most developed states. The main types of countries in the modern world

The division of the world economy into spheres of economic activity and the determination of the main economic relationships between them make it possible not only to analyze the development trends of individual countries, but also to compare them with each other. However, there are approximately 200 countries in the world as a whole, which are very different in terms of economic development. And knowledge of classifications is extremely important for mutual study and exchange of experience in economic development.

As economically developed countries, the International Monetary Fund singles out the states: 1. Countries qualifying the WB and the IMF as countries with developed economies in the late XX - early XXI centuries: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Greece , Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, South Korea, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, Switzerland, .

2. The more complete group of developed countries also includes Andorra, Bermuda, Faroe Islands, Vatican City, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Liechtenstein, Monaco and San Marino.

Among the main features of developed countries, it is advisable to highlight the following:

5. The economies of developed countries are characterized by their openness to the world economy and the liberal organization of the foreign trade regime. Leadership in world production determines their leading role in world trade, international capital flows, and international monetary and settlement relations. In the field of international labor migration, developed countries act as hosts.

Countries with economies in transition

Transition economies typically include the 28 states of Central and Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, transitioning from a centrally planned to a market economy, as well as, in some cases, Mongolia, China and Vietnam. Among the countries with economies in transition, due to its political significance, Russia is usually considered separately, without connection with other groups (2% of world GDP and 1% of exports). The countries of Central and Eastern Europe, which were once part of the socialist camp, as well as the countries of the former USSR, which are called the countries of the former "ruble zone", stand out as a separate group.

Countries with economies in transition include:

1. Former socialist countries of Central and Eastern Europe: Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Czech Republic, successors of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia - Bosnia and Herzegovina, Republic of Macedonia, Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia and Montenegro;

2. Former Soviet republics - now CIS countries: Azerbaijan, Armenia, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Ukraine;

3. Former Baltic republics: Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia.

Of particular difficulty is the classification, since the construction of capitalism, and hence market relations, in the PRC takes place under the leadership of the Communist Party of China (CCP). China's economy is a symbiosis of a planned socialist economy and free enterprise. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) classifies China, like India, as an emerging Asian country.

The countries of Central and Eastern Europe, the Baltic States and some Balkan countries are characterized by an initially higher level of socio-economic development; radical and successful implementation of reforms (“velvet revolutions”); expressed aspiration to join the EU. Outsiders in this group are Albania, Bulgaria and Romania. The leaders are the Czech Republic and Slovenia.

The former Soviet republics, with the exception of the Baltic states, have been united in the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) since 1993. The collapse of the USSR led to a break in the economic ties that had been developing for decades between the enterprises of the former republics. The one-time abolition of state pricing (in the context of a shortage of goods and services), the spontaneous privatization of the largest export-oriented state-owned enterprises, the introduction of a parallel currency (US dollar) and the liberalization of foreign trade activities led to a sharp drop in production. Russia's GDP has almost halved. Hyperinflation reached 2000% or more per year.

There was a sharp depreciation of the national currency, a deficit of the state budget, a sharp stratification of the population with the absolute impoverishment of its bulk. The formation of an oligarchic variant of capitalism took place without the creation of a middle class. Loans from the IMF and other international organizations were directed to "patching holes" in the state budget and plundered uncontrollably. Conducting financial stabilization through budgetary restrictions and the policy of restriction or contraction of the money supply (increase in interest rates) gradually reduced inflation, but had serious social losses (unemployment, increased mortality, homeless children, etc.). The experience of "shock therapy" has shown that the introduction of private property and market relations in itself is not a guarantee of creating an efficient economy.

If we talk about the term "transitional economy", then it is used to characterize the transformation of the economy of the socialist countries into a market one. The transition to the market required a number of significant transformations, which include:

1) denationalization of the economy, requiring privatization and stimulation of the development of non-state enterprises;

2) development of non-state forms of ownership, including private ownership of the means of production; 3) the formation of the consumer market and its saturation with goods.

The first reform programs consisted of sets of stabilization measures and privatization. Monetary and fiscal restrictions were supposed to bring down inflation and restore financial balance, while the liberalization of external relations was supposed to bring the necessary competition to the domestic market.

The economic and social costs of the transition were higher than expected. A protracted economic downturn, high unemployment, a decline in the social security system, deepening income differentiation and a decline in the welfare of the population were the first results of the reforms.

The practice of reform in various countries can be reduced to two main alternative paths:

1) the path of rapid radical reforms (“shock therapy”), which is taken as a basis in many countries, including Russia. The strategy was historically formed back in the 1980s by the IMF for debtor countries. Its features were the landslide liberalization of prices, incomes and economic activity. Macroeconomic stabilization was achieved by reducing the money supply and huge inflation as a consequence.

Urgent systemic changes included privatization. In foreign economic activity, the goal was to involve the national economy in the world economy. The results of "shock therapy" are more negative than positive;

2) the path of gradual evolutionary transformation of the economy, taken as a basis in China.

Already from the mid-1990s and with the beginning of the recovery stage, the countries with economies in transition demonstrated good overall indicators of economic development and market economy. GDP indicators gradually went up. However, the unemployment rate remains high. Taking into account the different starting conditions at different times of the beginning of the transformations, their results turned out to be different. Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovenia, Estonia, Slovakia achieved the greatest success.

In many countries of Central and Eastern Europe (CEE), the share of public spending in GDP is high: at least 30-50%. In the process of market reform, the standard of living of the population decreased and inequality in the distribution of income increased: approximately 1/5 of the population was able to raise the standard of living, and about 30% became poor. One group can be divided into the former Soviet republics, which are now united in the CIS. Their economies show different rates of market transformation.

Developing countries

Developing countries - 132 states of Asia, Africa, Latin America, characterized by low and middle income levels. Due to the wide variety of developing countries in the international economy, it is customary to classify them both geographically and according to various analytical criteria.

There are certain grounds for singling out yesterday's dependent and colonial countries, lagging behind in their economic and social development and conditionally united by the term "developing", into a special group of states. These countries are home to 80% of the world's population, and the fate of this region will always have a significant impact on global processes.

The most important criteria for identifying developing countries is a special place in the system of economic and political relations, the level of economic development and specific features of reproduction and features of the socio-economic structure.

The first and most essential feature of developing countries is their place in the world economy and politics. Today they are part of the world capitalist system and are more or less subject to the prevailing economic laws and world economic trends. Remaining a link in the world economy, these countries continue to have a tendency to deepen economic and political dependence on the economies of developed countries.

Developing countries are still major suppliers of raw materials and fuel to the world market, despite the fact that the share of developing countries in Western countries' imports of fuel has decreased somewhat in recent years. Being suppliers of raw materials, they depend on imports of finished products, so today the share of developing countries in world exports is only about 30%, including 21.4% in the supply of industrial products.

The economy of this group of countries is highly dependent on TNCs, as well as financial dependence. TNCs with the most advanced technology do not go for its transfer when creating joint ventures in developing countries, preferring to locate their branches there. At least 1/4 of foreign investments of TNCs are concentrated in developing countries. Private capital has now become the main element of foreign inflows to developing countries. Foreign direct investment today accounts for more than half of all funds coming from private sources.

The level of economic development of developing countries can be characterized as economic backwardness from the most developed part of the world. The low level of development of productive forces, the backwardness of the technical equipment of industry, agriculture and social infrastructure are the main features of the economy of these countries as a whole. The most characteristic sign of backwardness is the agrarian profile of the economy and the proportion of the population employed in agriculture. The industrial-agrarian profile of the economy is not typical for developing countries. It has developed only in the most developed countries of Latin America and several Asian states. In the overwhelming majority of countries, agricultural employment is still 2.5 times, and sometimes even 10 times, higher than industrial employment. In this respect, many oil-producing countries are closer to developing countries than to developed ones.

Features of the socio-economic structure of developing countries are associated with the multi-structural nature of the economy. Developing countries are characterized by a significant range of forms of production: from patriarchal-communal and small-scale commodity to monopolistic and cooperative. Economic ties between structures are limited. Ways are characterized by their system of values ​​and way of life of the population. The patriarchal way of life is characteristic of agriculture. The private capitalist structure includes various forms of ownership and exists in trade and the service sector.

The emergence of the capitalist order has its own peculiarities here. Firstly, it is often associated with the export of capital from more developed countries, and in the conditions of an unprepared economy is of an “enclave” nature.

Secondly, the capitalist structure, while developing as a dependent one, cannot eliminate the multi-structural structure and even leads to its expansion. Thirdly, there is no consistent development of one form of ownership from another. For example, monopolistic property, most often represented by TNC affiliates, is not a product of the development of joint-stock property, etc.

The social structure of society reflects the diversity of the economy. The communal type dominates in public relations, civil society is just being formed. Developing countries are characterized by poverty, overpopulation, and high unemployment.

The economic role of the state in developing countries is very large and, along with traditional functions, includes: the exercise of national sovereignty over natural resources; control over foreign financial assistance in order to use it for the implementation of projects provided for in the programs of social and economic development of the state; agrarian reforms associated with an increase in agricultural production, the creation of cooperatives, etc.; training of national personnel.

There is a classification of developing countries depending on the level of economic development, measured by GDP per capita:

1) countries with high per capita incomes comparable to incomes in developed countries (Brunei, Qatar, Kuwait, UAE, Singapore);

2) countries with average GDP per capita (Libya, Uruguay, Tunisia, etc.);

3) poor countries of the world. This group includes most of the countries of tropical Africa, the countries of South Asia and Oceania, and a number of countries in Latin America.

Another classification of developing countries is related to the level of development of capitalism as an economic structure. From this point of view, the following groups of developing countries can be distinguished:

1) these are states where state, foreign and local capital prevails. The economic activity of the state is state-capitalist in content. In these countries, the involvement of foreign capital in local capital is high. These countries include Mexico, Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, Singapore, Taiwan, South Korea, as well as a number of smaller countries in the Asia-Pacific region.

2) the second group of states is the largest. Their peculiarity is that here capitalism is represented by "enclaves", and sometimes very isolated ones. This group includes such countries as India, Pakistan, the countries of the Middle East, the Persian Gulf, North Africa, some countries of Southeast Asia (Philippines, Thailand, Indonesia).

3) the third group - the least developed countries of the world, about 30 countries with a population of about 15% of the population of the developing world. The capitalist structure in them exists in the form of fragments. These capitalist "enclaves" are mainly represented by foreign capital. 2/3 of the least developed countries are in Africa. The pre-capitalist sector is dominated by natural ties. Almost all areas of employment are traditional ways. The only driving force behind development in most of them is the state. The share of the manufacturing industry in GDP is no more than 10%, GDP per capita is no more than $300, and the literacy rate is no more than 20% of the adult population. These countries have little chance of improving their situation on their own, relying only on internal forces.

Source - World economy: textbook / E.G. Guzhva, M.I. Lesnaya, A.V. Kondratiev, A.N. Egorov; SPbGASU. - St. Petersburg, 2009. - 116 p.

• 1. Three groups of countries: developed, developing and with economies in transition

Based on various criteria in the world economy, a certain number of subsystems are distinguished. The largest subsystems, or megasystems, are three groups of national economies:

1) industrialized countries;

2) countries in transition;

3) developing countries.

• 2. Group of developed countries

The group of developed (industrialized countries, industrial) includes states with a high level of socio-economic development, the predominant predominance of a market economy. GDP per capita PPP is at least $12,000 PPP.

The number of developed countries and territories, according to the International Monetary Fund, includes the United States, all countries of Western Europe, Canada, Japan, Australia and New Zealand, South Korea, Singapore, Hong Kong and Taiwan, Israel. The UN joins them with the Republic of South Africa. The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development adds Turkey and Mexico to their number, although these are most likely developing countries, but they are included in this number on a territorial basis.

Thus, about 30 countries and territories are included in the number of developed countries. Perhaps, after the official accession to the European Union of Hungary, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovenia, Cyprus and Estonia, these countries will also be included in the number of developed countries.

There is an opinion that Russia will also join the group of developed countries in the near future. But to do this, it needs to go a long way to transform its economy into a market one, to increase its GDP at least to the pre-reform level.

Developed countries are the main group of countries in the world economy. In this group of countries, the "seven" with the largest GDP (USA, Japan, Germany, France, Great Britain, Canada) are singled out. More than 44% of world GDP is accounted for by these countries, including the USA - 21, Japan - 7, Germany - 5%. Most developed countries are members of integration associations, of which the most powerful are the European Union (EU) and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).

• 3. Group of developing countries

The group of developing countries (less developed, underdeveloped) is the largest group (about 140 countries located in Asia, Africa, Latin America and Oceania). These are states with a low level of economic development, but with a market economy. Despite the rather significant number of these countries, and many of them are characterized by a large population and a large territory, they account for only 28% of world GDP.

The group of developing countries is often referred to as the third world, and it is not homogeneous. The basis of developing countries are states with a relatively modern economic structure (for example, some countries in Asia, especially Southeast, and countries in Latin America), high GDP per capita, and a high human development index. Of these, a subgroup of newly industrialized countries is distinguished, which have recently demonstrated very high rates of economic growth.

They were able to greatly reduce their backlog from developed countries. Today's new industrial countries include: in Asia - Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand and others, in Latin America - Chile and other South and Central American countries.

In a special subgroup allocate countries that are exporters of oil. The backbone of this group is made up of 12 members of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC).

Underdevelopment, lack of rich mineral resources, and in some countries even access to the sea, unfavorable internal political and social situation, military actions and simply arid climate determine the growth in the number of countries classified as the least developed subgroup in recent decades. Currently, there are 47 of them, including 32 located in Tropical Africa, 10 in Asia, 4 in Oceania, 1 in Latin America (Haiti). The main problem of these countries is not so much backwardness and poverty, but the lack of tangible economic resources to overcome them.

• 4. Group of countries with economies in transition

This group includes states that are transitioning from an administrative-command (socialist) economy to a market economy (which is why they are often called post-socialist). This transition has been taking place since the 1980s and 1990s.

These are 12 countries of Central and Eastern Europe, 15 countries of the former Soviet republics, as well as Mongolia, China and Vietnam (the last two countries formally continue to build socialism)

The countries with economies in transition account for about 17-18% of world GDP, including the countries of Central and Eastern Europe (without the Baltics) - less than 2%, the former Soviet republics - more than 4% (including Russia - about 3%) , China - about 12%. Within this youngest group of countries, subgroups can be distinguished.

The former Soviet republics, which are now united in the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), can be combined into one subgroup. Thus, such an association leads to reforming the economies of these countries.

In another subgroup, you can combine the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, the Baltic countries. These countries are characterized by a radical approach to reforms, a desire to join the EU, and a relatively high level of development for most of them.

But due to the strong lag behind the leaders of this subgroup of Albania, Bulgaria, Romania and the republics of the former Yugoslavia, it is advisable to include them in the first subgroup.

China and Vietnam can be identified as a separate subgroup. The low level of socio-economic development is currently rising rapidly.

Of the large group of countries with administrative-command economies, by the end of the 1990s. only two countries remained: North Korea and Cuba.

LECTURE No. 4. Newly industrialized countries, oil-producing countries, least developed countries. A special place for the group / leaders of the developing world: newly industrialized countries and countries - members of OPEC

In the structure of developing countries 1960-80s. 20th century are a period of global change. From their midst stand out the so-called "new industrial countries (NIS)". NIS on the basis of certain features are distinguished from the bulk of developing countries. The features that distinguish "new industrial countries" from developing countries allow us to talk about the emergence of a special "new industrial model" of development. These countries are unique examples of development for many states, both in terms of the internal dynamics of the national economy and in terms of external economic expansion. The NIS includes four Asian countries, the so-called "small dragons of Asia" - South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, Hong Kong, as well as the NIS of Latin America - Argentina, Brazil, Mexico. All these countries are NIS of the first wave or first generation.

Then they are followed by NIS of the next generations:

1) Malaysia, Thailand, India, Chile - the second generation;

2) Cyprus, Tunisia, Turkey, Indonesia - the third generation;

3) Philippines, southern provinces of China - the fourth generation.

As a result, entire zones of new industrialization, poles of economic growth are emerging, extending their influence primarily to nearby regions.

The United Nations identifies the criteria by which certain states belong to the NIS:

1) the size of GDP per capita;

2) average annual growth rates;

3) the share of the manufacturing industry in GDP (it should be more than 20%);

4) the volume of exports of industrial products and their share in total exports;

5) volume of direct investments abroad.

For all these indicators, NIS not only stand out from other developing countries, but often surpass those of a number of industrialized countries.

A significant increase in the well-being of the population determines the high growth rates of NIS. Low unemployment is one of the achievement of NIS Southeast Asia. In the mid-1990s, the four "little dragons", as well as Thailand and Malaysia, were the countries with the lowest unemployment in the world. They showed a lagging level of labor productivity in comparison with industrialized countries. In the 1960s, some countries of East Asia and Latin America, NIS, took this path.

These countries actively used external sources of economic growth. These include, first of all, the free attraction of foreign capital, equipment and technology from industrialized countries.

The main reasons for the selection of NIS from other countries:

1) due to a number of reasons, some NIS ended up in the sphere of special political and economic interests of industrialized countries;

2) the development of the modern structure of the NIS economy was greatly influenced by direct investment. Direct investments in the economy of the NIS account for 42% of direct capitalist investments in developing countries. The main investor is the United States, and then Japan. Japanese investment has contributed to the industrialization of NIS and increased the competitiveness of their exports. They played a particularly prominent role in the metamorphosis of NIS into large exporters of manufacturing products. For the NIS of Asia, it is characteristic that capital rushed mainly to the manufacturing industry and the raw materials industries. In turn, the capital of Latin American NIS was directed to trade, the service sector, and the manufacturing industry. The free expansion of foreign private capital has led to the fact that in the NIS, in fact, there is not a single sector of the economy where there would be no foreign capital. The return on investment in Asian NIS significantly exceeds similar opportunities in Latin American countries;

3) "Asian" dragons were determined to accept these changes in the international economic situation and use them for their own purposes.

The following factors played a significant role in attracting transnational corporations:

1) convenient geographical location of the NIS;

2) the formation in almost all NIS of autocratic or close to such political regimes loyal to industrialized countries. Foreign investors were provided with a high degree of security guarantees for their investments;

3) such non-economic factors as diligence, diligence, discipline of the population of NIS Asia played a significant role.

All countries according to the level of economic development can be divided into three categories. Oil importers and exporters stand out in particular.

The group of countries with high per capita incomes, which are typical for industrialized countries, includes Brunei, Qatar, Kuwait, and the Emirates.

The group of countries with average GDP per capita includes mainly oil-exporting countries and newly industrialized countries (these include countries whose share of manufacturing in GDP is at least 20%)

The group of oil exporters has a subgroup consisting of 19 states whose export of oil products exceeds 50%.

In these countries, the material foundation was initially created, and only then was scope given to the development of capitalist production relations. They formed the so-called rental capitalism.

The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) was founded in September 1960 at a conference in Baghdad (Iraq). OPEC established five oil-rich developing countries: Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Venezuela.

These countries were subsequently joined by eight others: Qatar (1961), Indonesia and Libya (1962), United Arab Emirates (1967), Algeria (1969), Nigeria (1971), Ecuador (1973). ), and Gabon (1975). However, two minor producers - Ecuador and Gabon - refused membership in this organization in 1992 and 1994. respectively. Thus, this OPEC unites 11 member countries. The headquarters of OPEC is located in Vienna. The Charter of the Organization was adopted in 1961 at the January conference in Caracas (Venezuela). In accordance with the 1st and 2nd articles of the Charter, Opec is a "permanent intergovernmental organization", the main tasks of which are:

1) coordination and unification of the oil policy of the participating countries and determination of the best ways (individual and collective) to protect their interests;

2) finding ways and means to ensure price stability on the world oil markets in order to eliminate harmful and undesirable price fluctuations;

3) observance of the interests of producing countries and providing them with sustainable income;

4) efficient, economically expedient and regular supply of oil to consumer countries;

5) providing investors directing their funds to the oil industry with a fair return on invested capital.

OPEC controls about half of the world's oil trade, sets the official price for crude oil, which largely determines the world price level.

The conference is the supreme body of OPEC and consists of delegations, usually headed by ministers. It usually meets in regular sessions twice a year (in March and September) and in extraordinary sessions as needed.

At the Conference, the general political line of the Organization is formed, appropriate measures are determined for its implementation; decisions are made on the admission of new members; checks and coordinates the activities of the Board of Governors, appoints members of the Board, including the Chairman of the Board of Governors and his deputy, as well as the Secretary General of OPEC; approves the budget and changes in the Charter, etc.

The Secretary General of the Organization is also the Secretary of the Conference. All decisions, with the exception of procedural matters, are taken unanimously.

The conference in its activities relies on several committees and commissions, the most important of which is the economic commission. It is designed to assist the Organization in maintaining stability in the world oil market.

The Board of Governors is the governing body of OPEC and, in terms of the nature of its functions, is comparable to the board of directors of a commercial organization. It consists of Governors appointed by the Member States and approved by the Conference for a two-year term.

The Council manages the Organization, implements the decisions of the supreme body of OPEC, forms the annual budget and submits it for approval by the Conference. He also analyzes the reports submitted by the Secretary General, draws up reports and recommendations of the Conference on current affairs and prepares the agenda of the Conferences.

The OPEC Secretariat acts as the headquarters of the Organization and (in fact) is the executive body responsible for its functioning in accordance with the provisions of the Charter and the directives of the Board of Governors. The Secretariat is headed by the Secretary General and consists of the Research Division, directed by the Director, the Information and Public Relations Department, the Administration and Personnel Department, and the Office of the Secretary General.

The Charter defines three categories of membership in the Organization:

1) founding member;

2) full member;

3) an associative participant.

The founding members are the five countries that founded OPEC in September 1960 in Baghdad. Full members are founding countries plus those countries whose membership has been approved by the Conference. Associate participants are those countries that, for one reason or another, do not meet the criteria for full participation, but nevertheless have been accepted by the Conference on special, separately agreed conditions.

Maximizing profits from oil exports for participants is the main goal of OPEC. For the most part, achieving this goal is coupled with having to choose between increasing production in the hope of selling more oil, or reducing it in order to benefit from higher prices. OPEC has periodically changed these strategies, but its share of the world market has increased since the 1970s. dropped quite a bit. At that time, on average, real prices did not change significantly.

At the same time, other tasks have appeared in recent years, sometimes contradicting the above. For example, Saudi Arabia has strongly lobbied for the idea of ​​maintaining a long-term and stable level of oil prices, which would not be too high to encourage developed countries to develop and introduce alternative fuels.

The objectives of a tactical nature, solved at OPEC meetings, are to regulate oil production. And yet, at the moment, OPEC countries have not been able to develop an effective mechanism for regulating production, mainly because the members of this organization are sovereign states that have the right to pursue an independent policy in the field of oil production and its export.

Another tactical goal of the Organization in recent years has been the desire not to “frighten away” the oil markets, that is, concern for their stability and sustainability. For example, before announcing the results of their meetings, OPEC ministers wait for the end of the trading session on oil futures in New York. And they also pay special attention to once again assuring the countries of the West and Asian NISs of OPEC's intention to conduct a constructive dialogue.

At its core, OPEC is nothing more than an international cartel of oil-rich developing countries. This follows both from the tasks formulated in its Charter (for example, observing the interests of producing countries and providing them with sustainable income; coordinating and unifying the oil policy of the participating countries and determining the best ways (individual and collective) to protect their interests), and from specifics of membership in the Organization. According to the OPEC Charter, “any other country with a significant net export of crude oil, which has fundamentally similar interests with the participating countries, can become a full member of the organization if it receives consent to join from? its full members, including the unanimous consent of the founding members.

LECTURE No. 5. Openness of the national economy. economic security

A characteristic feature of globalization is the openness of the economy. One of the leading trends in the world economic development of the post-war decades was the transition from closed national economies to an open economy.

For the first time, the definition of openness was given by the French economist M. Perbo. In his opinion, "openness, freedom of trade is the most favorable rule of the game for a leading economy."

For the normal functioning of the world economy, it is necessary in the final analysis to achieve complete freedom of trade between countries, such as is now characteristic of trade relations within each state.

Economy open- an economic system focused on maximum participation in world economic relations and in the international division of labor. Opposes autarkic economic systems that develop in isolation on the basis of self-sufficiency.

The degree of openness of the economy is characterized by such indicators as the export quota - the ratio of the value of exports to the value of gross domestic product (GDP), the volume of exports per capita, etc.

A distinctive feature of modern economic development is the outpacing growth of world trade in relation to world production. International specialization is not only beneficial to the national economy, but also contributes to an increase in world production.

At the same time, the openness of the economy does not eliminate two trends in the development of the world economy: the strengthening of the orientation of national-state economic entities towards free trade (free trade), on the one hand, and the desire to protect the domestic market (protectionism), on the other. Their combination in one proportion or another underlies the foreign economic policy of the state. A society that recognizes both the interests of consumers and its responsibility for those it creates difficulties in its pursuit of a more open trade policy must work out a compromise that avoids costly protectionism.

The advantages of an open economy are:

1) deepening the specialization and cooperation of production;

2) rational distribution of resources depending on the degree of efficiency;

3) dissemination of world experience through the system of international economic relations;

4) the growth of competition between domestic producers, stimulated by competition in the world market.

An open economy is the elimination by the state of the monopoly of foreign trade, the effective application of the principle of comparative advantages and the international division of labor, the active use of various forms of joint venture, the organization of free enterprise zones.

One of the important criteria for an open economy is a country's favorable investment climate, which stimulates the inflow of capital investments, technology, and information within the framework determined by economic feasibility and international competitiveness.

An open economy presupposes a reasonable accessibility of the domestic market for the inflow of foreign capital, information and labor.

An open economy requires significant state intervention in the formation of a mechanism for its implementation at the level of reasonable sufficiency. There is no absolute openness of the economy in any country.

To characterize the degree of participation of a country in the system of international economic relations or the degree of openness of the national economy, a number of indicators are used. Among them, it is necessary to mention, first of all, export (K exp) and imported (K imp) quotas, the share of the value of exports (imports) in the value of GDP (GNP):

where Q exp.- the value of exports;

Q imp. are the value of exports and imports, respectively.

Another indicator is the volume of exports per capita (Q exp. / d.n.):



where h n.- the population of the country.

The export potential of a country is estimated by the share of manufactured products that a country can sell on the world market without harming its own economy, domestic consumption:



where E P.– export potential (the coefficient has only positive values, zero value indicates the border of export potential);

D d.n.- the maximum allowable per capita income.

The entire set of foreign trade export operations is called the "foreign trade balance of the country", in which export operations are classified as active items, and import operations are passive. The total amount of exports and imports will create a balance of the country's foreign trade turnover.

The balance of foreign trade turnover forms the difference between the amount of exports and the amount of imports. The trade balance is positive if exports exceed imports and, conversely, negative if imports exceed exports. In the economic literature of the West, instead of the balance of foreign trade turnover, another term is used - "export". It can also be positive or negative, depending on whether exports dominate or vice versa.

LECTURE No. 6. The international division of labor is the basis for the development of the modern world economy

The international division of labor is the most important basic category that expresses the essence and content of international relations. Since all countries of the world are included in one way or another in this division, its deepening is determined by the development of productive forces, which are affected by the latest technological revolution. Participation in the international division of labor brings additional economic benefits to countries, allowing them to satisfy their needs more fully and at the lowest cost.

International division of labor (MRI)- this is a stable concentration of production for certain countries of certain types of goods, works, services. MRI determines:

1) exchange of goods and services between countries;

2) the movement of capital between countries;

3) labor force migration;

4) integration.

Specialization associated with the production of goods and services increases competitiveness.

For the development of MRI are important:

1) comparative advantage- the ability to produce goods at a lower cost;

2) public policy, depending on which not only the nature of production, but also the nature of consumption can change;

3) concentration of production- the creation of a large-scale industry, the development of mass production (orientation to the external market when creating production);

4) growing imports of the country– formation of mass consumption of raw materials, fuel. Usually mass production does not coincide with resource deposits - countries organize resource imports;

5) development of transport infrastructure.

The international division of labor is an important stage in the development of the social territorial division of labor between countries. It is based on the economically advantageous specialization of the production of countries in certain types of products, leading to the mutual exchange of the results of production between them in certain ratios (quantitative and qualitative). In the modern era, the international division of labor contributes to the development of world integration processes.

MRI plays an ever-increasing role in the implementation of the processes of expanded reproduction in the countries of the world, ensures the interconnection of these processes, forms the appropriate international proportions in the sectoral and territorial-country aspects. MRI does not exist without exchange, which has a special place in the internationalization of social production.

The documents adopted by the UN recognize that the international division of labor and international economic relations cannot develop spontaneously, only under the influence of the laws of competition. The market mechanism cannot automatically ensure the rational development and use of resources on the scale of the global economy.

LECTURE No. 7. International labor migration

Different houses, different cars, different amounts of money. What is the concept of economic inequality? What are the characteristics of developed countries and developing countries?

What is economic inequality?

There are a number of differences between developed and developing countries. In almost any city, you can see various houses, cars and people engaged in various activities. These differences may be indicators of economic inequality, which is the hallmark of individuals or entire populations in terms of their wealth, assets, or income. Although it is most common to see differences in the economic level in your city, economic inequality can also take on a broader scale, affecting entire peoples and nations.

Two types of countries

Economically, the world has been divided into two types - developed countries and developing countries. These two categories are based primarily on per capita income, which is calculated by taking the total national income for a country and dividing it by the number of people living in the country. For example, if a small country has a total national income of $800,000 and a population of 20,000 people, then the per capita income is $40.

The most important characteristics of developing countries

The least developed (developing) countries have the following common features:

• Low standard of living. Causes include slow national income growth, stagnant per capita income growth, concentration of income in the hands of a few individuals and uneven distribution of national income, poor health care, low literacy rates and inadequate educational opportunities.
• Low labor productivity due to lack of technology, capital, etc.
• High population growth rates. Underdeveloped countries are characterized by higher rates of population growth. Mortality rates are also high compared to developed countries.
• High and rising unemployment and underemployment. Some work less than they could. Part-time employment also includes those who normally work full-time but who do not have suitable vacancies. Disguised unemployment is a feature of developing countries.
• Substantial dependence on agricultural production. The vast majority of people, almost three-quarters, work in rural areas. Similarly, three-quarters of the labor force is employed in agriculture. The contribution of agriculture to the gross national product of developing countries is very high compared to developed countries.
• Dependence on the primary product. Most economies from less developed countries are oriented towards primary production rather than secondary activities. These commodities make up the main exports to other countries.
• Dependence in international relations. The higher unequal distribution of economic and political power between rich and poor countries is evident not only in the dominant power of rich countries to control international trade, but also in their ability to often dictate the terms in which technology, foreign aid, and private capital are channeled to the needs of developing countries.
• dualistic economy. Almost all developed countries have a dualistic economy. One of them is the market economy; The other is subsistence economics. One is in the city and not far from it; The other is in the countryside.
• Distribution of wealth. Inequality in wealth and asset distribution is the main cause of uneven income distribution in rural areas. the highest concentration of assets is on the industrial front in the hands of large business houses.
• Lack of natural resources: fertile land, clean water and mineral resources, iron, coal, etc.
• Lack of entrepreneurship and initiative. Another characteristic feature of underdeveloped countries is the lack of entrepreneurial prospects. Entrepreneurship is inhibited by a social system that denies the possibility of creativity.
• Inefficient capital equipment and technologies.

developed nations

The first economic category is developed countries, which can generally be classified as countries with more industrial development and higher per capita income levels. To be considered a developed country, a country typically has a per capita income of around US$12,000. In addition, most developed countries have an average per capita income of approximately $38,000.

As of 2010, the list of developed countries includes the United States, Canada, Japan, the Republic of Korea, Australia, New Zealand, Scandinavia, Singapore, Taiwan, Israel, Western European countries and some Arab states. In 2012, the combined population of these countries was about 1.3 billion people. This figure is relatively stable and is estimated to grow by around 7% over the next 40 years.

In addition to high per capita incomes and stable population growth rates, developed countries are also characterized by resource use patterns. In developed countries, people consume a large amount of natural resources per person and are estimated to consume nearly 88% of the world's resources.

developing nations

The first economic category is the developed countries, and the developing countries are, respectively, the second economic category. This broad concept includes countries that are less industrialized and have a lower per capita income. Developing countries can be divided into more developed or less developed countries.

Moderately developed countries have an approximate per capita income of $1,000 to $12,000. The average per capita income for moderately developed countries is around $4,000. The list of moderately developed countries is very long and amounts to about 4.9 billion people. Some of the more recognizable countries that are considered moderately developed include Mexico, China, Indonesia, Jordan, Thailand, Fiji, and Ecuador. In addition to them are the states of Central America, South America, North and South Africa, Southeast Asia, Eastern Europe, the former USSR and many Arab states.

Less developed countries are the second type of developing countries. They are characterized by the lowest income, with a total per capita income of approximately less than US$1,000. In many of these countries, the average per capita income is even lower, around $500. Countries listed as less developed are in eastern, western and central Africa, India, and other countries in southern Asia. In 2012, these countries had about 0.8 billion people and lived on very little income.

Even though the income range is quite wide, there are still nearly 3 billion people living on less than $2 a day. Can you imagine living on less than $2 a day? This would be a very difficult task for most of us. In addition to low income levels, developing countries are also characterized by high population growth rates. It is estimated that in the next 40 years it will increase by 44%. By 2050, it is predicted that more than 86% of the population will live in developing countries.

The difference between developed countries and developing countries

The classification of countries is based on economic status (GDP, GNP, per capita income, industrialization, standard of living, etc.). Developed countries are sovereign states whose economy has advanced significantly and has a large technological infrastructure compared to other nations. Countries with low industrialization and low human development are called developing countries. In some states, a free, healthy and secure atmosphere is provided, while in others this is not enough.

Developed and developing countries of the world: a comparative table

There are developed, developing, transitional countries. What is their main difference? The main features of developed and developing countries are presented in the table:

Countries in terms of economy and industrialization

Developed countries are countries that are developing in terms of economy and industrialization. They are also called the first and self-sufficient. Human development statistics rank countries based on their development. These states have a high standard of living, high GDP, high child welfare, health care, excellent medical services, transportation, communications, and educational institutions.

They provide improved housing and living conditions, industrial, infrastructural and technological development, higher per capita income. These countries receive more income from the industrial sector compared to the service sectors, since they have a post-industrial economy. Among others, the list of developed countries includes:

• Australia.
• Canada.
• France.
• Germany.
• Italy.
• Japan.
• Norway.
• Sweden.
• Switzerland.
• USA.

Countries that experience initial levels of industrial development along with low per capita income are known as developing countries. These countries are classified as third world countries. Economically developed and developing countries differ from each other in many ways, including a low human development index, lack of a healthy and safe living environment, low gross domestic product, high illiteracy rates, poor education, transportation, communication and health services, unsustainable public debt, unequal distribution of income, high death and birth rates, both maternal and infant malnutrition, high infant mortality, poor living conditions, high unemployment and poverty. These include states such as:

• China.
• Colombia.
• India.
• Kenya.
• Pakistan.
• Sri Lanka.
• Thailand.
• Turkey.
• UAE etc.

Key differences

Countries that are independent and prosperous are known as developed countries. States that are facing the beginning of industrialization are called developing. The former have a higher per capita income, a high literacy rate, and good infrastructure. There are constantly improving conditions in the field of health and safety, which are not available in developing countries.

The economies of developed and developing countries may have similar features, but there are more obvious differences. There is a big difference between these states. Developed countries have a high Human Development Index, they have proven themselves on all fronts and made themselves sovereign by their own efforts, while developing countries with varying success are still trying to achieve the same.

Socio-cultural characteristics

Different types of social groups live in the same country. They differ in terms of religion, castes and creeds, cultures and customs, languages ​​and beliefs, etc. These social and cultural values ​​have a profound impact on the economy of the nation. Developing countries may have discordant social patterns in their economic lives. Employment opportunities or activities exist in urban areas, while the traditional production method is used in rural areas. There are fewer job opportunities than required. Consequently, these countries have a dualistic economy, which leads to various problems with the formulation of economic policy.

Problems of developing countries: poverty, militarization

Poverty is low income, little investment, less industrialization. In a certain industrial and technological area, developing countries achieve rapid growth, provided that economic and geopolitical stability is achieved.

Militarization also prevents stable prosperity and improvement. Some developing countries face terrorism and national security concerns due to border disputes. They spend billions of dollars on modern military equipment, which leads to a reduction in funds for development and innovation. Examples are India, China, Vietnam.

The role of education

Speaking about the problems of developed and developing countries, one should not forget about the importance of education for the future of this or that nation. An important feature of a developing country is its illiteracy. Although efforts are being made to eradicate it, the problem of unskilled personnel remains acute to this day.

ECONOMICALLY DEVELOPED COUNTRIES

Currently, the UN considers approximately 60 countries of Europe, Asia, Africa, North America, Australia and Oceania to be economically developed countries. All of them are distinguished by a higher level of economic and social development and, accordingly, the gross domestic product per capita (over US$5,000). However, this group of countries is characterized by rather significant internal heterogeneity and four subgroups can be distinguished in its composition.

The first of them is formed "big seven countries of the West", which includes the USA, Japan, Germany, France, Great Britain, Italy and Canada. These are the leading countries of the Western world, distinguished by the largest scale of economic and political activity.

The G7 countries account for about 50% of the world's gross national product and industrial production, and over 25% of agricultural production. Their per capita GDP is between 20,000 and 30,000 dollars.

Co. second subgroup include the smaller countries of Western Europe. Although the political and economic power of each of them is not so great, on the whole they play a large, ever-increasing role in world affairs. GDP per capita in most of them is the same as in the G7 countries.

Third subgroup form non-European countries - Australia, New Zealand and the Republic of South Africa (South Africa). These are the former migrant colonies (dominions) of Great Britain, which actually did not know feudalism, and even today they are distinguished by some originality of political and economic development. Israel is usually included in this group.

Fourth subgroup is still in the development stage. It was formed in 1997, after such countries and territories of Asia as the Republic of Korea, Singapore and Taiwan were transferred to the category of economically developed countries. These states have come close to other economically developed countries in terms of GDP per capita. They have a broad and diverse economic structure, including a rapidly growing service sector, and are actively involved in world trade.

Tasks and tests on the topic "Economically developed countries"

• Countries of the world - Population of the Earth Grade 7

  Lessons: 6 Assignments: 9

• Population and countries of South America - South America Grade 7

  Lessons: 4 Assignments: 10 Tests: 1

• Population and countries of North America - North America Grade 7

  Lessons: 3 Assignments: 9 Tests: 1

• India - Eurasia 7th grade

  Lessons: 4 Assignments: 9 Tests: 1

• Economic activity of the world population - Population of the Earth Grade 7

  Lessons: 3 Assignments: 8 Tests: 1

Leading ideas: the level of economic and social development of the country is largely determined by its geographical location and history of development; the diversity of the modern political map of the world - a system that is in constant development and whose elements are interconnected.

Basic concepts: Territory and border of the state, economic zone, sovereign state, dependent territories, republic (presidential and parliamentary), monarchy (absolute, including theocratic, constitutional), federal and unitary state, confederation, gross domestic product (GDP), human index development (HDI), developed countries, G7 countries of the West, developing countries, NIS countries, key countries, oil exporting countries, least developed countries; political geography, geopolitics, GWP of a country (region), UN, NATO, EU, NAFTA, MERCOSUR, APR, OPEC.

Skills: Be able to classify countries according to various criteria, give a brief description of groups and subgroups of countries in the modern world, assess the political and geographical position of countries according to the plan, identify positive and negative features, note the change in GWP over time, use the most important economic and social indicators to characterize (GDP, GDP per capita, human development index, etc.) of the country. Identify the most important changes on the political map of the world, explain the causes and predict the consequences of such changes.

Discipline "Fundamentals of Regional Studies" Lecture 3

Typology of countries

Typology of countries- allocation of groups of countries with a similar type and level of socio-economic development. The type of a country is formed objectively, it is a relatively stable set of developmental features inherent in it, characterizing its role and place in the world community at a given stage in world history. To determine the type of state means to attribute it to one or another socio-economic category.

To distinguish types of countries, the indicator is gross domestic product(GDP) - the value of all final products of material production and non-productive sphere, released in the territory of a given country in one year, per capita. The criteria for selecting types of countries are the level of economic development, the country's share in world production, the structure of the economy, and the degree of participation in the MGRT.

The UN currently has two classifications of countries. In the first, all countries of the world are divided into three types - 1) economically advanced countries; 2) developing countries; 3) (from planned to market). At the same time, the third type actually includes the former socialist countries that are carrying out economic transformations to build a market economy. According to the second UN classification, two large groups of countries are distinguished: 1) economic developed countries and 2) developing. With such a division, extremely different states are combined into one group of countries. Therefore, within each type of country, smaller groups are distinguished - subtypes.

Economically developed countries

To economically developed countries The UN includes about 60 states: all of Europe, USA, Canada, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Israel. These countries, as a rule, are characterized by a high level of economic development, the predominance of manufacturing and service industries in GDP, and a high standard of living of the population. But the same group includes Russia, Belarus, the Czech Republic, etc. Due to the heterogeneity, economically developed countries are divided into several subtypes:

Economically developed countries:

1. main countries– USA, Japan, France, Germany, Italy, Great Britain, Canada. They provide more than 50% of the production of all industrial and more than 25% of the world's agricultural products. The major countries and Canada (with the exception of China) are often referred to as the "G7 countries". (In 1997, Russia was admitted to the G7, which became the G8.)
2. economically developed countries of Europe– Switzerland, Belgium, the Netherlands, Austria, Scandinavian countries, etc. These countries are characterized by political stability, high living standards, high GDP and the highest per capita export and import rates. Unlike the main countries, they have a much narrower specialization in the international division of labor. Their economy is more dependent on income received from banking, tourism, intermediary trade, etc.;
3. countries of "settlement capitalism"- Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa - former colonies of Great Britain - and the State of Israel, formed in 1948 by decision of the UN General Assembly. A characteristic feature of these countries (except Israel) is the preservation of international specialization in the export of raw materials and agricultural products. Unlike developing countries, this agricultural specialization based on high labor productivity is combined with a developed domestic economy.

Countries with an average level of development:

1. middle developed countries of Europe: Greece, Spain, Portugal, Ireland. In terms of the level of development of productive forces, they are somewhat behind modern technical progress. Spain and Portugal in the past were the largest colonial empires, played a big role in world history. But the loss of the colonies led to the loss of political influence and the weakening of the economy, which until then rested on the wealth of the colonies;
2. countries with economies in transition- CIS countries, countries of Eastern Europe. They carry out transformations aimed at developing market relations in the economy instead of central planning. This subgroup of countries emerged in the 1990s in connection with the collapse of the world socialist system. The subgroup includes countries that differ significantly from each other (see note).

Developing countries

To developing countries The UN classification includes all other countries in the world. Almost all of them are located in Asia, Africa and Latin America. They are home to more than ¾ of the world's population, they occupy more than ½ of the land area, but they account for less than 20% of the manufacturing industry and only 30% of the agricultural products of the foreign world (data from 1995). Developing countries are characterized by an export-oriented economy, which makes the national economy of countries dependent on the world market; multistructural economy; special territorial structure of the economy, scientific and technological dependence on developed countries, sharp social contrasts. Developing countries are very diverse. There are several approaches to subtype within this group of countries.

The place of any country in the typology is not constant and may change over time.

Problems of distinguishing between developed and developing countries

The UN experts usually define the border between developed and developing countries by the criterion of $6,000 per capita per year in the country. However, this indicator does not always allow for an objective classification of countries. Some states classified as developing by the UN have come close to economically developed countries or have already surpassed them in a number of indicators (GDP per capita, the level of development of advanced high-tech industries). Thus, in 1997, Singapore, Taiwan and the Republic of Korea were officially transferred from the group of developing countries to the group of developed ones. But at the same time, other indicators of the socio-economic and political development of countries - the sectoral and territorial structure of the economy, dependence on foreign capital - still remain more characteristic of developing countries. Russia, with this classification, having a per capita GDP of about 2500 dollars. per year, formally falls into the group of developing countries.

Given such difficulties with the classification of countries in the world by GDP, now they are trying to identify other, more objective criteria for determining the level of socio-economic development of countries. For example, on the basis of average life expectancy, level of education, the real value of the average income of the population, the human development index (HDI) is determined. Using this criterion, UN experts divide the countries of the world into three groups - with high, medium and low HDI. Then the top ten most developed countries of the world turn out to be different than when taking into account GDP per capita per year, and Russia and the CIS countries fall into the second group, while Russia is in 67th place between Suriname and Brazil.

Note

Inclusion in the binomial typology of the former socialist countries is rather difficult. The level of their socio-economic development is different: most countries, such as Eastern Europe, the Baltic States, Russia, Ukraine, are economically developed, but other countries occupy an intermediate position between developed and developing. China can also be classified as both developed and developing countries according to various criteria.