India, Pakistan, China after World War II. Pakistan

Independence gained by India. Development of India and Pakistan. After the end of the Second World War, India experienced the rise of the national liberation movement. The British authorities, trying to hold on to India, maneuvered, combining the methods of his brutal suppression of speeches with concessions and actions aimed at splitting the Indians.

Under the pretext of protecting the interests of Muslims and other minorities, in 1946 the authorities established a system of elections to the Central Legislative Assembly for religious curia, which aggravated the conflict between the Indian National Congress (INC) and the Muslim League. The INC program included demands for the independence of the country and the equality of all its citizens, the unity of Hindus, Muslims and adherents of other religions. The main demands of the Muslim League were the division of India into two states on religious grounds and the creation of a Muslim state of Pakistan ("country of the pure").

The INC and the Muslim League received a majority in their curiae, but in a number of provinces a large number of Muslims supported the program of the INC. The vast majority of the population spoke out against British domination.

The INC included representatives of various social strata, was very authoritative due to many years of opposition to the colonialists. The most popular leaders of the INC were M. Gandhi and J. Nehru.

In August 1946, a provisional government headed by Nehru was established. The Muslim League refused to enter the government and proclaimed the start of a direct struggle for Pakistan. In Calcutta, pogroms broke out in the Hindu quarters, in response, the Muslim quarters flared up. Clashes between Hindus and Muslims, which escalated into a massacre, spread to other parts of the country.

In February 1947, the British government announced its intention to grant India the rights of a dominion on the condition that it be divided along religious lines into the Indian Union and Pakistan. The principalities themselves decided which of the dominions they would join. The INC and the Muslim League accepted this plan.

In a short period, a huge number of refugees moved from the Pakistani parts to the Indian regions and vice versa. Hundreds of thousands were killed. M. Gandhi spoke out against inciting religious hatred. He demanded that acceptable conditions be created for the Muslims who remained in India. This led to accusations of betraying the interests of the Hindus. In January 1948, M. Gandhi was killed by a member of one of the religious Hindu organizations.

On August 14, 1947, the founding of the Dominion of Pakistan was proclaimed. Liqiat Ali Khan, the leader of the Muslim League, became the prime minister of Pakistan. The next day, the Indian Union declared its independence. Of the 601 principalities, the vast majority joined India. The first government of the country was headed by J. Nehru.

When dividing the territory, neither geographical boundaries, nor economic ties between regions, nor national composition were taken into account. 90% of all mineral resources, textile and sugar industries are concentrated on Indian territory. Most of the areas for the production of bread and industrial crops went to Pakistan.

The most tense situation has developed in the principality of Kashmir. It was supposed to become part of the Indian Union, although the majority of the population were Muslims. In autumn 1947, Pakistani troops invaded western Kashmir. The Maharaja announced his accession to India, and Indian troops entered Kashmir. The Kashmir issue became a bone of contention between India and Pakistan and one of the main causes of the Indo-Pakistani wars of 1965 and 1971. As a result of the 1971 war, the state of Bangladesh was formed on the site of East Pakistan.

In 1949, India adopted a constitution declaring it a federal republic (a union of states). Victory in all elections until the end of the 70s. won the INC. Its leaders advocated the development of a mixed economy with a strong position of the state in it. Agrarian reform and various social transformations were carried out. The Indian economy, despite all the difficulties, developed quite successfully. From the end of the 20th century the rapid growth of advanced technologies began in the country. A nuclear weapon was tested.

India's foreign policy has taken a course of non-participation in blocs, of fighting for peace. Friendly relations were maintained with the USSR. After Nehru's death, the post of prime minister passed to his daughter, Indira Gandhi. After the assassination of I. Gandhi in 1984, her son Rajiv Gandhi, who was killed in 1991, became prime minister. These murders were associated with the activation of the nationalist and separatist movement in the country (Sikhs, Tamils). At the end of the XX century. The INC experienced splits and lost its monopoly on power. Representatives of the Hindu parties came to rule the country (Prime Minister A. Vajpayee). At the beginning of the XXI century. The INC again won a majority in the parliamentary elections (M. Singh became prime minister).

The political development of Pakistan is characterized by instability. The army played a large role in the country, often carrying out military coups. In foreign policy, Pakistan followed a pro-American course. The country's economy has been relatively successful (Pakistan has also developed atomic weapons), although, like India, a significant part of the population continues to live in poverty. At the beginning of the XXI century. speeches demanding to strengthen the role of Islam in the life of society became more frequent.

The development of China in the 50s - 70s. 20th century As a result of the victory of the Communists in the Civil War in 1949, the remnants of the Kuomintang, under the cover of the US Air Force and Navy, fled to the island of Taiwan. On October 1, 1949, the establishment of the People's Republic of China (PRC) was proclaimed. The People's Government of the People's Republic of China was headed by Mao Zedong.

The new Chinese leadership set a course for the construction of socialism. Industrial enterprises were nationalized, cooperatives were created in the countryside. In the 50s. China worked closely with the USSR, which provided it with enormous assistance in the development of industry, agriculture, and culture. During this period there was a successful industrialization of the country.

At the end of the 50s. Mao Zedong set a course for an ultra-fast pace of development. The "great leap" began, which was an attempt to "join communism" under the slogan "A few years of hard work - and ten thousand years of happiness." As a result, chaos reigned in the economy, a terrible famine gripped the country. The policy of the "Great Leap Forward" caused dissatisfaction with a number of party leaders. To suppress their resistance from 1965 - 1966. At the initiative of Mao Zedong, the so-called "cultural revolution" was organized. The forces of the youth ("Hong Weibings" - red guards) launched an attack on officials under the slogan "Fire at the headquarters!". Hundreds of thousands of workers of the party and the state apparatus were executed or evicted to remote areas for "re-education". During this period, relations between China and the USSR escalated, in 1969 armed clashes took place (Damansky Island on the Ussuri River). In 1972, China entered into an agreement with the United States.

The death of Mao Zedong on September 9, 1976 led to an intensification of the internal political struggle. Fanatical adherents of Mao's policies ("gang of four") were arrested. Deng Xiaoping, a former associate of Mao who suffered during the years of the "cultural revolution", stood at the head of the party and state. The “four modernizations” policy proclaimed in 1978 provided for transformations in the field of industry, agriculture, culture and rearmament of the army.

Modern China. During the 80s - 90s. In China, under the leadership of the Communist Party, serious reforms were carried out that dramatically changed the face of the country. The reforms began with agriculture. Most of the cooperatives were dissolved, each peasant household received a piece of land on a long-term lease. Gradually, the food problem was solved. Industrial enterprises were granted independence, market relations developed. Private enterprises emerged. Foreign capital has increasingly penetrated into China. By the end of the XX century. the volume of industrial production increased by 5 times, Chinese goods began a victorious expansion abroad, including in the United States. The standard of living of a significant part of the population has risen.

The successful economic development of the country (production growth from 7 to 15% per year), which began to be called the "workshop of the 21st century," continues at the present time. Economic achievements were evidenced by the launch in 2003 of China's first spacecraft with an astronaut on board and the development of plans for a flight to the moon. In terms of economic potential, China has taken second place in the world, and in a number of indicators it has overtaken the United States. The Chinese demonstrated their great success during the Olympic Games in Beijing in 2008.

Political power in China remained unchanged. An attempt by some students and intellectuals to launch a liberalization campaign during a speech on Tiananmen Square in Beijing in 1989 was brutally suppressed. The country's leading force is still the CCP, which claims to "build socialism with Chinese characteristics."

In foreign policy, the PRC has achieved considerable success: Hong Kong (Xianggang) and Mokao (Aomen) were annexed to China. Since the mid 80s. normalized relations with the USSR. Friendly relations have been established between China and Russia and other post-Soviet states.

Pakistan(Urdu پاکِستان - “land of the pure”, English Pakistan [ˈpækɪsˌtæn]), the full name is the Islamic Republic of Pakistan (Urdu اسلامی جمہوریہ پاکِستان Islami Jumhuriye Pakistan, English Islamic Republic of Pakistan) is a state in South Asia. Pakistan came into existence in 1947 as a result of the division of British India.

It is washed by the waters of the Arabian Sea in the south, borders on Iran in the southwest, Afghanistan in the northwest and north, China in the northeast and India in the east. Land borders: India - 2912 km, Afghanistan - 2430 km, Iran - 909 km, China - 523 km.

Pakistan is the sixth most populous country in the world and has the second largest Muslim population in the world after Indonesia. Pakistan is a member of the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations, the World Trade Organization, an observer in the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, a member of the G33 developing countries, the Group of 77 developing countries.

Story

ancient period

In the III-II millennium BC. e. on the territory of Pakistan was the center of one of the oldest civilizations in the history of mankind - the Harappan. In I millennium BC. e. Aryans settled in Pakistan. After the campaigns of Alexander the Great, the spirit of Hellenism penetrates into Western Indian cities (such as Taxila). A powerful Kushan kingdom is formed - the first center of the spread of Buddhism.

From the 8th century A.D. e. Islam began to spread throughout the country. In the Middle Ages, large Muslim states were formed, headed by the Ghaznavids and the Ghurids. After the collapse of the Mughal Empire in the 18th century, there was an upsurge of Sikh nationalism in Sindh, Balochistan, Punjab.

colonial period

In the XIX century, the territory of Pakistan was captured by British troops and included in British India.

One of the spiritual founders of the state was the poet Iqbal, head of the Muslim League, an organization of leaders of separatist tendencies. It was Iqbal who proposed in 1930 to create an independent Muslim state, which would include Punjab, Sindh, the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) and Balochistan. The name for the state was proposed back in 1933 by a Muslim student Chaudhury Rahmat Ali, who studied at Cambridge. Pakistan literally means "country of the pure", it is an acronym: "P" is from Punjab, "A" is from Afghans from the border (i.e. NWFP Pashtuns), "K" is from Kashmir, "S" is from Sindh, and "tan - from Balochistan. On March 23, 1940, the historic Pakistan Resolution was adopted in Lahore, which proclaimed the principles for the existence of a Muslim community in an independent state.

Modern period

In 1947, during the division of British India, thanks to the efforts of the Muslim League, the state of Pakistan was formed, which included the northeastern and northwestern regions of Hindustan, predominantly with a Muslim population. The first governor-general of Pakistan as an independent administrative unit was Jinnah, the first prime minister of the country was Liaquat Ali Khan. In 1971, East Pakistan becomes the independent state of Bangladesh.

In 1965 and 1971, Pakistan waged wars with India. In 1977 there was a military coup. During this period, Pakistan was on the side of the United States and supported the Mujahideen, who waged an anti-government war in neighboring Afghanistan. Mujahideen training camps were located in Pakistan. After the death of President Zia-ul-Haq in a plane crash on August 17, 1988, power passed to a civilian government.

Acting President Ghulam Ishaq Khan called new parliamentary elections, in which the Pakistan People's Party won a relative majority. Benazir Bhutto became the country's prime minister. The new government returned democratic rights and freedoms and lifted the state of emergency. Nevertheless, the situation in the country continued to deteriorate, and armed clashes broke out in Sindh. In August, the Bhutto government was dismissed.

After the elections, Nawaz Sharif became the new prime minister.

In the 1990s, Pakistan's nuclear program developed under the leadership of Abdul Qadeer Khan, which caused the US to impose sanctions against Pakistan. In 1999, a military coup took place, General Pervez Musharraf came to power.

Since the early 2000s, Pakistan's northwestern region of Waziristan has been a stronghold of the Taliban. In 2004, the Taliban seized de facto power in the region.

After September 11, 2001, Pakistan officially ended its support for the Taliban regime and supported the US intervention against the Taliban.

On February 18, 2008, general elections were held in Pakistan, which were postponed from January 8, 2008 due to the assassination of Benazir Bhutto. In the elections, the Pakistan People's Party won the majority of the vote and formed an alliance with the Pakistan Muslim League. On August 18, 2008, Pervez Musharraf resigned as President of Pakistan under threat of impeachment. In the presidential elections that followed, Pakistan People's Party candidate Asif Ali Zardari won and became President of Pakistan.

As of June 2009, the territories of Pakistan bordering Afghanistan are almost not controlled by the authorities of this state. On May 7, 2009, Pakistani Prime Minister Yousuf Reza Gilani announced that he had ordered the army to eliminate the terrorists. Fights began with the use of aircraft, tanks and artillery in order to capture the administrative center of the Swat district - the city of Mingora.

Political structure

Pakistan is a federal republic consisting of 4 provinces (Punjab, Sindh, North-West Frontier and Balochistan). In addition to the provinces, Pakistan also includes the Northern Territories and Free Kashmir (recognized by Pakistan as an independent state, but actually a part of it), disputed by India.

Constitution

The first constitution of Pakistan was adopted on March 23, 1956. The constitution stipulated that the President of the country must be a Muslim. This article was also preserved in the constitution of 1962, which was in force under Ayub Khan.

In 1972, a new constitution was adopted, which was in effect until 1977, when a military coup led by General Zia-ul-Haq was carried out, after which its operation was suspended until 1985.

According to the Constitution, Pakistan is a mixed federal democratic republic. Islam is the state religion of the country.

executive power

The head of state is the president, elected by the federal parliament (upper house (Senate) and lower house (National Assembly) for a term of 5 years.

The President of Pakistan is and has the following powers:

• is the head of the executive branch, part of the legislative branch;
• is the supreme commander of the armed forces of the country
• has the right to pardon, annul and commute the sentence of any court
• makes appointments:
  prime minister government members
  provincial governors
  members of the Supreme Court of Pakistan and the Supreme Courts of the provinces
  Chairman of the Civil Service Commission
  Chief Commissioner for Elections and Members of the Electoral Commission
  top military leaders.

The government, approved by the president, is formed and led by the prime minister, who usually represents the majority party or coalition in the National Assembly. The Prime Minister must be a Muslim and is appointed by the President from among the members of the National Assembly. The prime minister must enjoy the confidence of the majority of his deputies. On his advice, the president appoints ministers. The government develops bills and submits them to parliament for discussion.

After parliamentary elections in 2008, Yusuf Reza Gilani was approved as the new prime minister on March 24.

Legislature

The Senate consists of 100 members elected by the deputies of the lower house of the federal parliament and the provincial legislatures under the majoritarian scheme. The term of office of the Senate is 6 years. One third of the Senate is renewed every 2 years. The National Assembly consists of 342 deputies, 272 of whom are elected by the population by direct secret ballot under the proportional representation system for a term of 5 years. 60 seats are given to women, 10 seats are reserved for representatives of religious minorities.

Judicial branch

The legal branch of government is represented by the Supreme Court (whose members are appointed by the president) and the federal Islamic Sharia Court.

The President and members of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President. The Supreme Court hears disputes between central and provincial governments, as well as between provinces. The Pakistani Supreme Court is the final court of appeal in cases involving questions of law related to the interpretation of the constitution when it comes to capital punishment, etc., gives opinions on points of law submitted to it by the president, exercises control over the observance of fundamental rights of citizens , decides on the constitutionality of certain actions of state bodies and on their eligibility.

The provinces have their own High Courts, and their presidents and members are appointed by the president. The lower courts (from local to district) are divided into criminal and civil and are appointed by the provincial governors.

During the reign of Zia-ul-Haq, the Federal Sharia Court was also created, which decided whether the laws corresponded to the canons of Islamic law.

Geographical position

Pakistan is located in the northwest of South Asia, stretching from the southwest to the northeast for 1500 km. Within Pakistan, three orographic regions can be distinguished - the flat east, the mid-mountain west and the high-mountain north. In the south, the territory of Pakistan is washed by the waters of the Arabian Sea, which forms low, slightly indented coasts.

Relief

The alluvial lowland of the Indus Valley is the western part of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, located on the outskirts of the Hindustan platform. It lies almost entirely below 200 m and is distinguished by a uniform, monotonous relief with small slopes. Most of the lowland along the left bank of the Indus is occupied by the Thar Desert. The western and northwestern parts of Pakistan are occupied by the outlying ranges of the Iranian Plateau - Makran, Kirthar, Chagai, Tobakakar, Suleiman Mountains, which are almost parallel chains of mountains up to 3452 m high. The slopes of the ridges facing the Arabian Sea and the Indo-Gangetic Plain are steep ; the opposite ones, descending to the plateaus of Balochistan, are gentle. Within Balochistan, high (up to 3000 m), relatively leveled areas alternate with intermountain basins, dissected by numerous dry riverbeds. The most powerful mountain ranges with deeply dissected river valleys and covered with large glaciers are located in the extreme north of Pakistan and belong to the mountain systems of the Hindu Kush, the Himalayas and the Karakorum. The latter is located in the Pakistan-controlled part of Kashmir. The highest points of the country are the city of Tirichmir (7690 m) in the Hindu Kush and the city of Chogori (8611 m) in the Karakoram. On the territory of Pakistan there are about 40 peaks exceeding 7000 meters. All mountainous regions of Pakistan belong to the young Alpine-Himalayan mobile belt. The most important minerals are oil, gas, and coal confined to the sedimentary complexes on the outskirts of the Hindustan platform and ferrous and non-ferrous metal ores in folded areas.

Climate

The climate in Pakistan is dry continental tropical, in the northwest - subtropical, in the mountains in the north of the country - more humid with a pronounced altitudinal zonality. Winter on the plain is warm (12-16 °C, on the coast up to 20 °C), in the highlands it is severe (up to −20 °C). Summer is hot (35°C in the deserts, 29°C on the coast, 20-25°C in the mountains and plateaus of the Iranian Highlands), frosty in the highlands (below 0°C at altitudes from 5000 m). Precipitation per year varies from 50 mm in the Thar Desert to 100-200 mm in Sindh, 250-400 mm in the valleys and on the plateaus of the Iranian Highlands, 350-500 mm in the foothills and 1000-1500 mm in the mountains in the north of the country. Most of the precipitation falls during the southwestern monsoon (in July - September), within the Iranian Highlands - in the winter-spring period.

Hydrology

The largest river in Pakistan is the Indus, whose basin covers most of the country. The rivers in the west are either endorheic or have a local discharge into the Arabian Sea. The main tributary of the Indus is the Sutlej, which collects water from the main rivers of the Punjab (Chinab, Ravi, Jelam, Bias) and gives water to large irrigation canals (Dipalpur, Pakpattan, Panjnad). On large rivers, there is a summer flood due to monsoon rains and melting of glaciers in the mountains.

Vegetation

The vegetation of Pakistan is predominantly semi-desert and desert, the most scarce in the Thar Desert, where sandy ridges predominate, semi-fixed by xerophytic shrubs (acacia, calligonum ...) and hard grasses. On the Indus Plain, natural vegetation is semi-deserts and deserted savannahs (chiy, wormwood, capers, astragalus ...), along the Indus and other rivers - strips of tugai, in the Indus Delta and along the coast of the Arabian Sea - in places mangroves. Semi-desert formations of thorny cushion-like shrubs are widespread in the Iranian Highlands, and rare thickets of pistachio and juniper are found in the mountains of Balochistan. In the mountains in the north of the country at an altitude of 1500-3000 m there are separate areas of deciduous (oak, chestnut) and coniferous (spruce, fir, pine, Himalayan cedar) forests. In the valleys near the villages there are plantations of date palms, citrus fruits, olives, orchards. Mulberry plantations are frequent along irrigation canals.

Animal world

The fauna of Pakistan is represented by Indo-African, Central Asian and Mediterranean species. Of the large mammals in the mountains, there are leopard, snow leopard, brown and white-breasted bear, fox, wild goats and rams, Persian gazelle; on the plains there are hyenas, jackals, wild boars, antelopes, gazelles, kulans, wild donkeys, numerous rodents. The world of birds is diverse (eagles, vultures, peacocks, parrots). Many snakes, including poisonous ones, crocodiles are found in the Indus. Of the invertebrates, scorpions, ticks, and malarial mosquitoes are common. The Arabian Sea is rich in fish (tuna, herring, sea bass, Indian salmon), crustaceans (shrimp) and sea turtles.

Economy

Pakistan is an industrial-agrarian country with a diversified economy. Agriculture continues to play a large role in the country's economy and occupies 20.8% of the total GNP, although industry is actively developing and already accounts for 24.3% of the GNP (in 2009). At the same time, 43% of workers are employed in agriculture, and 20% in industry. The unemployment rate is 15.2% (in 2009).

It is characterized by a high dependence on weather conditions, on which industries such as agriculture, the textile industry, hydropower, and water transport directly depend.

In Pakistan, spatial differences in the economy are pronounced, due to the combined action of various factors. There are 4 historical-geographical regions, in territorial terms closely coinciding with the administrative provinces - Punjab, Sind, Balochistan and the North-Western Frontier Province, including in the latter tribal areas. The Punjab stands out most for its agricultural production; up to 2/3 of wheat, cotton and sugar cane are produced here.

In the 2000s, Pakistan's economy showed a steady economic growth of about 7% per year.

Pakistan's GDP growth in fiscal year 2005 (ended June 30, 2005) was 8.4%. Two-thirds of Pakistani exports are made up of textile and clothing products. The main agricultural crops are cotton and wheat.

The government of Pervez Musharraf pursued a relatively liberal economic policy; in recent years, several large banks, the largest telecommunications company and a number of others have been privatized.

International trade

Exports ($21.1 billion in 2008) - textiles, rice, leather goods, carpets.

The main buyers are the USA 16.1%, the UAE 11.7%, Afghanistan 8.6%, the UK 4.5%, China 4.2%.

Imports ($38.2 billion in 2008) - oil, oil products, machinery, plastics, vehicles, iron and steel, tea.

The main suppliers are China 14.3%, Saudi Arabia 12.2%, UAE 11.3%, Kuwait 5.5%, USA 4.8%.

Currency

The Pakistani Rupee (PRe, PRs) is subdivided into 100 Paise. Banknotes in denominations of 1000, 500, 100, 50, 20, 10, 5, 2 and 1 rupee, as well as coins in denominations of 2 and 1 rupee, 50, 25 and 10 paise are in circulation.

Population

Pakistan is one of the most populous countries in the world (174.6 million people, 6th in the world - July 2009 estimate). According to some forecasts, with current trends, by 2020 the population of Pakistan could reach more than 200 million people.

The bulk of the population lives in the Indus Valley. The largest cities of Pakistan are located in the eastern part of the country (Karachi, Lahore, Rawalpindi, etc.). The urban population of the country is 36% (in 2008).

Ethnic composition: Punjabis 44.7%, Pashtuns 15.4%, Sindhis 14.1%, Saryaks 8.4%, Muhajirs 7.6%, Baluchis 3.6%, etc. (6.3%).

The majority of believers - 95% - are Muslims: (Sunnis 75%, Shiites 20%), 5% are Christians and Hindus.

Nearly 50% of the population is literate (63% of men and 36% of women, 2005 est.).

Languages

The official languages ​​are Urdu and English; approximately 38% of the population speaks Punjabi, 16% Pashto, 12% Sindhi, and 7% Urdu.

Religion

Pakistan is the second largest Muslim country in the world and the second largest Shia Muslim. 96% of the population is Muslim, of which 75% are Sunnis and 20% are Shiites.

The confessional composition of the population:
Muslims - 173,000,000 (96%).
Hindus - 3,200,000 (1.85%)
Christians - 2,800,000 (1.6%)
Sikhs - 20,000 (0.001%)
as well as Parsis, Ahmadiyya, Buddhists, Jews, Baha'is and Animists

Armed forces

The armed forces of Pakistan are the sixth largest in the world. This includes the ground forces, navy, air force and semi-army formations involved in the settlement of local conflicts.

The army in Pakistan has always had great influence in the country. Generals often moved to high positions in the civil administration, actively participated in the political events of the country, imposed a state of emergency and established control over the government. The latest example of this kind is the 1999 military coup led by Pervez Musharraf.

The Pakistan Army took part in three major conflicts with India (1947, 1965 and 1971), in the Kargil War. During the Afghan war of 1979-1989, Pakistan supported the Taliban, who were waging an anti-government war in Afghanistan, and their training camps were located here.

culture

The culture of Pakistan is based on the Muslim heritage, but also includes the pre-Islamic traditions of the peoples of the Indian subcontinent. A hundred years of British domination also had a serious impact on it. In recent decades, especially among young people, the influence of American culture has also been noticeable: Hollywood films, American video games, cartoons, comics, books, as well as fashion (wearing jeans and baseball caps), fast food, drinks, etc. are popular.

Music

In music and dance, local trends observed in Punjab, North West Frontier Province, Sindh and Balochistan differ sharply from those characteristic of the Urdu-speaking Pakistani community. In the first case, there is an emphasis on folk songs and dances, while in Urdu culture this motif receded into the background. The reason lies mainly in the fact that most of the country's speakers of this language belong to the Muhajirs, who have lost their root ties with their native places in India. The Arts Council of Pakistan aims to maintain the sustainability of regional styles in dance, music, sculpture and painting.

Holidays

Pakistan Day (March 23) - on this day in 1940 the Lahore Resolution was adopted
Iqbal Day (April 21) is the birthday of the national poet Muhammad Iqbal
End day of Ramadan
Eid-i Milad (May 25) - Birthday of the Prophet Mohammed
Eid ul-Azha (March 23-24) - a holiday on the occasion of the pilgrimage to Mecca
Independence Day (August 14)
Birthday of Jinnah, the founder of Pakistan (December 25)
New Year

Sport

The most common sports in Pakistan are football, field hockey, tennis, table tennis, wrestling, boxing, weightlifting, golf, polo, swimming, squash, baseball and cricket.

Cricket

The most popular sport in the country is cricket. The national cricket team of Pakistan is one of the strongest in the world and is fighting for leadership in international competitions with rivals from Great Britain, Australia, and India. In 1992, Pakistan managed to win the Cricket World Cup. A special national committee has been set up to guide and oversee the development of cricket.

Field hockey

Of the Olympic sports, field hockey is by far the most successful in Pakistan. Of their 10 Olympic medals in history, Pakistanis won 8 in men's field hockey, including all gold and silver. Three times (1960, 1968 and 1984) Pakistanis became Olympic champions, won silver three times (1956, 1964, 1972) and twice bronze (1976 and 1992). Thus, from 1956 to 1984, Pakistan won awards at all 7 Olympics in which it took part (Pakistan boycotted the 1980 Games in Moscow). It was Pakistan in 1960 in Rome that managed to break India's winning streak, which won gold at 6 Olympics in a row (in the final, Pakistan beat India 1-0). The bronze of hockey players at the 1992 Olympics in Barcelona remains at the moment the last Olympic award for the Pakistanis. Freestyle wrestler Mohammad Bashir (bronze in 1960) and boxer Syed Hussain Shah (bronze in 1988) brought Pakistan two more Olympic awards.

Interesting Facts

Pakistan is a young state that emerged in 1947, but Muslims have been living on its territory for more than a thousand years. They first appeared in South Asia in the 8th century. as conquerors and remained an influential political force until the 19th century.

Early Muslim states in India

In 710-716, troops under the command of the prominent Umayyad commander Muhammad ibn Qasim captured Sindh and southern Punjab. Those who did not convert to Islam were obliged by the new Arab authorities to pay a special soul tax for non-believers - jiziya, but they were left with freedom in the performance of religious rites and in the sphere of cultural life. The Hindus were not required to perform compulsory military service, but if they entered it, they were exempted from jiziya and received their due salary and reward.

Between 1000-1027, Sultan Mahmud Ghazni made 17 campaigns in India, penetrating through the Indus valley to the Ganges lowland. His empire stretched from Samarkand and Isfahan to Lahore, but its western regions were lost to the heirs to the throne in the 11th century. The Ghaznavid Punjab, which included the northwestern border regions and Sindh, can be considered the prototype of Pakistan. Numerous Muslim communities that settled in the Indus basin no longer considered these lands as a conquered territory - it became their homeland.

The rule of the Ghaznavids turned out to be unstable, and in 1185 the Indus Valley became part of the Ghurid state. This happened under Sultan Muiz-ud-din Muhammad, who managed to extend Muslim rule over the whole of North-West India, as well as Bengal and Bihar. The successors of Muiz-ud-din Muhammad, who was killed in Punjab in 1206, managed to maintain control over the lands conquered in India. The period after his death up to the accession of Babur, who founded the Great Mogul dynasty in 1526, is known as the time of the Delhi Sultanate. For more than 300 years, 40 sultans have changed in it, belonging to five Muslim dynasties: Gulyams (1206–1290), Khilji (1290–1320), Tughlakids (1320–1414), Saids (1414–1451) and Lodi (1451–1526) . The administrative posts in the Delhi state were occupied predominantly by Muslims, but Hindus were also involved in public service. Hindus had their own community courts (panchayats) to decide civil cases.

Islam in this era strengthened its influence in India. Conversion to it was generally done without violence, and the preaching of Muslim dogmas was taken up by Sufis, partly specially trained to bring the light of the new faith to different areas of the subcontinent. Contacts between Hindus and Muslims led to the formation of the Urdu language, which arose on the basis of one of the dialects of North India, enriched by the Persian vocabulary. Hindi was formed on the same dialect basis, but was influenced by Sanskrit. In the 17-18 centuries. the modern literary standard of Urdu was formed, which used the Persian-Arabic script and adopted the creative traditions of Persian and Arabic writers and the ideas of Islam; Urdu has become a powerful engine of Muslim culture in South Asia.

Mughal Empire

This state is known for its achievements in the field of culture, education and art. Created by Babur in 1526, it was consolidated by his grandson Akbar (c. 1556–1605). Akbar pursued a policy of reconciliation with the Hindus, and efficient administration is an important feature of this emperor's reign. In 1579, the poll tax, the jiziya, was abolished. Hindu temples were taken under state protection. In 1580 Akbar announced the creation of a new religion - Din-i illahi (Divine religion), which was based on the rejection of idolatry and polytheism. The goal was to ensure the loyalty of both Hindus and Muslims, especially government employees. Under Akbar, under the leadership of the Minister of Finance, the Hindu Todar Mal, a system of land taxation was introduced, on which later, at the end of the 18th century, the British colonial authorities relied in developing their policy.

Akbar's successor, Emperor Jahangir (c. 1605–1627), also focused on creating a "secularized" state. Shah Jahan (c. 1628–1658) turned the empire into a Muslim power. Aurangzeb (c. 1658–1707), a zealot, became the heir of his father Shah Jahan. Already in the first years of his reign, Aurangzeb issued several decrees that restored the operation of many Islamic customs. With age, the religious fanaticism of the ruler intensified. Hindu temples, erected without imperial permission, were destroyed, the construction of new ones was not allowed. In April 1679, the Hindus were again overlaid with jiziya.

The oppression caused strong discontent among the Hindus and a number of unrest, including the revolt of the Satnami sect in the city of Narnaul in 1672, the rebellion of the Sikh guru Tegh Bahadur in 1675, the uprising of the Rajputs in 1679, and the civil war with the Marathas in 1680–1707. The wars waged by Aurangzeb led to a break in the good-neighbourly political and cultural ties that arose between Muslims and Hindus under Akbar. In the 18th century communities of Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs entered into an internecine struggle for leadership, but could not resist the British, who filled the political vacuum created after the decline of the Mughal power.

British India and the creation of Pakistan

In the 18-19 centuries. England extended its control over all of India, including the territories that later became part of Pakistan. Bengal was conquered in 1757, Sindh in 1843, and Punjab in 1849. In 1857, an anti-English uprising of sepoys broke out, insisting on the transfer of power to the nominal ruler of India, Bahadur Shah II. The uprising was crushed, Bahadur Shah II was convicted and sent to Rangoon for life exile, the Mughal dynasty ceased to exist.

After 1857, Said Ahmad Khan (1817–1898) became the undisputed leader of the Islamic community in India, who insisted on peaceful relations with Britain and the adoption of the Western education system. In 1875 Ahmad Khan founded the Muslim University in Aligarh. In 1883 he managed to convince the British colonial authorities to organize separate electoral curia for Hindus and Muslims. In 1887, Said Ahmad Khan insisted that adherents of Islam separate themselves from the Indian National Congress party, founded in 1885. The partition of Bengal in 1905 prompted Ahmad Khan's followers to demand a separate quota for Muslims when deciding future constitutional issues. Rejecting the political orientation of their late leader, his adherents formed the All-India Muslim League in Dhaka in December 1906, which subsequently began the struggle for the formation of Pakistan. The Morley-Minto Reform Act, adopted in 1909 by the British Parliament, provided for special representation of Muslims and other minorities in elected bodies. Later, at the insistence of Muslims, this principle was taken into account in the Montagu-Chelmsford Reform Act (1919) and in the Government of India Act (1935).

In the 1920s, Hindus and Muslims acted as a united front under the ideological leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, who in 1921, in protest against the hostile position of Great Britain towards the Turkish Caliphate, proclaimed a campaign of civil disobedience. In the 1920s-1930s, the political authority of Muhammad Ali Jinnah (1876-1948) and the poet-thinker Muhammad Iqbal (1877-1938) increased, and they prepared the Islamic public for the perception of the idea of ​​the partition of India. Addressing the participants of the Muslim League session in Allahabad on December 29, 1930, Iqbal spoke in favor of the existence of a separate Islamic state in the subcontinent, but did not raise the issue of the future of Bengal. In Lahore, on March 23, 1940, the Muslim League, under the leadership of Jinnah, declared its goal the formation of the state of Pakistan (the proposed name of the country was a neologism). The Lahore Resolution of 1940 declared: "Regions in which Muslims form a numerical majority, as, for example, in Northwest and East India, should be united to constitute independent states, and their constituent administrative-territorial units should have autonomy and sovereignty." In 1946, a special government mission sent from Great Britain developed a plan to preserve the integrity of India, which provided for regional autonomy for the Muslim population. It was proposed to distinguish two geographical zones with a predominance of Muslims: one of them was supposed to cover northwestern Balochistan, the Northwestern Frontier Province, Punjab and Sindh, the other - northeastern Assam and Bengal. The rest of India was seen as a single entity with a Hindu majority. It was recommended to give the central government only minimal rights. However, this plan, adopted by the League, was rejected by the Indian National Congress, after which the division of British India became inevitable. On August 14, 1947, two new independent states appeared on the political map of the world - India and Pakistan.

Pakistan during independence to secession of Bangladesh: 1947–1971

After gaining independence, Pakistan faced difficulties in building sustainable political institutions. From 1947 to 1958, the country had a parliamentary system in accordance with the Government of India Act (1935) and the Declaration of Independence (1947), but in the absence of direct elections to the supreme legislative body. In 1958, a military regime was established, headed by General (from 1959 - Field Marshal) Ayub Khan. In February 1960, presidential elections were held, in which Ayub Khan won. A commission was set up to draft the country's constitution, which was adopted in 1962. Martial law was only abolished in June 1962. In 1965, Ayub Khan was constitutionally re-elected president of Pakistan. In 1969, martial law was again introduced in the country, and General Yahya Khan came to power (he retired in 1971).

The partition of British India in 1947 gave rise to violent clashes between Hindus and Muslims and huge refugee flows: c. 6.5 million Muslims crossed from India to Pakistan and approx. 4.7 million Hindus and Sikhs moved in the opposite direction. Up to 500,000 people died due to sectarian clashes and subsequent migrations.

The unique monuments of ancient civilizations that once inhabited the territory of modern Pakistan are now threatened with death at the hands of Islamic fundamentalists, who are louder and louder declaring themselves.

TROUBLED COUNTRY

Artificial borders, protracted conflict with India over territorial disputes, civil war-torn Afghanistan in the west, and finally its own Islamist factions and internal divisions make Pakistan a country of constant crises.

Geographically, Pakistan and India are located side by side, on the Hindustan Peninsula. However, religious differences and territorial disagreements are the reason why countries find it extremely difficult to endure their neighborhood. If in India the majority of the population professes Hinduism, then in the territory of modern Pakistan, the spread of Islam began already in the 7th century.

The State of Pakistan was formed in 1947 during the partition of India. The territories of the colony, populated predominantly by Muslims, were divided into two states - West and East Pakistan. In 1971, after a short war won with the help of India, the state of Bangladesh was formed in East Pakistan. When the territories were divided, the formally undivided region of Kashmir remained, which still remains a bone of contention between India and Pakistan.

However, not only external factors undermine political stability. The country is ruled by rival family clans; periodically, the military seizes power. The last coup took place in 1999. General Pervez Musharraf, who seized power, resigned only on August 18, 2008, after he lost the support of the army and foreign allies, primarily the United States. Asif Zardari, the husband of the head of the Pakistan People's Party Benazir Bhutto, who was killed shortly before Musharraf's resignation, was elected president of Pakistan.

THERE, BEHIND THE CLOUDS AND...

Those wishing to visit Pakistan need to prepare for drastic climate changes. In the north of the country, majestic peaks over 8,000 meters high, covered with snow and ice, rise in the south around the Arabian Sea, a marshy region stretches for 60,000 km2, and the deserts of Balochistan are considered the driest places on Earth.

The center of life in Pakistan is the Punjab lowland, irrigated by the Indus and its five tributaries. Here, in a huge fertile valley, lives more than half of the population of Pakistan. This is not only the main granary of the country, but also the main region of industrial production. To the west of here, on the border with Afghanistan, time seemed to freeze. People here, like thousands of years ago, live in communities, emphasizing their independence from the central government in Islamabad. This is especially evident in the Swat valley in the north-west of the country. Once this region, where there are unique monuments of the pre-Islamic era, in which the Hellenistic and Buddhist traditions are bizarrely combined, was the main tourist attraction of Pakistan. Today it is completely under the control of the fundamentalists from the Taliban movement. Not only tourists, but also government officials do not risk showing up here, and historical and cultural monuments are subjected to barbaric destruction. In February 2009, Islamic law was introduced in the valley in agreement with the authorities of the North-West Province.

USEFUL INFORMATION

■ Nearly half of Pakistanis are under 15 years of age.

■ All new laws in Pakistan are checked against the Koran.

■ The word "Pakistan" means "country of the pure" and is composed of individual letters present in the names of the four provinces.

ATTRACTION

■ Punjab Province (the historical capital of Lahore, with its famous gardens and the Badshahi Mosque).
■ The city of Multan (a stronghold of Pakistani Islam).
■ Deserts of Balochistan.
■ In the southern province of Sindh - the city of Karachi and the Thar Desert.