Class Bivalves (Bivalvia). Sketches from the life of freshwater animals (Pavlovsky E.N., Lepneva S.G.) Original copy of Borghese

Fasciola hepatica is a member of the class of trematodes (flukes) that affects the liver. The helminth causes fascioliasis, which affects more than 10 million people worldwide.

What

Fasciola are a group of helminths that live mainly outside the intestines. Fasciola hepatica has the following distinguishing features:

The development of larvae (miracidia) occurs in 2-3 weeks. At the end of this time, the larvae enter the water and actively penetrate into the small pond snail (mollusk) - the intermediate host. There, the larvae become invasive and pose a danger to humans.

Cercations are formed after 1-2 months, leave the body of the mollusk - turn into adolescarium. The larvae attach themselves to plants. In a humid environment, the larvae can remain viable for up to a year. People are infected by the fecal-oral route (through the mouth).

The scheme of infection with fascioliasis is simple: a person becomes infected with fascioli when drinking unboiled water from fresh water, grass or plants from the garden. Hepatic fasciola gets inside by swallowing water during bathing. Possible infection through hay. The most dangerous is the use of wild herbs (watercress, sorrel, wild onion).

Clinical manifestations

The disease develops mainly in summer or early autumn. Invasive helminth larvae enter the liver through the blood and peritoneum.

Impact on the body:

• provoke the development of an allergic reaction;
• disrupt the outflow of bile;
• damage mucous membranes;
• the reason for the formation of abscesses;
• increase blood pressure;
• cause liver fibrosis;
• cause symptoms of toxicity.

The incubation period is from 1 week to 2 months. It is followed by an early phase of development of fascioliasis. With it, the following symptoms appear:

• fever;
• weakness;
• malaise;
• pain in the hypochondrium on the right;
• rash;
• nausea;
• vomit;
• skin itching.

In severe cases, symptoms include jaundice, angioedema, and an increase in eosinophils in the blood. On palpation, the liver is enlarged. Some patients have symptoms of heart damage (muffled tones, tachycardia, increased pressure). In the absence of treatment, after 3-6 months, the chronic stage of development of fascioliasis occurs. Her symptoms:

• weakness;
• decrease in working capacity;
• headache;
• pale skin;
• lack of appetite;
• nausea;
• right pain.

When infected with fascioliasis, gastroduodenitis, hepatitis, anemia, cholangitis, cholecystitis develop. At advanced stages, cirrhosis of the liver is formed. Sometimes the brain, skin, lungs are affected.

Examination and treatment

To identify fascioliasis in humans, the following studies are required:

Serodiagnosis is informative in the early stages of the disease. History taking is of great importance. In the acute phase of the disease, hospitalization is required, anthelmintic drugs are not prescribed.

In the acute phase of fascioliasis, doctors usually prescribe choleretic (Ursofalk, Ursosan, Karsil), enzymes (Creon, Mezim), hepatoprotectors (Heptral, Essentiale), antispasmodics (Duspatalin).

In case of an allergic reaction, antihistamines are indicated (Zodak, Zirtek, Claritin). The treatment regimen often includes eubiotics.

After the symptoms subside, antihelminthic drugs based on praziquantel (Biltricid or Azinox) are prescribed. After treatment, a control study of feces is done.

Prevention of fascioliasis involves the rejection of unboiled water, wild plants near water bodies. Washing greens, vegetables, fruits with boiled water, as well as washing hands before eating.

Teniarinhoz: symptoms, photo, analysis, treatment, diagnosis and prevention

Most often, teniarinhoz is recorded in Africa, Australia, and South America. Cases of infection are also diagnosed in Russia, the champions for this factor are the Yamalo-Nenets District, the Altai Republic, the Chechen Republic, the Komi Republic, and Dagestan. Taeniarinhoz is also found in the Perm and Krasnoyarsk Territories, the Krasnodar Territory, the Novosibirsk Region, the Orenburg and Irkutsk Regions.

The risk group for infection with teniarinhoz includes people directly involved in cattle breeding, farmers, workers in meat processing plants, shepherds, and milkmaids.

Reasons for the development of the disease

The causative agent of teniarhynchosis is bovine tapeworm - a large helminth, which can reach 6-7 meters in length, and in rare cases even 20 meters. The body of the unarmed tapeworm consists of a head, neck, and segments (strobilus). The number of segments on the body of the worm is approximately equal to two thousand. Mature strobili have a uterus, that is, the helminth is a hermaphrodite. Each segment is filled with oncospheres. The bovine chain has four suckers located on the head (look at the photo).

The eggs of the tapeworm are ingested by cattle when they eat contaminated grass or other feed. Oncospheres are located in the muscle tissue of the animal, where they develop to the stage of cysticerci (Finns). Already after four to five months of being in the body of livestock, such a larva becomes invasive to humans.

Pathogenesis of teniarinhoza

Teniarinhoz is dangerous for its pathogenic effect that bovine tapeworm has on the body. What happens with teniarinhoze:

1. Violation of the motor and sectoral functions of the gastrointestinal tract, the formation of wounds, inflammation of the intestinal mucosa as a result of damage to the wall by suction cups.
2. Pain syndrome that occurs when the segments pass through the Bauhinian valve.
3. Intestinal obstruction, the development of which is due to the accumulation of worms in the intestine.
4. Deficiency of vitamins and nutrients - the tapeworm takes all the most useful for itself.
5. The development of an allergic reaction due to sensitization.

Symptoms of teniarinhoza

The study may reveal a decrease in the acidity of gastric juice up to 70%.

Possible Complications

In the absence of adequate and timely treatment, teniarinhoz leads to serious consequences, the disease can provoke the development of such pathologies as:

1. Intestinal obstruction. It occurs as a result of the accumulation of the helminth and its eggs, as well as due to the overlap of the intestinal lumen.
2. Perforation of the intestinal wall as a result of the mechanical action of tapeworm and peritonitis.
3. Inflammatory phenomena such as appendicitis, pancreatitis, cholangitis.

The prognosis of recovery will be pleasant if you seek qualified medical help in time.

Diagnostic measures

Diagnostic measures for the detection of teniarinhoz include taking an anamnesis: it is important for the doctor to know whether the patient has eaten infected meat, whether he has been in endemic foci, whether he is at risk of infection with bovine tapeworm.

The studies consist in conducting ovoscopy of the patient's stools, perianal scraping with differential diagnosis between bovine tapeworm and pork, complete blood count for the presence of eosinophilia, anemia, leukopenia, X-ray analysis of the intestine.

Treatment of the disease

• Exclusion from the diet of fatty, fried, spicy, salty, smoked and sweet foods.
• The use of low-fat soups and broths, rice, buckwheat, sour-milk products, low-fat fish, compotes, kissels.

It is strictly forbidden to eat beets, cabbage, radish, garlic, sorrel, spinach, legumes, grapes, apricots, millet and pearl barley, raspberries and gooseberries, milk, coffee, soda, chocolate, alcohol.

The main drug for the treatment of teniarinhoza is Fenasal. It can be used in two ways:

1. Reception is carried out in the evening after a light dinner, is it diluted in a quarter cup of boiled water? a teaspoon of sodium bicarbonate, after 15 minutes, take a dose of the drug, diluted in half a glass of water.
2. The drug is taken in the morning on an empty stomach in the same way as in the previous scheme.

During treatment, the patient should monitor personal hygiene, change underwear every day, as well as bed linen. 3 months after therapy, the effectiveness of treatment is checked, the factor is assessed by the absence of segments and eggs in the feces.

Prevention of teniarinhoza

Prevention of teniarinhoza consists in excluding the consumption of raw or half-baked meat, careful cooking of beef, venison or horse meat, as well as inspecting meat for the presence of bovine tapeworm larvae.

Every year, people who belong to a high-risk group for contracting taeniarhynchosis should be examined.

If signs of a disease are found, you should immediately consult a doctor, it is unacceptable to engage in self-treatment in order to avoid harming your health.

source

Cycle and stages of development of the liver fluke

The systematic position of the liver fluke is assigned to the family of Fasciolidae, the Latin name is Fasciolidae, and represents a type of flatworms. The liver fluke belongs to the class of digenetic flukes, which leads the order Echinostomatida, consisting of representatives of the genus Fasciola.

Systematics classifies the life cycle of the development of the liver fluke as a complex type, with several defendants:

• main host;
• intermediate host;
• free-living larval stage.

The liver fluke is a hermaphrodite. Each individual has both female and male reproductive organs - the uterus and testes.

Marita of the liver fluke is a sexually mature individual, has a relatively developed digestive system. The front of the body is equipped with a mouth that passes into the pharynx. The muscular pharynx flows into the esophagus. The branched intestine is blindly closed. Digestion is the only relatively developed function that the liver fluke is endowed with. The structure of the excretory system is of the protonephridial type, since it closes the central excretory canal running along the entire body of the pore, and not the anus.

Most flukes, including the fluke, are hermaphrodites. Reproduction and the sexual process occurs in the internal organs of the final host, and the mollusk, the intermediate host, bears larvae that reproduce asexually.

The male reproductive system consists of a paired vas deferens and a copulatory organelle. When merged, the testicles form the ejaculatory canal. The female reproductive organs are represented by the ovary, vitelline glands, and the seminal receptacle leading to the ootype, a specific chamber for fertilizing eggs. It flows into the uterus, ending in a hole through which fertilized invasive eggs are brought out.

In its development, the liver fluke is in many ways superior to other types of digenetic flukes.

The fluke has well-developed functions:

The posterior third of the body of the worm, just behind the ventral sucker, accommodates the uterus of a multilobed configuration. The location of the unpaired branched ovary is the right side of the upper third of the body. Multiple vitelline glands are located on both sides of the individual. The anterior part of the body contains a highly branched network of testes.

The liver fluke causes a difficult-to-diagnose serious disease called Fascioliasis, which is difficult to respond to therapeutic methods of exposure.

The stages of development of the larvae and the phases of the formation of the liver fluke are numerous. The scheme for achieving an adult sexual reproduction is quite complicated. Let's try to highlight the cycles of development of larvae without complicated turns. If you can simplify the material presented, describe the formation scheme in your comments to the article.

In size, the eggs of the liver fluke reach a size of 80x135 microns. Each egg is oval in shape and colored brownish-yellow. From one pole there is a cap, from under which, under favorable conditions, larvae emerge, on the opposite side there is a tubercle.

The egg of the liver fluke begins to develop only when it enters the aquatic environment with conditions suitable for the process. Sunlight acts as an activator, and, after a month, larvae, or miracidium of the liver fluke, emerge from the eggs.

The body of each miracidia is equipped with:

• cilia, allowing the larvae to move freely in the aquatic environment and confirming the family ties of the liver fluke with ciliated worms;
• a single light-sensitive peephole provides positive phototaxis, directing the larva towards a light source;
• nerve ganglion - a primitive nervous system;
• excretory organs.

In the tail part there are germ cells responsible for parthenogenesis. The front end of the body is equipped with an enzyme-producing gland, which allows miracidia to freely penetrate and develop in the intermediate host.

At this stage, the larva does not feed. It receives its development due to the nutrients accumulated in the previous stage. Its lifespan is limited, and is only a day. During this time, the miracidium must find the snail and penetrate the body of the small Prudovik.

The sporocyst has a skin-muscular body in the form of a bag filled with germ cells. It lacks the circulatory system and the process of digestion, feeding on the surface of the body. The nervous system and sense organs are in their infancy. At this stage, the reproduction of the liver fluke is carried out by simply dividing the sporocysts - breaking up into parts, they form a myriad of individuals of the daughter generation.

In redia - the larvae of the daughter generation, in contrast to its previous stage, the formation of life-supporting functions is actively taking place:

• digestive system, consisting of the digestive tube, pharynx and mouth;
• pseudovagina - a rudimentary reproductive system capable of breeding new larval generations.

Some stages of the life cycle of the liver fluke occupy a special place. During the migration period, redia, localized in the liver tissue, by the same way of parthenogenesis, form the next type of larva - cercariae.

It should be noted some features of the structure of cercaria, which significantly distinguish it from the previous stages of larvae. The body of the cercaria is endowed with a brain, as well as a formed, but not involved, digestive system and an eye - an organoid of vision. The function of fixation in the internal organs of the host, which is typical for marita, is well developed.

The final larval stage of the liver fluke occurs in the liver of the mollusk. The body of the cercaria is endowed with a powerful tail, which provides the larva with freedom of movement. After the release of the cercaria from the body of the pond snail, it tends to get out of the water to the shore, where the last metamorphosis takes place.

Once on land, the cercaria sheds its tail. It passes into the state of a cyst, attaching to coastal plants, falling into the so-called adolescaria stage. The cyst is able to remain viable for a long time until it is swallowed by a herbivore, which is the main host of the liver fluke.

This is the invasive stage of the larva, dangerous not only for animals, but also for people whose lifestyle is associated with water bodies.

Thus, in the liver fluke, there are two stages in which fasciola is considered contagious:

1. Miracidium poses a threat of infection to the intermediate host.
2. Adolexaria stage affecting livestock and humans. It causes a disease that leads to cirrhosis of the liver, which threatens the patient with a fatal outcome.

Pathogenesis, diagnosis and preventive measures

In one case, infection occurs after the patient consumes poorly fried liver and ingests the so-called transit eggs. In the other - not washed after watering vegetables grown in the coastal zone. Regardless of the type of damage, Fascioliasis is considered one of the dangerous infectious diseases.

Public prevention is reduced to the destruction of mollusks along the banks of reservoirs. Great importance is attached to grazing - it is transferred to other pastures.

In conclusion, it should be noted that the life cycle of the liver fluke takes place exclusively with changes in the intermediate and main host. Localized in the liver tissue and bile ducts of domestic ungulates, the fluke causes a disease that is very difficult. Livestock is rapidly losing coat and body weight. Without proper treatment, exhaustion and death quickly set in.

A person rarely becomes the target of a fluke. Larval stages that penetrate into the liver tissue cause the development of Fascioliasis, a disease dangerous for humans with damage to the liver, gallbladder, bile ducts, and often the pancreas.

Pearl oysters are more primitive relatives of barley. In pearl mussels, the lateral teeth are reduced, and the gills on the dorsal side do not grow together.

Ordinary pearl mussels have thick, massive shells, the length of the shell, as a rule, is 12 centimeters. The tops of the shells are often eaten away. On the inside, the shell has a mother-of-pearl layer of a brilliant white hue.

Where does the pearl

Pearl oysters live in small rivers in northern Russia: on the Kola Peninsula, in Karelia, in the Arkhangelsk region, sometimes they are found in the Valdai Upland.

Common pearl oysters, unlike barley, do not live even in slightly silted soil, they settle on a fine stony or sandy bottom, while the water should be clear, oxygen-rich and of moderate temperature. In some reservoirs, they are found in large numbers: up to 50 mollusks can fall on 1 square meter.

Most pearl oysters are found on the rapids of rivers, under stones that reduce the strength of the current. In such places, about 16-20 individuals can accumulate on one stone at the same time.

To date, the habitat of common pearl mussels has been significantly reduced, since these creatures are very demanding on the cleanliness of water bodies and the oxygen content in them. These mollusks cannot be found in city rivers polluted by sewage, in rivers near which there are factories, since the chemical composition of the water changes in them. The habitat of pearl mussels is also declining due to the swamping of many territories.

It is extremely difficult to restore the population, this is due to the slow growth of these mollusks. Pearl oysters reach only 0.5 centimeters in the 1st year of life, by the 5th year they grow up to 2 centimeters, by the 7-8th year - up to 3-4 centimeters, they reach 6 centimeters only by 10 th year of life, and then annually increase in size by only 1 millimeter. The shell length of the largest specimens is only 12-13 centimeters, while their age reaches about 70 years.

river pearl

At all times, these mollusks were mined for the sake of river pearls, which grow in the mantle cavity of the body of these creatures. How are river pearls formed? If a foreign body, for example, a grain of sand, penetrates between the shells of a mollusk, it irritates the tissues of the mollusk, as a result of which a hardening mother-of-pearl substance is released from the skin. In other words, the same mother-of-pearl that forms the inner layer of the shell is highlighted. A grain of sand is covered with mother-of-pearl on all sides, so a small pearl is formed. As the mollusk grows, the pearl inside it also grows, and since the growth of these mollusks is very slow, therefore, the pearl increases in size extremely slowly: it turns into a pea in about 12 years, and by the age of 30-40 the mollusk , it reaches a size of 8 millimeters.

Freshwater pearls have always had a high commercial value. It is known from ancient chronicles that as early as the 10th century, pearl sewing was practiced, but most likely it existed much earlier. At the royal courts there were specialized workshops in which craftswomen were engaged in weaving precious lace from pearls. In tsarist times, even horse blankets were embroidered with pearls. The clothes of wealthy ladies were studded with pearls, and young girls wove strings of pearls into their braids.

For the first time, Tsar Peter I took up the protection of pearls. To prevent the settlements of pearl oysters from being completely devastated, the Tsar issued a decree according to which it was forbidden to catch young mollusks. And during the reign of Empress Elizabeth, even more attention was paid to this problem. The rivers in which pearl oysters were caught began to be protected.

Pearls were mined at public expense, but the monopoly on this type of activity greatly ruined the treasury, so it was soon completely abolished. As a result, private individuals took over the fishery, which significantly reduced the population of these slow-growing mollusks. To date, all types of freshwater pearl mussels are very rare, they are threatened with complete extinction, therefore, the common pearl mussel is recommended for inclusion in the Red Book.

Description

Large bivalve mollusk (shell length up to 160 mm). Outside, the shell is dark brown or black (yellow-green in young specimens), usually elongated, oval-quadrangular, slightly convex. The tops almost do not protrude.

The shell near the umbo is usually severely eroded and the periostracum is completely destroyed; the umbo sculpture is visible only in the youngest specimens. Inside the valves, on their dorsal margin, there is a lock consisting only of cardinal anterior teeth.

At the right valve, the tooth has the shape of a high irregular quadrangular pyramid and is placed under the umbo, slightly in front of it. There are 2 cardinal teeth in the left valve, less pronounced and separated by a gentle depression. The ventral margin of the valve is usually straight or slightly concave. The mother-of-pearl layer is thick, white with a pinkish tinge, often with green spots.

Spreading

Rivers of the Atlantic coast north-east. USA, east Canada, app. Europe, the Baltics, Belarus and the forest zone of the north-west. Russia. On the territory of Russia, it is known from Karelia, Murmansk, Leningrad and Arkhangelsk regions. The original range of the species, apparently, covered the bass rivers. White, Barents and Baltic seas. Now the range has been drastically reduced.

Habitat

The fertility of one female is 2-6 million glochidia. They reach the gills of the fish passively with the flow of water, become covered by the epithelial cells of the fish and develop into juvenile mollusks within 10-11 months. No significant harm to fish has been noted. Juvenile mollusks fall out of the gills of fish in the summer. Sexual maturity at the age of 10-20 years.

The ability to spawn is maintained throughout life. Live up to 130 years. The highest mortality at the stage of glochidia (99.99%) and juveniles up to 5 years (95%). The main causes of natural death in the spring are ice drift, in the summer - eating by predators.

population

All in. America and zap. Europe, the number now does not exceed several million individuals. In the XX century. population has declined by more than 90%. The largest populations remained in Russia: in the rivers of the Murmansk region. (about 150 million individuals) and Karelia (about 42 million individuals). The density of mollusks is up to 200 ind./m2 of the river bottom.

In most rivers, the density is lower (less than 12 ind./m2). The rapid decline in the number of mollusks, and in some places their complete disappearance, is caused by poaching and industrial fishing of mollusks, deforestation, fertilization, pesticides, timber rafting, water pollution by industrial effluents, acid rain, reclamation works in the riverbed, eurofication, as well as factors that reduce the number of fish -hosts (overfishing, construction of dams, acclimatization of other fish species, etc.).

The number of mollusks and their distribution are also affected by the degree of mineralization, the chemical composition and oxygen saturation of water, the speed of the current, the nature of the soil, temperature, and the presence of a sufficient density of host fish.

Security

Listed on the IUCN-96 Red List, European Red List, Appendix 3 of the Berne Convention. In the Kandalaksha and Lapland reserves, in the National Park "Panajärvi" there are small stream populations of pearl mussel. At the end of the 80s. attempts were made to reacclimatize mollusks in some rivers sowing.

Russia, methods have been developed to intensify reproduction in natural reservoirs and on the basis of salmon farms. It is necessary to reduce the likelihood of eutrophication and pollution through strict control and monitoring of water quality, the creation of protected areas in unpolluted basins. (especially important - in the last remaining large renewable populations of the Varzuga and Umba rivers on the Kola Peninsula and the Keret River in Karelia), limiting industrial and reclamation work in the habitats of pearl mussels, restoring their populations using developed methods, preventing the acclimatization of salmon fish, not serving as hosts for pearl mussels, international coordination of work in the field of research on ways to restore populations of pearl mussels and environmental legislation, breeding of mollusks in specialized farms.

Sources: Zhadin, 1938; 2. Zyuganov et al., 1993; 3. Ziuganov et al., 1994; 4. Young, Williams, 1984; 5. Bauer, 1989; 6 Woodward, 1994; 7. Zyuganov et al., 1988; 8. Zyuganov et al., 1990; 9. Zyuganov et al., 1991.

Compiled by: V.V. Zyuganov, A.A. Zotin

220 years ago, on August 10, 1793, the Louvre opened to the public. The building itself has gone through many transformations over almost ten centuries, from a dark fortress of the 12th century to the palace of the Sun King and the most popular and famous museum in the world. Today's Louvre is several hundred thousand exhibits, four floors with expositions with a total area of ​​60,600 square meters (the Hermitage - 62,324 square meters). For comparison: this is almost two and a half Red Squares (23,100 sq.m.) and more than eight football fields of the Luzhniki stadium (field area - 7140 sq.m.).

"There is something to see in the Louvre", everyone knows that. And, perhaps, almost everyone will name the main exhibits of the museum: "Mona Lisa" by Leonardo da Vinci, Nike of Samothrace and Venus de Milo, a stele with the laws of Hamurappi and so on and so forth ... Last year, according to official figures, the museum was visited by more than nine and a half million people , there are legends about the crowds besieging the Mona Lisa, as well as about pickpockets in the Louvre, and travel sites advise preparing for his visit almost like a hike: take food with you, choose comfortable clothes and shoes.

Throwing away the formal approach, the Weekend project has chosen ten exhibits of the Louvre, no less famous and beautiful than those listed above, which can easily be overlooked by not the most attentive or knowledgeable tourist.

Mythological demon ("Marked").
Bactria.
End of II - beginning of III millennium BC

Richelieu wing, ground floor (-1). Art of the Ancient East (Iran and Bactria). Hall number 9.

Ancient artifacts traditionally attract less attention than the creations of great artists and sculptors. Looking at many small exhibits, and often even fragments of something, is considered the lot of "fans". And it is simply impossible to notice in the windows of the Richelieu wing with an area of ​​​​22 thousand square meters a small, slightly less than 12 centimeter high, figurine on the run. This "iron man" originally from Bactria and more than 5 thousand years old (dated to the end of II - beginning of III millennium BC) Bactria is a state founded by the Greeks after the conquests of Alexander the Great in the region of Northern Afghanistan at the end of III - beginning of IV millennium BC To date, only four completely preserved such figurines have been found, one of which the Louvre acquired in 1961. It is assumed that they were found in Iran, near the city of Shiraz. : his face is disfigured by a long scar.According to researchers, the scar symbolized some kind of ritual, destructive action. covered with a short loincloth, the torso is covered with snake scales and emphasizes the snake-like character of the character. This suggests that this is how the anthropomorphic demon-dragon, which was worshiped in Asia, was depicted. Who these "labeled" are, one can only guess, apparently they personified spirits, possibly good, possibly evil.

Mattress Hermaphrodite

Sleeping Hermaphrodite.
Roman copy of an original from the 2nd century AD. e. (mattress added by Bernini in the 17th century)

Sully wing, ground floor (1). Hall №17 Hall of Caryatids.

If you don’t miss the Venus de Milo located in the same hall, the crowd of tourists surrounding it is a good guide, then the nearby “Sleeping Hermaphrodite” can easily be missed if you turn the wrong way. According to legend, the son of Hermes and Aphrodite was a very handsome young man, and the nymph Salmakida, in love with him, asked the gods to unite them in a single body. This sculpture, believed to be a Roman copy of a Greek original from the 2nd century CE. e., came to the museum at the beginning of the 19th century from the collection of the Borghese family. In 1807, Napoleon asked Prince Camillo Borghese, who was his son-in-law, to sell some of the items in the collection. For obvious reasons, it was impossible to refuse the offer of the emperor. The marble mattress and cushion on which Hermaphrodite reclined were added in 1620 by Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini, a Baroque sculptor whose patron was Cardinal Borghese. However, this detail emphasizes the rather anecdotal side of the composition, which was hardly the idea of ​​the Greek author. There is also a belief associated with the sculpture, which museum guides sometimes talk about: allegedly, men who touch the sleeping man thereby increase their male power.

Basin of Saint Louis

The bowl is the "Font of St. Louis". (in the photo, a fragment is one of the medallions)
Syria or Egypt, circa 1320-1340

The baptistery (or baptismal font) of St. Louis is noted among the most important exhibits of the basement, but few people have the strength to go down here after visiting the main attractions of the museum. Made of brass and trimmed with silver and gold, the bowl is considered a masterpiece of Mamluk art, previously it belonged to the treasures of the Sainte-Chapelle chapel, and in 1832 it passed into the museum's collection. This large basin was part of the French royal collection, inside you can see the coat of arms of France attached. It really served as a font at the baptism of Louis XIII and the son of Napoleon III, but not Saint Louis IX, despite the name "glued" to it. This item was created much later: it dates from 1320-1340, and Louis IX died in 1270.

Shah Abbas and his page

Muhammad Kazim.
Portrait of Shah Abbas I and his page (Shah Abbas embracing a page).
Iran, Isfahan, March 12, 1627

Denon wing, ground floor. Hall of Islamic Art.

In the same room, it is worth paying attention to a fairly well-known drawing depicting Shah Abbas and his cup-bearer, who looks more like a girl. Abbas I (1587-1629) is the most significant representative of the Safivid dynasty, considered the founders of modern Iran. During his reign, fine arts reach their peak of development, images become more realistic and dynamic. In this drawing, Shah Abbas is shown wearing a wide-brimmed conical hat that he introduced into fashion, next to a page boy holding out a cup of wine to him. Under the crown of the tree, on the right, is the name of the artist - Muhammad Kazim (one of the most famous masters of that time and, apparently, the court painter of Abbas) - and a short poem: "May life give you what you desire from three lips: your lover , rivers and goblet". In the foreground is a stream, the water of which was once silvered. The poem can also be interpreted symbolically, in the Persian tradition there were many verses addressed to the butler. The drawing was acquired by the museum in 1975.

Portrait of a good king

Unknown artist of the Paris school.
Portrait of John II the Good, King of France.
Around 1350

Richelieu wing, second floor. French painting. Hall number 1.

This mid-14th-century painting by an unknown artist is considered the oldest individual portrait in European art. The early masters of French painting began to be studied relatively recently, in the second half of the 19th century, and most of their works were lost during wars and revolutions. The reign of John the Good, which fell on the years of the Hundred Years War, was not easy: defeated by the British at the Battle of Poitiers, he was captured and imprisoned in London, where he signed an agreement on his abdication. According to legend, the portrait was painted in the Tower of London, and the authorship is attributed to Girard of Orleans. An interesting fact: he became the last French monarch to bear the name John.

Madonna in the corridor

Leonardo da Vinci.
Madonna in the rocks.
1483-1486 years.

Denon Wing, Grand Gallery, ground floor. Italian painting. Hall number 5.

The large gallery of the Denon wing, in addition to the famous scene from Jean-Luc Godard's film "Gang of Outsiders" with heroes running through the Louvre, is known for the fact that the "unnoticed" beautiful Madonna of Leonardo hangs here and many other works by Italian painters, including Caravaggio. "Not noticed by anyone", this, of course, is loudly said, the same "Madonna in the Rocks" is one of the most famous paintings in the world, and, nevertheless, having started their race with the finish line at the "Mona Lisa", tourists, unfortunately , often pass by this beautiful work, which is worth standing for an extra couple of minutes. There are two versions of this painting. The one kept in the Louvre was written between 1483-86, and the first mention of it (in the inventory of the French royal collection) dates back to 1627. The second, which belongs to the London National Gallery, was painted later in 1508. The painting was the central part of a triptych intended for the Milanese church of San Francesco Grande, but was never given to the customer, for whom the artist painted a second, London version. Filled with tenderness and peace, the scene contrasts with the strange landscape of sheer cliffs, the geometry of the composition, soft midtones, as well as the famous "haze" of sfumato create an unusual depth in the space of this picture. Well, one cannot fail to mention one more "version" of the content of this picture, which a few years ago tormented the minds of fans of Dan Brown, who turned the content of the picture right upside down.

Looking for fleas

Giuseppe Maria Crespi.
A woman looking for fleas.
Around 1720-1725

Denon Wing, first floor. Italian painting. Hall No. 19 (halls at the end of the Grand Gallery).

The Bolognese painting by Giuseppe Maria Crespi is one of the recent acquisitions of the museum, received as a gift from the Society of Friends of the Louvre. Crespi was a great admirer of Dutch painting, and genre scenes in particular. Existing in several versions, "Woman Seeking Fleas", apparently, was part of a series of paintings (now lost) that tells about the life of one singer from the beginning of her career to her last years, when she became devout. Such works are by no means central to the artist's work, but they give a modern person a vivid idea of ​​the realities of that time, when not a single decent person could do without a flea-catcher.

Cripples, don't despair

Pieter Brueghel the Elder.
Cripples.
1568.

Richelieu wing, second floor. Painting of the Netherlands. Hall number 12.

This small work of the elder Brueghel (only 18.5 by 21.5 cm) is the only one in the entire Louvre. Not to notice it is easier than ever, and not only because of the size, the recognition effect - "if there are a lot of little people in the picture, then this is Brueghel" - it may not work right away. The work was donated to the museum in 1892, and during this time many interpretations of the painting's plot were born. Some saw in it a reflection on the innate weakness of human nature, others - social satire (the carnival headdresses of the characters can symbolize the king, bishop, burgher, soldier and peasant), or criticism of the policy pursued in Flanders by Philip II. However, until now no one undertakes to explain the character with a bowl in his hands (in the background), as well as fox tails on the clothes of the heroes, although some see here a hint of the annual festival of the poor, Koppermaandag. Adding mystery to the picture is the inscription on the back, which the audience does not see: "Cripples, do not despair, and your business may flourish."

One of the most famous paintings by Hieronymus Bosch is not that they do not know "by sight". Perhaps, its location does not play in favor of the work: not far from the entrance to a small hall, and even with such neighbors as Albrecht Dürer's "Self-Portrait" and van Eyck's "Madonna of Chancellor Rolin", and not far from the d'Estre sisters, unusual The composition of this work by an unknown French artist - naked ladies sitting in the bathroom, one of whom pinches the other on the nipple - made the picture no less popular than the Mona Lisa itself. But back to Bosch, those who carefully look around will never miss him. "Ship of Fools" is part of a lost triptych, the lower fragment of which is now considered to be "Allegory of Gluttony and Lust" from the Yale University Art Gallery. It is assumed that the "Ship of Fools" is the first of the artist's compositions on the theme of the vices of society. Bosch likens the depraved society and the clergy to madmen who have crammed into an unruly boat and are rushing towards their death. The painting was donated to the Louvre by the composer and art critic Camille Benois in 1918.

The Louvre must-sees are the two "Dutch gems of its collection" - Jan Vermeer's The Lacemaker and The Astronomer. But his predecessor, Pieter de Hooch, whose "Drinker" hangs in the same room, often bypasses the attention of the average tourist. And yet this work is worth paying attention to, and not only because of the well-thought-out perspective and lively composition, the artist managed to convey the subtle nuances of the relationship between the characters in the picture. Each participant in this gallant scene has a specific role: the soldier pours a drink for a young woman who is already not sober, his friend sitting by the window is a simple observer, but the second woman is clearly a bawd who seems to be bargaining at this moment. Hints at the meaning of the scene and the picture in the background, depicting Christ and the sinner.

Prepared by Natalia Popova

Floor numbers are given in the European tradition, i.e. the ground floor is the Russian first.

Tridacna. Pearls. Oysters. Scallops. mussels

Bivalves- marine and freshwater mollusks, which are characterized by the absence of a head, the presence of a wedge-shaped burrowing leg and the presence of a shell consisting of two valves. In attached species, the leg is reduced. Non-attached species can move slowly by extending their leg and then pulling their whole body towards it.

A mantle in the form of two folds of skin hangs down on the sides of the body of the mollusk. In the outer epithelium of the mantle there are glands that form shell valves. Substances in the valve are arranged in three layers: outer organic (conchiolin), calcareous and inner mother-of-pearl. On the dorsal side, the valves are connected by an elastic ligament (ligament) or lock. The sashes are closed with the help of closure muscles. On the dorsal side, the mantle grows together with the body of the mollusk. In some species, the free edges of the mantle grow together, forming holes - siphons for the input and output of water from the mantle cavity. The lower siphon is called the inlet, or gill, the upper one is the outlet, or cloacal.

In the mantle cavity on both sides of the leg are the respiratory organs - the gills. The inner surface of the mantle and the gills are covered with ciliated epithelium, the movement of the cilia of which creates a current of water. Through the lower siphon, water enters the mantle cavity, and out through the upper siphon.

According to the method of feeding, bivalves are filter feeders: food particles that have entered the mantle cavity are glued together and sent to the mouth opening of the mollusk, located at the base of the leg. Food from the mouth passes into the esophagus, which opens into the stomach. The midgut makes several bends at the base of the leg, then passes into the hindgut. The hindgut usually penetrates the ventricle of the heart and ends with the anus. The liver is large and surrounds the stomach on all sides. Bivalves, unlike gastropods, do not have a radula or salivary glands.

rice. one.
A - side view, B - transverse section: 1 - pedal ganglion, 2 - mouth,
3 - anterior muscle-contactor, 4 - cerebro-pleural ganglion,
5 - stomach, 6 - liver, 7 - anterior aorta, 8 - pericardium, 9 - heart,
10 - atrium, 11 - ventricle, 12 - posterior aorta, 13 - kidney,
14 - hindgut, 15 - posterior muscle-contact, 16 - viscero-
parietal ganglion, 17 - anus, 18 - mantle,
19 - gills, 20 - sex gland, 21 - midgut, 22 - leg,
23 - ligament, 24 - shell, 25 - mantle cavity.

The nervous system of bivalves is represented by three pairs of ganglia: 1) cerebro-pleural, 2) pedal, and 3) viscero-parietal ganglia. The cerebropleural ganglia are located near the esophagus, the pedal ganglia are in the leg, and the visceroparietal ganglia are under the posterior concha muscle. The sense organs are poorly developed. In the leg there are organs of balance - statocysts, at the base of the gills are osphradia (organs of chemical sense). Tactile receptors are scattered in the integument.

The circulatory system is an open type, consisting of the heart and blood vessels. The heart is three-chambered, has two atria and one ventricle. Blood from the ventricle enters the anterior and posterior aorta, which break up into small arteries, then the blood pours into the lacunae and is directed through the branchial vessels to the gills. Oxidized blood flows through the efferent gill vessels from each side of the body to its atrium and common ventricle.

rice. 2. bivalve larva
shellfish - veliger.

Excretory organs - two kidneys.

Bivalves are usually dioecious animals. The testicles and ovaries are paired. The genital ducts open into the mantle cavity. The spermatozoa are “ejected” by the males through the excretory siphon into the water and then are drawn through the introductory siphon into the mantle cavity of the females, where the eggs are fertilized.

rice. 3. Toothless larva
- glochidia:
1 - sashes, 2 - hooks,
3 - sticky (byssus).

In most species of bivalves, development occurs with metamorphosis. The planktonic larva veliger, or sailboat, develops from fertilized eggs (Fig. 2).

rice. four. Tridacna
(Tridacna gigas).

Giant Tridacna (Tridacna gigas)- the largest species of bivalves (Fig. 4). The mass of the tridacna reaches 250 kg, the body length is 1.5 m. It lives in the coral reefs of the Indian and Pacific oceans. Unlike other bivalves, the dorsal heavy part of the shell of the tridacna rests on the ground. This orientation of the shell led to great changes in the arrangement of various organs; in general, we can say that the tridacna turned 180 ° inside its shell. The only closing muscle has shifted to the ventral margin.

The edges of the mantle are greatly expanded and grow together almost throughout, except for three areas where the openings of two siphons and the opening for the exit of byssal filaments are located. In the thickened edge of the mantle live unicellular algae zooxanthellae. Tridacna is a filter feeder, but can also feed on these zooxanthellae.

The shells and meat of the tridacna have been used by the peoples of Oceania for a long time.

Pearls live in the Pacific and Indian Oceans at shallow depths (Fig. 5). They are fished for the purpose of obtaining pearls. The most valuable pearls are given by species of the genera Pinctada, Pteria.

rice. 5. pearl
(Pinctada sp.).

A pearl is formed if a foreign body (a grain of sand, a small animal, etc.) gets between the mantle and the inner surface of the mantle. The mantle begins to secrete mother-of-pearl, which coats this foreign body layer by layer, irritating her. The pearl increases in size, gradually separates from the inner surface of the shell and then lies freely. Often it does not connect to the sink from the very beginning. The pearl consists of alternating layers of mother-of-pearl and conchiolin. After 50-60 years after being extracted from the mollusk, it becomes covered with cracks, this is due to the destruction of the conchiolin layers inside it. The maximum period of "life" of a pearl as an ornament does not exceed 150 years.

In order to have a jewelry value, a pearl must have a certain size, shape, color, clarity. Pearls that meet "jewelry" requirements are rare in nature. At the end of the nineteenth century, a method was proposed for the artificial cultivation of pearls in sea pearls. Mother-of-pearl balls turned on a lathe are tied with sections of mantle sheets and transplanted into three-year-old mollusks in this form. The period of keeping the pearl sac ("nucleolus") is from 1 to 7 years.

At present, the technology of pearl breeding is as follows. Some farms grow pearl mussels up to the age of three, then transfer them to pearl farms. Here, pearl mussels are subjected to an operation (introduced "nucleoli") and then placed in special sieves, which are suspended from rafts. After a few years, the sieves are lifted and pearls are extracted from the pearls.

rice. 6. Oyster
(Crassostrea virginica).

Artificial breeding of marine animals is called mariculture.

oysters(Fig. 6) have been eaten by humans since time immemorial. The shell of oysters is uneven-valve: the left valve is larger in size than the right one and more convex. The left valve attaches the mollusk to the substrate. The mantle is open, does not form siphons, the flow of water is through. Well-developed semicircular gills surrounding a powerful adductor (muscle-terminator). Adult mollusks have no legs. Oysters are dioecious. Fertilized eggs develop in the posterior part of the mantle cavity of the female. After a few days, the larvae enter the water, swim, settle and attach themselves to the substrate. Oysters usually form clusters, distinguish between coastal settlements and oyster banks.

About 50 species of oysters are known, which belong to the families Ostreidae and Crassostreidae. One of the main commercial species is the edible oyster (Ostrea edulis). As a result of centuries of fishing, the number of oysters in many populations has declined sharply. Currently, along with fishing in natural habitats, oysters are grown artificially in specially organized oyster parks.

Oysters require specific conditions to grow. First, they feed on a certain type of plankton. Secondly, they do not live at a depth below 10 meters and at a water temperature below 5 ° C. Plantations are usually planted not very far from the coast in closed bays, so as not to be swept away by a storm. The growing period of oysters is not so short and is 34 years. Mollusks are kept in special containers, submerged to a certain depth and inaccessible to predators. After maturation, oysters are placed for a certain time in pools with clean sea water and special algae.

rice. 7.

rice. eight.

scallops- several dozen species of gastropod mollusks that belong to the families Pectinidae and Propeamusiidae. Scallops have a rounded shell with a straight locking edge, which has angled protrusions in the form of ears in front and behind. The surface of the valves has radial or concentric ribs. The leg is rudimentary, looks like a dense finger-like outgrowth. Numerous eyes and mantle tentacles with tactile receptors are located on the middle fold of the mantle (Fig. 7). Unlike other species of bivalves, scallops can swim by flapping their valves (Fig. 8). The slamming of the valves is provided by the contraction of the powerful adductor fibers. Scallops are dioecious animals.

The adductor of scallops, sometimes their mantle, is used for food. Just like oysters, scallops are not only hunted in their natural habitats, but also grown artificially (Patinopecten yessoensis). First, rafts are installed in the fenced area of ​​the sea, to which collectors (pallets, panicles, etc.) are suspended. Mollusk larvae settle on these pallets. After 1-2 years, young mollusks are removed from the collectors, placed in individual nets and grown on "farms".

rice. 9. Mussel edible
(Mytilus edulis).

mussels- several species belonging to the Mytilidae family. They lead an attached lifestyle, in connection with which the leg is reduced, loses the ability to move and serves to isolate the byssal threads. The shell is of a characteristic "mytilid" shape, very dark in color, often blue-black. The shell of the edible mussel (Mytilus edulis) is about 7 cm long, up to 3.5 cm high, and 3.5 cm thick. The posterior adductor is much larger than the anterior one. Mussels are dioecious animals. Mussel settlements are a powerful biofilter that purifies and clarifies the water. It is estimated that mussels that settle on 1 m 2 of the bottom filter up to 280 m 3 of water per day.

Mussels are used for food. Fishing for these mollusks has been going on since ancient times. In addition, mussels are currently grown artificially. In this case, approximately the same technology is used as in the cultivation of scallops.

rice. ten. Teredo
(Teredo navalis):
1 - sink,
2 - body,
3 - siphons,
4 - moves, drilled
shellfish.

Teredo(Fig. 10) belongs to the family Woodworm (Teredinidae). The body shape is worm-like, so these mollusks have another name - shipworms. Body length up to 15 cm, at its anterior end there is a shell, reduced to two small plates. The sink is "equipped" with a drilling machine. At the posterior end of the body are long siphons. Hermaphrodites. In wooden underwater objects, the teredo "drills" numerous passages, feeds on wooden "crumbs". Digestion of wood is carried out by symbiotic bacteria. As a result of the activity of shipworms, the tree becomes like a sponge and is easily destroyed. Teredos pose a danger to wooden boats and buildings.