations that are perceived as stressful. By overcoming a person makes an attempt to master the situation. According to Lazarus, coping involves two processes, one is immediate motor response and the other is temporary relief. [cit.6; p.100]

Direct motor response refers to real behavior aimed at changing the relationship of a person with the environment. It has forms in the form of: preparation for protection from harmful influences, aggression, avoidance and passivity. By "avoidance," Lazarus means moving himself away from a real-life danger or threat. Preparing for protection from harm is a form of true avoidance behavior in which a person can take certain actions in relation to danger. [cit.6; pp.101-102] The reaction of students in examinations is a good example of preparation for protection from harmful influences. Since exams usually follow a well-defined format, students have months to prepare for them. As the danger approaches (failing the exams with all the ensuing consequences), an increasing number of students begin to study intensively, constantly increasing the time of classes and the depth of study of the material. Aggression, apparently, often accompanies stress, but is not always an adequate and, therefore, effective form of coping. It is expressed in the attack of the individual on the source of problems, which can be perceived either as a specific person, group of people, or organization. Destroying or at least partially defeating the source that causes problems can save a person from danger or reduce the experience associated with stress. A man may attack his wife when the true source of his problems is his immediate supervisor at work. However, his wife may be a more vulnerable target with less ability to counteract. For such an indirect attack to be an effective form of coping, a man must perceive his wife as a source of harm in his stressful situation. If it is obvious that this is a misperception, then later on, guilt may arise, which will further increase the experience of stress. An argument between neighbors that led to verbal abuse of each other in an apparent outburst of rage accompanied by appropriate posture and arm waving. This event can be analyzed as follows: the goal is a specific individual, the nature of the aggression is verbal abuse with appropriate behavior, the emotion is anger. Such behavior can resolve the dispute from the position of the strongest and eliminate the source of stress, or increase self-esteem (in connection with victory) and thereby reduce the experience of stress.

Feedback

stressor experiencing stress aggressive behavior

purpose of aggression nature of aggression accompanying emotions
real organization (verbal with anger

group of individuals or physical) without anger

specific individual symbolic

animals ritual

material environment
Figure 6. Possible classification of aggressive behavior proposed by T. Cox. [taken from 6; p.98]

Flight is the third form of immediate motor response, just as anger is often referred to as the emotional correlate of aggression, and fear is associated with the concept of flight. Cases of soldiers fleeing the battlefield or deserting can serve as an example of running away from fear. Lazarus sees aggression and flight as a response to stress. The fourth form is passivity. This fading as a direct reaction to the effects of stress. Passivity can also be seen as an ongoing response to chronic stress. This can be associated with depression and feelings of hopelessness. Depression is a common clinical response to long-term exposure to severe chronic stress. This is one of the forms of relative passivity, obviously expressed in extreme slowness and lethargy of reactions to any stimuli. [cit.6; p.103] “Some triggering situations may leave no hope that the stress can be alleviated or the actual harm removed. Probably, due to the lack of any obvious ways of overcoming, a person will not develop his desire to cope with difficulties and will completely lose the ability to do this, Lazarus believes - passivity can be the result of a clear hopelessness of the situation. [cit.6; p.99]

“It has not yet been decided,” says Cox, “what is hopelessness - the lack of the ability to overcome or one of the forms of coping with stress, a parallel freezing reaction, or perhaps a simulation of death.” [cit.6; p.105]

Overcoming can be expressed not in the form of a direct motor reaction, but in the form of temporary relief. Temporary relief is expressed in the mitigation of suffering associated with the experience of stress, and in the reduction of psychophysiological effects. Temporary relief can be achieved in several ways. According to Lazarus, two, symptomatic and intrapsychic. The first method includes the use of alcohol, tranquilizers and sedatives, muscle relaxation training and other methods aimed at improving the physical condition of a person. The intrapsychic method of temporary relief is considered in terms of cognitive defense mechanisms. The description of these mechanisms owes much to the development of psychoanalysis. Freud used the expression "defense mechanisms" to refer to an unconscious psychological mechanism by which a person can deceive himself about the presence of a threat or external danger. The meaning of this "protection" is that the perception of the threat of danger is reduced, and not the threat itself. Intrapsychic temporary relief according to Lazarus is considered from the point of view of these mechanisms, and are called: identification, displacement, suppression, denial, reaction formation, projection and intellectualization. Aggressiveness shifting can be observed, for example, when a person restrains his aggressive behavior directed at a stronger opponent and shows aggression towards another less powerful one. (In the case when the husband shows aggression towards his wife, although the boss is to blame). In denial, a person overcomes a threat or danger simply by denying that it exists. Denial is usually considered to be closely related to suppression in that suppression implies the denial of internal threatening impulses. For denial to be effective, it may be necessary to create complex cognitive mechanisms for the perception of information that makes the denial false. For example, a doctor who informs a patient with a severe heart attack about the severity and seriousness of his disease, from a position of denial, can be discredited in the eyes of the patient, and the doctor's information will not be taken into account. Intellectualization is a method of protection in which a person can react to a threatening situation dispassionately, evaluating it analytically as an object for improvement or an interesting phenomenon. A professional doctor, psychologist or nurse for this reason does not like to treat those who are emotionally close to them. In such a situation, it is difficult to remain dispassionate. [cit.12; pp.11-13]

Their main hypothesis is that psychosocial situations may be the cause of a number of such disorders (see Fig. 7). Levy and Kogan suggest that in most cases, changes in the conditions of existence cause a physiological stress response that prepares the individual for active physical resistance to the stressor. Levy and Kogan represent this process in a diagram in the form of a flowchart. External influences, defined as psychosocial stimuli, are intertwined with genetic and environmental influences. These individual factors Levy and Kogan call the "psychobiological program". Together, the psychosocial stimuli and the psychobiological program determine the response to stress, which in turn can induce the predisease state and then the disease itself. [cit.6; pp. 22-23]

Causal factors Responses

genetic

predisposition

standing,

psychosocial reaction

incentives for stress disease and

Disease

(education)

processes - interference

Feedback

Figure 7. Etiology of physical disorders caused by stress. Levy and Kogan. [cit.6; p.22]
The studies of V. Kennon (1927-1929) also showed that the body seeks to ensure the constancy of its internal environment, the constancy of the levels of functioning of its systems, when new conditions arise, a restructuring takes place, which, through a chain of transformations, restores the previous balance, but at a different level. New conditions can be determined not only by physical stimuli, but also by psychological methods. [cit.6; p.26] One of the researchers of mental stress P. Schmidt (Higher Gymnastic School Mecklingen in Switzerland) considers mental stress using the following scheme: (see Fig. 8)

environmental stressors

environment, individual somatic predispositions and other

experienced as aggravating factors

threatening

mental stress psychovegetative functional lesion

organ disorder dysregulation

external manifestations: negative mental and vegeneuroses,

Mental mental symptoms of ulcers, gi-

voltage; conditions and pro-organ locality-pertonia

Anxiety, tension of the vegetative phenomenon, palpitations, etc.

muscles; apparent disintegration, disorders

Vegetative function of the gastrointestinal

tract lability

Figure 8
According to Schmidt, several points stand out in the scheme:

in itself, psychological stress leads to symptoms of tension, it is adaptive in nature and may be appropriate. Anxiety phenomena can impede sports activity, causing muscle tension, changing the developed skill. This also determines preventive measures in this period: reducing anxiety and preventing changes in muscle tone;
only at subsequent stages, namely, starting with the appearance of disintegration, negative symptoms are revealed, in which mental disorders are always noted;
the development of negative symptoms has a certain progression. Between the normal adaptive stress response and the formation of neurosis or pronounced psychosomatic diseases, intermediate, temporary states of functional disorders (including mental ones) are found;
the diagram shows that the further the disorder goes, the greater the influence of the predisposition.

As the role of mental stress increases, there is no doubt that research requires a combination of biomedical, psychosocial, and clinical methods, because mental stress is a complex problem. [cit.12; pp.14-16]
2.2 Emotions and stress
P. K. Anokhin was able to clearly show how emotions are related to stress. According to the theory of functional systems, the behavior of any living being, the activity of its tissues and organs, is invariably aimed at achieving some useful results. Chaos within functional systems is what Anokhin stress is. [cit.12; p.82]

“One has only to imagine for a moment the life of people devoid of emotions, as immediately a deep abyss of mutual misunderstanding and the complete impossibility of establishing purely human relationships will open before us. The world of such people would be a world of soulless robots, devoid of the whole gamut of human experiences and unable to understand either the subjective consequences of everything that happens in the outside world, or the significance of their own actions for others. A terrible and gloomy picture!

P. K. Anokhin.
L. N. Tolstoy counted 97 smiles and 85 eye expressions in a person. [cit.9; pp.24-26] Many emotional nuances were noticed not only by writers, but also by artists and sculptors. Scientists, however, are more strict here, they believe that there are only nine basic emotions. Emotions of joy, surprise, sadness, anger, disgust, fear, interest, contempt and shame. All these emotions, scientists believe, are innate: they are expressed and understood in exactly the same way by all people. [cit.3] Emotions are expressed in facial expressions, voice intonation, body movement. Emotions are a "lightning rod" for stress. The muscles of the face during emotional stress use some of the nervous energy. Chronic forced suppression of emotions promises trouble; psychic energy will fall upon the sensitive internal organs and cause diseases.

"Passion! These are the winds that blow the sails of the ship, they sometimes drown it, but without them it cannot sail.

Voltaire
Voltaire's words fit perfectly into the theme of emotions and stress. After all, according to Selye, a life without stress means death. [cit.8; p.30] And as we have already found out, stress is nothing without our emotions. Psychological stress is caused by relationships between people, as well as their position in society. At some point there is a clash of interests - a stressor, then balanced impulses appear - orders to resist or endure. Stress resilience and adaptability are often tested by life's extremes, such as heart attack, severe burns, bereavement, mutilation, isolation from others, car accident, attempted murder or rape.

The evidence of the recent catastrophe in Moscow, in connection with the taking of hostages, was that only a few were able to cope with this situation.

A stable position in society is best ensured by arousing positive feelings in the maximum number of people. After all, no one has a desire to harm the person he loves, for whom he has confidence and reverence. Feelings of indifference, at best, can lead to a relationship of mutual tolerance. They make peaceful coexistence possible, but no more. Ultimately, our feelings are the most important factor that governs our behavior in everyday life. Such feelings determine our peace of mind or anxiety, our sense of security or threat, accomplishment or failure. They determine whether we can succeed in life by enjoying stress and not suffering from distress. Different people require different levels of stress to be happy. Only in rare cases is a person inclined towards a passive, often vegetative life. Even the least ambitious people are not satisfied with a minimum standard of living that provides only food, clothing, housing. People need something more. Most people dislike both the absence of stress and the excess of it in equal measure. Therefore, everyone should carefully study himself and find the level of stress at which he feels most “comfortable”, no matter what activity he chooses. Those who fail to study themselves will suffer from distress caused by the lack of worthwhile work or constant overwork.

2.3 Research by M. Friedman
In a series of studies by M. Fridman and R. Roizenman, an analysis was made of the behavior of a vast contingent of intellectual workers (scientists, engineers, administrators) engaged in managerial activities. They identified two main types:

stressed out,
stress resistant individuals.

Representatives of type A are characterized by a clearly defined behavioral syndrome that determines their lifestyle. They are more likely to have “a pronounced tendency to compete, the desire to achieve a goal, aggressiveness, impatience, anxiety, hyperactivity, expressive speech, constant tension of the facial muscles, a feeling of constant lack of time and increased activity.” The cost of this is the loss of health, often at a young age. [cit.2]

Not only the indicated medical, but also various negative socio-economic consequences of stress - job dissatisfaction, reduced productivity, accidents, absenteeism, staff turnover - emphasize the need to study the states of psychological stress that have become one of the characteristic features of modern life. Optimization of any type of work involves the use of a set of preventive measures aimed at eliminating or minimizing the causes of stress.

In general, since individuals are not similar to each other, a lot depends on the personality factor. For example, in the "man-environment" system, the level of emotional tension increases as the differences between the conditions in which the mechanisms of the subject are formed and those newly created increase. Thus, certain conditions cause emotional tension not because of their absolute rigidity, but as a result of the inconsistency of the individual's emotional mechanism with these conditions.
2.4 Anxiety, anxiety, stress
With any violation of the “man-environment” balance, the insufficiency of the mental or physical resources of the individual to meet actual needs or the mismatch of the system of needs itself is a source of anxiety. Anxiety, referred to as

Feeling a vague threat;

Feeling of diffuse apprehension and anxious expectation;

vague anxiety,

is the most powerful mechanism of mental stress. This follows from the already mentioned sense of threat, which is the central element of anxiety and determines its biological significance as a signal of trouble and danger.

Unlike pain, anxiety is a danger signal that has not yet been realized. The prediction of this situation is probabilistic in nature, and ultimately depends on the characteristics of the individual. In this case, the personality factor often plays a decisive role, and in this case, the intensity of anxiety reflects the individual characteristics of the subject rather than the real significance of the threat.

Professor Berezin identified an alarming series that represents an essential element in the process of mental adaptation:

a feeling of internal tension - does not have a pronounced shade of threat, serves only as a signal of its approach, creating painful mental discomfort;
hyperesthetic reactions - anxiety increases, previously neutral stimuli acquire a negative connotation, irritability increases;
anxiety itself is the central element of the series under consideration. Manifested by a sense of vague threat. A characteristic feature: the inability to determine the nature of the threat, to predict the time of its occurrence. Inadequate logical processing often occurs, resulting in an incorrect conclusion due to a lack of facts;
fear - anxiety, concretized on a specific object. Although the objects to which the anxiety is associated may not be its cause, the subject is given the idea that the anxiety can be eliminated by certain actions;
a sense of the inevitability of an impending catastrophe - an increase in the intensity of anxiety disorders leads the subject to the idea that it is impossible to prevent an impending event;
anxious-fearful excitement - the disorganization caused by anxiety reaches a maximum, and the possibility of purposeful activity disappears. [cit.2]

Selye put forward a very interesting hypothesis that aging is the result of all the stresses that the body has been exposed to during its life. It corresponds to the “wasting phase” of the General Adaptation Syndrome, which is, in a sense, an accelerated version of normal aging. Any stress, especially that caused by fruitless effort, leaves behind irreversible chemical changes; their accumulation causes signs of aging in tissues. Particularly severe consequences are caused by damage to the brain and nerve cells. But a successful activity, whatever it is, leaves less of an aging effect, so Selye says you can live happily ever after if you choose the right job for you and do it well.

Increasing anxiety leads to an increase in the intensity of the action of two interrelated adaptive mechanisms, which are listed below:

allopsychic mechanism - operates when there is a modification of behavioral activity. Method of action: changing the situation or leaving it.
intrapsychic mechanism - provides a reduction of anxiety due to the reorientation of the personality.

There are several types of defenses that are used by the intrapsychic mechanism of mental adaptation:

obstruction of awareness of factors that cause anxiety;
fixing anxiety on certain stimuli;
decrease in the level of motivation, i.e. depreciation of initial needs;
conceptualization.

Anxiety, despite the abundance of different semantic formulations, is a single phenomenon and serves as an obligatory mechanism of emotional stress. Occurring with any imbalance in the “man-environment” system, it activates adaptive mechanisms, and at the same time, with a significant intensity, underlies the development of adaptive disorders. An increase in the level of anxiety causes the inclusion or strengthening of the mechanisms of intrapsychic adaptation. These mechanisms can contribute to effective mental adaptation, ensuring the reduction of anxiety, and in case of their inadequacy, they are reflected in the type of adaptive disorders, which correspond to the nature of the borderline psychopathological phenomena that are formed in this case.

The organization of emotional stress implies a difficulty in the implementation of motivation, a blockade of motivated behavior, i.e. frustration. The totality of frustration, anxiety, as well as their relationship with allopsychic and intrapsychic adaptations, constitutes the main body of stress.

Physiological aspects of stress and its consequences. emergence

Psychological aspects of stress

Psychology of emotional phenomena. — Stress. Physiological and psychological aspects of the study of stress.

Neuroscience and stuff

Physiological aspects of stress and its consequences. emergence

emotional stress

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Similar Documents

3.2 .

Psychological aspects of stress

The psychological response of a person to stress

Psychological aspects of stress