Description of the chapters of the constitution of South Korea. The Constitution of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea: the history and features of constitutional law

CONSTITUTION OF THE DEMOCRATIC PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF KOREA
Adopted at the I session of the Supreme People's Assembly of the DPRK of the fifth convocation on December 27, 1972, it was amended at the III session of the Supreme People's Assembly of the DPRK of the ninth convocation on April 9, 1992.
Chapter I. POLICY
Article 1
The Democratic People's Republic of Korea is a sovereign socialist state representing the interests of the entire Korean people.
Article 2
The DPRK is a revolutionary power that has inherited the brilliant traditions that have developed in the glorious revolutionary struggle against the imperialist aggressors, for the revival of the Motherland, the freedom and happiness of the people.
Article 3
The DPRK is guided in its activities by the Juche ideas, a worldview centered on the human being, and by revolutionary ideas aimed at realizing the independence of the masses.
Article 4
Power in the DPRK belongs to the workers, peasants, working intelligentsia, and the entire working people.
The working people exercise power through their representative bodies - the Supreme People's Assembly and local People's Assemblies of all levels.
Article 5
All state bodies in the DPRK are formed and function on the basis of the principles of democratic centralism.
Article 6
Organs of power at all levels, beginning with the county People's Assemblies and ending with the Supreme People's Assembly, are elected on the basis of universal, equal and direct suffrage by secret ballot.
Article 7
Deputies of government bodies at all levels maintain close ties with the voters and are responsible for their affairs to the voters.
Voters may at any time recall a deputy elected by them if he loses the confidence placed in him.
Article 8
The social system in the DPRK is one that serves the interests of man, where the working masses are the masters of everything and everything in society is put at the service of their interests.
The state guards and defends the interests of the workers, peasants and working intelligentsia, who are freed from exploitation and oppression and have become masters of the state and society.
Article 9
The DPRK, while strengthening people's power in the northern part of the country and actively developing three revolutions - ideological, technical and cultural, is fighting to achieve the complete victory of socialism, to achieve the reunification of the Motherland on the basis of the principles of independence, peaceful unification and great national consolidation.
Article 10
The DPRK relies on the ideological and political unity of the entire people, based on an alliance of workers and peasants led by the working class.
The state, intensifying the ideological revolution, raises the revolutionary consciousness of all members of society, educates them in the spirit of the traditions of the working class, and turns the whole of society into a comradely soldered collective.
Article 11
The DPRK carries out all its activities under the leadership of the Workers' Party of Korea.
Article 12
The state adheres to the class line, strengthens the dictatorship of people's democracy, and thereby firmly defends the people's power, the socialist system, from the subversive actions of internal and external hostile elements.
Article 13
The state pursues the line of the masses and in all its activities implements the spirit and method of Cheongsanri, the essence of which is that the superiors help the inferiors, find the correct solution of issues in the midst of the masses, highlight political work, work with people and reveal their conscious enthusiasm.
Article 14
The state is actively developing a mass movement, and above all a movement for the title of the Red Banner of the Three Revolutions, and thereby accelerates socialist construction to the maximum.
Article 15
The DPRK protects the democratic national rights of Koreans living abroad and their legal rights guaranteed by international law.
Article 16
The DPRK ensures the lawful rights and interests of foreign citizens who are on its territory.
Article 17
Independence, peace and friendship are the main ideals of the DPRK's foreign policy and the principles of its foreign policy activities.
On the basis of the principles of complete equality and independence, mutual respect and non-interference in internal affairs, mutual benefit, the state establishes state, political, economic and cultural relations with all countries friendly to our country.
The state rallies with the peoples of the world who stand up for independence and actively supports the struggle of the peoples of all countries against all forms of aggression and interference in the internal affairs of other countries, for the sovereignty of the country, for the realization of national and class liberation.
Article 18
The laws of the DPRK are a reflection of the will and interests of the working people and the main tool for governing the state.
Respect for laws and their strict implementation and observance are mandatory for all institutions, enterprises, organizations and citizens.
The state improves socialist legislative institutions and strengthens socialist legality.
Chapter II. ECONOMY
Article 19
The DPRK relies on socialist relations of production and on the basis of an independent national economy.
Article 20
In the DPRK, the means of production belong only to the state and cooperative organizations.
Article 21
State property is the property of the whole people.
The state's right to property is not limited.
All the natural wealth of the country, the leading plants and factories, ports and harbours, banks, transport and means of communication belong only to the state.
The state protects and increases predominantly state property, which plays a leading role in the development of the country's economy.
Article 22
Cooperative property is the collective property of the workers who are members of cooperative farms.
Cooperative organizations may own land, draft animals, agricultural implements, fishing boats, buildings, as well as medium and small plants and factories.
The state protects cooperative property.
Article 23
The state raises the consciousness of the peasants, their technical and cultural level, organically combines the two forms of property in the direction of strengthening the leading role of public property in relation to cooperative property, improves the management and management of the cooperative economy and thereby strengthens and develops the socialist system of cooperative economy and gradually turns cooperative property into nationwide according to the free will of all members who are members of cooperative organizations.
Article 24
Personal property is property for personal and consumer purposes of workers.
The personal property of the working people is formed from the share of socialist distribution according to work, as well as from additional benefits at the expense of the state and society.
The products of the personal subsidiary plots of citizens, including those obtained as a result of managing the household plots of members of agricultural cooperatives, are also their personal property.
The state shall protect the personal property of the working people and by law ensure the right to inherit it.
Article 25
The DPRK considers the steady rise in the material and cultural standard of living of the people to be the supreme principle of its activities.
In our country, where the tax system has been abolished, all the continuously growing material wealth of society is wholly directed towards raising the well-being of the working people.
The state creates all the necessary conditions for every worker to provide them with food, clothing and housing.
Article 26
The independent national economy created in the DPRK is a reliable capital for the happy socialist life of the people and the independent development of the motherland.
The state, firmly adhering to the line of building a socialist independent national economy and accelerating the process of laying a foundation for the national economy corresponding to our real conditions, modernizing it and transferring it to a scientific basis, is fighting for the transformation of the national economy into a highly developed one that meets our conditions, for the creation of a material and technical base corresponding to a complete socialist society.
Article 27
The technical revolution is the main link in the development of the socialist economy.
In all its economic activities, the state invariably puts the question of the development of technology at the forefront, accelerates the process of scientific and technological progress and the technical reconstruction of the national economy, actively develops a mass movement for technical progress and thereby frees the working people from hard, labor-intensive work and reduces the difference between physical and mental labor.
Article 28
In order to eliminate the differences between city and countryside, the class differences between the working class and the peasantry, the state, by speeding up the technical revolution in the countryside, transfers agriculture to an industrial basis, enhances the role of the county and strengthens the leadership and patronage of the countryside.
The state, at its own expense, is building production facilities for agricultural cooperatives and well-appointed residential buildings in the countryside.
Article 29
Socialism and communism are built by the creative labor of the working masses.
Labor in the DPRK is the independent and creative labor of the working people freed from exploitation and oppression.
The state makes the work of our working people, who do not know unemployment, more joyful and fruitful, so that they show in it conscious enthusiasm and creative initiative in the interests of society and the collective, in their own interests.
Article 30
An eight-hour working day is established for workers.
The state reduces the working day depending on the intensity of labor and its specifics.
By improving the organization of labor and strengthening labor discipline, the state achieves the full use of working time.
Article 31
In the DPRK, citizens have been working since the age of 16. The state prohibits the use of labor by adolescents who have not reached working age.
Article 32
In leading and managing the socialist economy, the state firmly adheres to the principle of the correct combination of political leadership with economic and technical leadership, unified state leadership with the creative initiative of each subdivision, unity of command with democracy, moral and political stimulation with material.
Article 33
The state directs and manages the country's economy, based on the Taean system of work, which is a socialist form of economic management that allows the economy to be managed by scientifically based and rational methods based on the collective efforts of the masses of producers, and based on the agricultural management system that allows agriculture to be conducted by the methods of managing industrial enterprises. .
Article 34
The national economy of the DPRK is a planned economy.
In accordance with the laws of development of the socialist economy, the state draws up and implements a plan for the development of the national economy, aimed at ensuring the correct proportions between accumulation and consumption, accelerating economic development, steadily improving the people's lives and strengthening the country's defense capability.
By implementing the policy of unifying and detailing planning, the state ensures high rates of production growth and proportional development of the national economy.
Article 35
The DPRK draws up and executes the state budget in accordance with the national economic development plan.
The state is actively fighting in all fields to increase production and economize, exercise strict financial control and systematically increase state accumulations, and expand and develop socialist property.
Article 36
In the DPRK, foreign trade is conducted either by the state itself or under its control.
The state develops foreign trade on the basis of the principles of complete equality and mutual benefit.
Article 37
The state encourages joint and cooperative entrepreneurship of institutions, enterprises, organizations of our country and legal entities or individuals of foreign countries.
Article 38
The state pursues a customs policy in the interests of protecting an independent national economy.
Chapter III. CULTURE
Article 39
The flourishing and developing socialist culture in the DPRK serves the cause of enhancing the creative ability of the working people and satisfying their healthy emotional and cultural needs.
Article 40
The DPRK, through the consistent implementation of the cultural revolution, educates all people as builders of socialism and communism, with profound knowledge of nature and society, a high cultural and technical level, and maximizes the intellectual potential of all members of society.
Article 41
The DPRK is building a truly popular and revolutionary culture serving the socialist workers.
In building a socialist national culture, the state opposes the cultural expansion of imperialism and the tendency to unprincipled restoration of the old, protects the heritage of national culture, inherits and develops it in accordance with socialist reality.
Article 42
The state in all areas is abolishing the way of life of the old society and comprehensively establishing a new, socialist way of life.
Article 43
The state, implementing the principles of socialist pedagogy, educates the younger generation as staunch revolutionaries who fight for the sake of society and the people, people of a new, communist type, harmoniously combining spiritual wealth, moral purity and physical perfection.
Article 44
The state strives in all matters for the accelerated development of public education and the training of national personnel, closely combines general education with technical education, training with productive labor.
Article 45
The state is developing universal compulsory 11-year education, including one-year compulsory pre-school education, at a high level, in accordance with the development trend of modern science and technology and with the real requirements of socialist construction.
Article 46
The state develops a system of stationary education and various forms of on-the-job education, raises the scientific and theoretical level of technical education and training in social and fundamental sciences, and trains capable engineering and technical workers and other specialists.
Article 47
The state educates all students free of charge and pays scholarships to students of universities and technical schools.
Article 48
The state strengthens public education and creates all conditions for study for every worker.
Article 49
The state brings up children of preschool age in nurseries and kindergartens at the expense of the state and society.
Article 50
The state establishes the principle of Juche in scientific research, actively introduces the latest achievements of science and technology, masters new branches of science and technology, and thereby raises the country's science and technology to the world level.
Article 51
The state correctly draws up a plan for the development of science and technology, establishes the discipline for its consistent implementation, strengthens creative cooperation between scientific and technical workers and manufacturers, and thereby accelerates the process of developing the country's science and technology.
Article 52
The state develops original and revolutionary literature and art, national in form and socialist in content.
The state seeks the mass production of highly ideological and highly artistic works by creative workers, artists, attracts the broad masses to actively participate in literary and artistic activities.
Article 53
The state creates all the necessary modern cultural facilities in accordance with the requirements of people striving to continuously develop in spiritual and physical terms, so that all working people, as they wish, enjoy the benefits of socialist emotional and cultural life.
Article 54
The state protects the native language and writing from any attempts to destroy them and develops them in accordance with the requirements of modernity.
Article 55
The state is implementing a course towards the development of mass sports and physical culture and the fact that physical culture has become part of everyday life. Thus, it reliably prepares the entire people for labor and defense, develops sports equipment in accordance with the real reality of our country and the development trends of modern sports equipment.
Article 56
The state protects the lives of citizens and takes care of strengthening the health of working people by strengthening and developing the system of public free medical care, improving the district principle of medical care and implementing a course towards the implementation of a preventive direction in medicine.
Article 57
The state takes measures to protect the environment, before starting production activities, protects and recreates the natural environment, prevents its pollution, and thereby provides the people with cultural and hygienic living and working conditions.
Chapter IV. DEFENSE OF THE COUNTRY
Article 58
The DPRK relies on a nationwide, nationwide defense system.
Article 59
The armed forces of the DPRK are called upon to protect the interests of the working people, to defend the socialist system and the gains of the revolution from the aggression of foreign invaders, to defend the independence, freedom of the motherland and peace.
Article 60
The state carries out the ideological and political arming of the army and the people and, on this basis, implements a military line of self-defense, the main content of which is the arming of the entire people, the transformation of the entire country into a fortress, the transformation of the entire army into personnel and its modernization.
Article 61
The state strengthens military discipline and mass discipline in the Armed Forces, achieves the full manifestation of the beautiful traditional spirit of unity of commanders and soldiers, the unity of the army and the people.
Chapter V. BASIC RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF CITIZENS
Article 62
Conditions for DPRK citizenship are determined by the nationality law.
A citizen, regardless of place of residence, is under the protection of the DPRK.
Article 63
The rights and obligations of citizens of the DPRK are based on the principle of collectivism: "One for all, all for one."
Article 64
The state really provides all citizens with truly democratic rights and freedoms, a happy material and cultural life.
The rights and freedoms of the citizens of the DPRK are being further expanded as the socialist system is strengthened and developed.
Article 65
All citizens have equal rights in all areas of state and public life.
Article 66
All citizens who have reached the age of 17, regardless of gender, nationality, specialty, residence, property status, educational qualification, party affiliation, political views and religion, have the right to vote and be elected.
Citizens who are members of the Armed Forces also enjoy the right to elect and be elected.
Condemned by the court with disenfranchisement and insane do not have the right to elect and be elected.
Article 67
Citizens have freedom of speech, press, assembly, demonstration and association.
The state creates all conditions for the free activity of democratic political parties and public organizations.
Article 68
Citizens are granted freedom of conscience. This right is secured by permission to build religious buildings and perform religious rites.
No one is allowed to use religion as a means to infiltrate external forces and violate the state, public order.
Article 69
Citizens have the right to file complaints and applications.
Complaints and applications must be considered and resolved in accordance with the procedure established by law and within the time limits specified by it.
Article 70
Citizens have the right to work.
All able-bodied citizens choose their specialty in accordance with their own desires and abilities, are provided with guaranteed work and normal working conditions.
Citizens work according to their abilities with wages in accordance with its quantity and quality.
Article 71
Citizens have the right to rest. This right is ensured by the establishment of a working day and a day off, holidays with pay, the provision of rest houses and sanatoriums for the service of the working people at the expense of the state, an ever-growing network of various cultural institutions.
Article 72
Citizens have the right to receive free medical care. Persons who have lost their ability to work due to old age, illness or disability, as well as lonely old people and children who have lost their breadwinner, are entitled to material support. This right is ensured by free medical care, an ever-growing network of hospitals, sanatoriums and other medical institutions, state social insurance and social security.
Article 73
Citizens have the right to education. This right is ensured by an advanced system of education and public events of the state in the field of education.
Article 74
Citizens have freedom of scientific and literary and artistic activity.
The state takes care of inventors and innovators.
The rights of authors and inventors are protected by law.
Article 75
Veterans of the revolution, family members of fallen revolutionaries and patriots, members of the families of servicemen of the People's Army, as well as war invalids, enjoy the special care of the state and society.
Article 76
A woman enjoys equal social status and rights with a man.
Paying special attention to the issue of protecting motherhood and infancy, the state provides women with maternity leave, shortens working days for mothers with many children, increases the network of maternity hospitals, nurseries and kindergartens, and undertakes other measures.
The state provides women with all the conditions for involvement in social and labor activities.
Article 77
Marriage and family are protected by the state.
The state shows deep concern for strengthening the family, the lowest unit of social life.
Article 78
Citizens are guaranteed the inviolability of the person and home, the secrecy of correspondence.
Citizens may not be subjected to detention, arrest and search of their homes except on the basis of the law.
Article 79
The DPRK grants the right of asylum to foreign citizens who are persecuted in their countries and who are fighting for peace and democracy, national independence and socialism, and for freedom of scientific and cultural activities.
Article 80
Citizens are obliged to resolutely defend the ideological and political unity and solidarity of the people.
Article 81
Citizens are obliged to observe the laws of the state and socialist norms of behavior, to protect the honor and dignity of a citizen of the DPRK.
Article 82
Collectivism is the basis of the life of socialist society.
Citizens are obliged to cherish the organization and the team, to show a high spirit of selfless service to the interests of society and the people.
Article 83
Labor is a sacred duty and a matter of honor for a citizen.
Citizens are obliged to consciously and conscientiously participate in labor, strictly observe labor discipline and working hours.
Article 84
Citizens are obliged to treat state and public property with care and love, to fight against all kinds of plunder and squandering, to conduct the economy of the country in a businesslike, zealous manner.
State and social-cooperative property is inviolable.
Article 85
Citizens must always increase their revolutionary vigilance and selflessly fight for the security of the state.
Article 86
Defense of the Fatherland is the highest duty and a matter of honor for a citizen.
Citizens are obliged to defend their Fatherland, to carry out military service in the manner prescribed by law.
Treason to the motherland and people is the gravest crime. Traitors to the motherland and people are punished to the fullest extent of the law.
Chapter VI. STATE AUTHORITIES
Section 1 Supreme People's Assembly
Article 87
The supreme body of state power in the DPRK is the Supreme People's Assembly.
Between sessions of the Supreme People's Assembly, its permanent body is the Permanent Council of the Supreme People's Assembly.
Article 88
Legislative power is exercised by the Supreme People's Assembly and the Permanent Council of the Supreme People's Assembly.
Article 89
The Supreme People's Assembly is formed from deputies elected on the basis of universal, equal and direct suffrage by secret ballot.
Article 90
The Supreme People's Assembly is elected for a term of five years.
New elections to the Supreme People's Assembly are held by decision of the Permanent Council of the Supreme People's Assembly until the expiration of the powers of the Supreme People's Assembly.
If, due to unavoidable circumstances, elections cannot be held on time, the Supreme People's Assembly shall retain its powers until new elections.
Article 91
The Supreme People's Assembly has the following powers:
1. amends the Constitution;
2. establishes laws and amends them;
3. Approves laws passed by the Permanent Council of the Supreme People's Assembly between its sessions;
4. establishes the basic principles of the domestic and foreign policy of the state;
5. elect and recall the President of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea;
6. on the proposal of the President of the DPRK, elect and recall the vice-presidents of the DPRK;
7. elect and recall the Chairman of the Defense Committee of the DPRK;
8. On the proposal of the Chairman of the Defense Committee of the DPRK, elect and recall the First Vice-Chairman, Vice-Chairman, members of the Defense Committee;
9. elects and recalls the secretary and members of the Central People's Committee;
10. elect and recall the secretary and members of the Permanent Council of the Supreme People's Assembly;
11. elects and recalls chairmen, their deputies and members of sectoral commissions of the Supreme People's Assembly;
12. elect and recall the chairman of the Central Court;
13. appoints and dismisses the Prosecutor General of the Central Prosecutor's Office;
14. On the proposal of the President of the DPRK, elect and recall the Premier of the Administrative Council;
15. on the proposal of the Prime Minister of the Administrative Council, appoints Deputy Prime Ministers, chairmen of committees, ministers and other members of the Administrative Council;
16. Consider and approve the state plan for the development of the national economy and a report on the progress of its implementation;
17. considers and approves the state budget and a report on the progress of its implementation;
18. If necessary, hear the report on the progress of the work of the central state organs established by the Supreme People's Assembly, and take appropriate measures;
19. Approves the ratification and denunciation of treaties proposed to the Supreme People's Assembly;
20. resolves the issue of war and peace.
Article 92
The Supreme People's Assembly convenes regular and extraordinary sessions.
Regular sessions are convened by the Permanent Council of the Supreme People's Assembly once or twice a year.
Extraordinary sessions are convened by the Permanent Council of the Supreme People's Assembly at its discretion or at the request of at least one third of all deputies.
Article 93
A session of the Supreme People's Assembly is considered competent if at least two-thirds of all deputies are present at it.
Article 94
The session of the Supreme People's Assembly elects the chairman and his deputies.
The Chairman presides over the meetings of the sessions and represents the Supreme People's Assembly in foreign relations.
The vice-chairmen assist the chairman in his work.
Article 95
The order of the day of the session of the Supreme People's Assembly is introduced by the President of the DPRK, the Defense Committee of the DPRK, the Permanent Council of the Supreme People's Assembly, the Central People's Committee, the Administrative Council and the commissions of the Supreme People's Assembly.
Deputies may also put their questions on the agenda of the session.
Article 96
The first session of the Supreme People's Assembly elects a credentials committee and, upon its submission, adopts a decision certifying the legitimacy of the powers of the deputies.
Article 97
The session of the Supreme People's Assembly adopts laws and regulations.
Laws and resolutions of the Supreme People's Assembly are adopted by a simple majority of more than half of the votes of the deputies participating in this session.
Amendments to the Constitution are approved by a majority of at least two-thirds of the votes of all deputies of the Supreme People's Assembly.
Article 98
The Supreme People's Assembly shall form the Legislative Proposal Commission, the Budget Commission, the Foreign Affairs Commission, the National Unification Policy Commission, and other necessary commissions.
The commissions of the Supreme People's Assembly are formed as follows: chairmen, their deputies and members.
The commissions of the Supreme People's Assembly, assisting its work, develop and consider state policy and bills, and take measures for their implementation.
The commissions of the Supreme People's Assembly work under the direction of the Permanent Council of the Supreme People's Assembly between its sessions.
Article 99
A deputy of the Supreme People's Assembly enjoys the right of parliamentary immunity.
A deputy of the Supreme People's Assembly cannot be arrested and punished without the consent of the Supreme People's Assembly, and in the period between its sessions - without the consent of the Permanent Council of the Supreme People's Assembly.
Article 100
The Permanent Council of the Supreme People's Assembly is composed of the chairman, his deputies, secretary and members.
The positions of the Chairman of the Permanent Council of the Supreme People's Assembly and his deputies are combined, respectively, by the Chairman of the Supreme People's Assembly and his deputies.
The term of office of the Permanent Council of the Supreme People's Assembly is equal to the term of office of the Supreme People's Assembly.
Article 101
The Permanent Council of the Supreme People's Assembly has the following duties and powers:
1. Consider and adopt draft laws and draft amendments to existing laws between sessions of the Supreme People's Assembly with subsequent submission for approval to the session of the Supreme People's Assembly;
2. in case of adoption of new bills and draft amendments to laws, repeals laws and regulations that contradict them;
3. gives an interpretation of the laws in force;
4. convene sessions of the Supreme People's Assembly;
5. conducts work for the election of deputies to the Supreme People's Assembly;
6. works with the deputies of the Supreme People's Assembly;
7. works with the commissions of the Supreme People's Assembly;
8. organizes the elections of deputies to local people's assemblies;
9. elects and recalls judges and people's assessors of the Central Court.
10. Carries out work with the parliaments of foreign countries, international parliamentary organizations and is in charge of other external relations.
Article 102
The Permanent Council of the Supreme People's Assembly issues resolutions and orders.
Article 103
The Permanent Council of the Supreme People's Assembly continues to perform its duties after the expiration of the term of office of the Supreme People's Assembly until the election of a new Permanent Council of the Supreme People's Assembly.
Article 104
The Permanent Council of the Supreme People's Assembly is responsible for its activities to the Supreme People's Assembly.
Section 2 President of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea
Article 105
The President of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea is the head of state and represents the DPRK.
Article 106
The term of office of the President of the DPRK is equal to the term of office of the Supreme People's Assembly.
Article 107
The President of the DPRK has the following duties and powers:
1. directs the work of the Central People's Committee;
2. if necessary, convenes a meeting of the Administrative Council and directs it;
3. publishes under his signature laws of the Supreme People's Assembly, resolutions of the Permanent Council of the Supreme People's Assembly, important decrees and resolutions of the Central People's Committee;
4. exercise the right to pardon;
5. ratifies and denounces treaties concluded with foreign states;
6. announces the appointment and recall of diplomatic representatives accredited in other states;
7. accepts letters of credence and revocable letters of diplomatic representatives of foreign states.
Article 108
The President of the DPRK issues decrees.
Article 109
The President of the DPRK is responsible for his activities to the Supreme People's Assembly.
Article 110
Vice-presidents of the DPRK assist the President in his work.
Section 3. Defense Committee of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea
Article 111
The Defense Committee of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea is the highest military governing body of the government of the DPRK.
Article 112
The DPRK Defense Committee is composed of: the Chairman, his first deputy, deputy and members.
The term of office of the Defense Committee is equal to the term of office of the Supreme People's Assembly.
Article 113
The Chairman of the Defense Committee of the DPRK commands and directs all the Armed Forces.
Article 114
The DPRK Defense Committee has the following duties and powers:
1. manages all the Armed Forces and the defense construction of the state;
2. appoints and dismisses the main military personnel;
3. establishes military ranks and assigns general and higher military ranks;
4. in cases of emergency, declare martial law and issue a mobilization order.
Article 115
The DPRK Defense Committee issues resolutions and orders.
Article 116
The Defense Committee of the DPRK is responsible for its activities to the Supreme People's Assembly.
Section 4 Central People's Committee
Article 117
The Central People's Committee is the highest governing body of the government of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea.
Article 118
The head of the Central People's Committee is the President of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea.
Article 119
The Central People's Committee is composed of: the President and vice-presidents of the DPRK, the secretary and members of the Central People's Committee.
The term of office of the Central People's Committee is equal to the term of office of the Supreme People's Assembly.
Article 120
The Central People's Committee has the following duties and powers:
1. develops the policy of the state and takes measures for its implementation;
2. directs the activities of the Administrative Council, local People's Assemblies and People's Committees;
3. directs the activities of the bodies of justice and the prosecutor's office;
4. manages the observance and execution of laws by state bodies, resolves issues arising in the course of the execution of laws;
5. Supervise the implementation of the Constitution, laws and regulations of the Supreme People's Assembly, regulations and orders of the Permanent Council of the Supreme People's Assembly, decrees of the President of the DPRK, decrees and orders of the DPRK Defense Committee, decrees, decrees and orders of the Central People's Committee, and stop the implementation of the decisions of local People's Congresses and cancels the decisions and orders of state bodies in case of their inconsistency with the first;
6. forms and abolishes committees and ministries of the Administrative Council - branch administrative executive bodies;
7. on the proposal of the Prime Minister of the Administrative Council, appoints and dismisses Deputy Prime Ministers, chairmen of committees, ministers and other members of the Administrative Council between sessions of the Supreme People's Assembly;
8. appoints and dismisses members of sectoral commissions of the Central People's Committee;
9. ratifies and denounces treaties concluded with other states;
10. approves the appointment and recall of diplomatic representatives accredited in other states;
11. establishes orders, medals, establishes honorary titles, diplomatic ranks, awards orders, medals and awards honorary titles;
12. implements amnesties;
13. re-establishes and changes the administrative-territorial division of the country.
Article 121
The Central People's Committee issues decrees, resolutions and orders.
Article 122
The Central People's Committee may form the necessary commissions to assist its work.
Article 123
The Central People's Committee is responsible for its activities to the Supreme People's Assembly.
Section 5 Administrative Council
Article 124
The Administrative Council is the administrative executive body of the highest body of state power.
The Administrative Council carries out its activities under the leadership of the President of the DPRK and the Central People's Committee.
Article 125
The administrative council is composed of: the prime minister, his deputies, chairmen of committees, ministers and other necessary members.
The term of office of the Administrative Council is equal to the term of office of the Supreme People's Assembly.
Article 126
The Administrative Council has the following duties and powers:
1. directs the work of all committees, ministries, institutions subordinate to the Administrative Council and local administrative and economic committees;
2. establishes and abolishes institutions under the Administrative Council;
3. draws up a state plan for the development of the national economy and takes measures for its implementation;
4. draws up the state budget and takes measures for its implementation;
5. organizes and conducts work in the field of industry, agriculture, construction, transport, communications, domestic and foreign trade, land management, public utilities, education, science, culture, health, environmental protection, tourism and other various fields;
6. takes measures to strengthen the monetary and banking system;
7. concludes agreements with foreign states and is in charge of foreign relations;
8. takes measures to preserve public order, protect the property and interests of the state and cooperative organizations and ensure the rights of citizens;
9. Cancels decisions and orders of administrative and economic institutions in case they do not comply with the decisions and orders of the Administrative Council.
Article 127
The Administrative Council convenes plenary meetings and meetings of the Presidium.
The plenary meeting of the Administrative Council is held with the participation of all its members, and the meeting of the Presidium of the Administrative Council is held with the participation of the Prime Minister, his deputies and other members of the Administrative Council appointed by the Prime Minister.
Article 128
The plenary session of the Administrative Council discusses and resolves important issues that arise again in the work of public administration.
The meeting of the Presidium of the Administrative Council discusses and resolves issues entrusted to it by the plenary meeting of the Administrative Council.
Article 129
The Administrative Council issues resolutions and orders.
Article 130
The Administrative Council in its activities is responsible to the Supreme People's Assembly, the President of the DPRK and the Central People's Committee.
Article 131
The newly elected Premier of the Administrative Council, representing the members of the Administrative Council, shall take the oath before the President of the DPRK at the session of the Supreme People's Assembly.
Article 132
Committees and ministries of the Administrative Council are sectoral executive bodies of the Administrative Council.
The committees and ministries of the Administrative Council issue orders.
Section 6. Local People's Assemblies and People's Committees
Article 133
Local authorities are provincial (cities of central subordination), city (district), county People's Assemblies.
Article 134
Local People's Assemblies are formed from deputies elected on the basis of universal, equal, direct suffrage by secret ballot.
Article 135
Provincial (cities of central subordination), city (district), county People's Assemblies are elected for a term of four years.
Article 136
Local People's Assemblies have the following duties and powers:
1. consider and approve the local plan for the development of the national economy and a report on the progress of its implementation;
2. consider and approve the local budget and report on the progress of its implementation;
3. take measures to enforce the laws of the state in the respective areas;
4. elect and recall the chairmen, their deputies, secretaries and members of the relevant people's committees;
5. elect and recall the chairmen of the relevant administrative and economic committees;
6. appoint and dismiss deputy chairmen, managers of affairs and members of the relevant administrative and economic committees;
7. elect and recall judges and people's assessors of the relevant courts;
8. Repeal the unjustified decisions and orders of the relevant People's Committees, lower People's Assemblies and People's Committees.
Article 137
Local People's Assemblies convene regular and extraordinary sessions.
Regular sessions are convened by the respective People's Committees once or twice a year.
Extraordinary sessions are convened by the respective People's Committees at their discretion or at the request of at least one third of all deputies.
Article 138
Sessions of local people's assemblies are considered valid if at least two-thirds of all deputies are present.
Article 139
Local People's Assemblies elect a chairman.
The chairperson leads the session.
Article 140
Local People's Assemblies adopt resolutions.
The resolutions of the local People's Assemblies are published by the respective People's Committees.
Article 141
The local authorities in the period between sessions of the respective People's Assemblies are provincial (cities of central subordination), city (district) and county People's Committees.
Article 142
Local People's Committees are formed as follows: the chairman, his deputies, the secretary and members.
The term of office of local People's Committees is equal to the term of office of the respective People's Assemblies.
Article 143
Local People's Committees have the following duties and powers:
1. convene sessions of the People's Assemblies;
2. carry out work for the election of deputies to the People's Assembly;
3. work with the deputies of the People's Assembly;
4. take measures to implement the decisions of the relevant People's Assemblies and higher People's Assemblies and People's Committees;
5. direct the activities of the relevant administrative and economic committees;
6. direct the activities of the lower People's Committees;
7. manage the activities of institutions, enterprises and organizations in the respective areas;
8. Repeal the unjustified decisions and orders of the respective Administrative and Economic Committees, lower People's Committees and Administrative and Economic Committees, and suspend the execution of the unjustified decisions of the lower People's Assemblies;
9. Appoint and dismiss vice-presidents, administrators and members of the relevant administrative and economic committees between sessions of the People's Assemblies.
Article 144
Local People's Committees adopt resolutions and issue orders.
Article 145
Local People's Committees continue to exercise their duties after the expiration of the term of office of the respective People's Assembly until the election of new People's Committees.
Article 146
Local People's Committees work under the direction of the respective People's Assemblies, higher People's Assemblies and People's Committees and are responsible in their activities to them.
Section 7. Local Administrative and Economic Committees
Article 147
The administrative executive bodies of local authorities are provincial (cities of central subordination), city (district) and county administrative and economic committees.
Article 148
Local administrative and economic committees are formed in the composition of: the chairman, his deputies, manager of affairs and members.
The term of office of local administrative and economic committees is equal to the term of office of the respective People's Assemblies.
Article 149
Local administrative and economic committees have the following duties and powers:
1. organize and carry out all administrative and economic work on their territory;
2. carry out the decisions and orders of the relevant People's Assemblies, People's Committees, higher People's Assemblies and People's Committees, Administrative and Economic Committees and the Administrative Council;
3. draw up a local plan for the development of the national economy and take measures to implement it;
4. draw up the local budget and take measures for its implementation;
5. take measures to preserve public order, protect the property and interests of the state and cooperative organizations and ensure the rights of citizens on their territory;
6. manage the activities of lower administrative and economic committees;
7. cancel unjustified decisions and orders of lower administrative and economic committees.
Article 150
Local administrative and economic committees adopt resolutions and issue orders.
Article 151
Local administrative and economic committees in their activities are responsible to the relevant People's Assemblies and People's Committees.
Local administrative and economic committees are subordinate to the higher administrative and economic committees and the Administrative Council.
Section 8 Court and Prosecutor's Office
Article 152
Justice is carried out by the Central Court, provincial (cities of central subordination) courts, people's and special courts.
The judgments of the Court are passed in the name of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea.
Article 153
The term of office of the Chairman of the Central Court is equal to the term of office of the Supreme People's Assembly.
The term of office of judges and people's assessors of the Central Court, provincial (cities of central subordination) courts and people's courts is equal to the term of office of the respective People's Assembly.
Article 154
The chairmen and judges of the special courts are appointed and dismissed by the Central Court.
People's assessors of special courts are elected at meetings of military personnel or personnel of the respective teams.
Article 155
The courts have the following responsibilities:
1. protect through judicial activity the power and socialist system in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, state and social-cooperative property, the constitutional rights of citizens and their lives and property;
2. seek from all institutions, enterprises, organizations and citizens strict observance of the laws of the state and active participation in the struggle against class enemies and all offenders;
3. Execute sentences and decisions on property cases, perform notarial acts.
Article 156
Consideration of cases in courts is carried out with the participation of one judge and two people's assessors. In special cases, it may take place with the participation of three judges.
Article 157
The trial of cases in the courts is open, with the right of the accused to be protected.
Court sessions are closed within the limits established by law.
Article 158
Judicial proceedings are conducted in Korean.
Foreigners are guaranteed the right to speak in court in their native language.
Article 159
The courts are independent in adjudicating cases and are guided by the law in their judicial activity.
Article 160
The highest judicial body of the DPRK is the Central Court.
The Central Court supervises the judicial activities of all judicial bodies of the country.
The Central Court operates under the direction of the Central People's Committee.
Article 161
The Central Court in its activities is responsible to the Supreme People's Assembly, the President of the DPRK and the Central People's Committee.
Provincial (cities of central subordination) courts and people's courts are responsible for their activities to the respective People's Assemblies.
Article 162
Prosecutorial functions are carried out by the Central Prosecutor's Office, provincial (cities of central subordination), city (district), county and special prosecutor's offices.
Article 163
The term of office of the Prosecutor General of the Central Prosecutor's Office is equal to the term of office of the Supreme People's Assembly.
Article 164
Prosecutors are appointed and dismissed by the Central Prosecutor's Office.
Article 165
Prosecutors have the following responsibilities:
1. supervise the exact implementation of state laws by institutions, enterprises, organizations and citizens;
2. supervise that the decrees and orders of state organs do not contradict the Constitution, the laws and decrees of the Supreme People's Assembly, the decrees and orders of the Permanent Council of the Supreme People's Assembly, the decrees of the President of the DPRK, the decrees and orders of the DPRK Defense Committee, the decrees, decrees and orders of the Central People's Committee, decisions and orders of the Administrative Council;
3. protect the government and the socialist system in the DPRK, state and social-cooperative property, the constitutional rights of citizens, their lives and property, exposing criminals and other offenders and bringing them to legal responsibility.
Article 166
The Central Prosecutor's Office unanimously manages prosecutorial supervision in the country, all prosecutor's offices are subordinate to higher prosecutor's offices and the Central Prosecutor's Office.
The Central Prosecutor's Office works under the leadership of the Central People's Committee.
Article 167
The Central Procuratorate is responsible for its activities to the Supreme People's Assembly, the President of the DPRK and the Central People's Committee.
Chapter VII. COAT OF ARMS, FLAG, ANTHEM AND CAPITAL
Article 168
The national emblem of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea is an oval frame of rice ears intertwined with a red ribbon with the inscription "Democratic People's Republic of Korea". A powerful hydroelectric power station is depicted inside the frame, and above it is the sacred mountain of the revolution - Paektu and a red five-pointed star, from which bright rays diverge.
Article 169
The national flag of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea consists of a three-color panel, with a wide red stripe in the middle, with white and blue narrow stripes above and below. On the red stripe, near the staff, there is a white circle, inside of which is a red five-pointed star. The ratio of width to length is 1:2.
Article 170
The national anthem of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea is "Patriotic Song".
Article 171
The capital of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea is the city of Pyongyang.

Story

The first Constitution of the Republic of Korea was adopted on July 17, 1948 by the Constitutional Assembly. Under this Constitution, South Korea proclaimed a centralized government with a president at the head. Prior to that, in 1919, the Provisional Government of Korea adopted the Constitution of Korea, but it had no effect due to the fact that Korea at that time was a Japanese colony.

The first amendments were made in 1952 before Lee Son Man's re-election as president. They strengthened the position of the president and passed only after a heated debate. At the initiative of Syngman Rhee, amendments were adopted that removed restrictions on the presidential term and emphasized the capitalist model of the economy.

The government in South Korea is subordinate to the President, who appoints the prime minister and ministers, after consultation with the parliament. The government is made up of ministries and departments, the latter including the National Intelligence Service and the Civil Service Commission.

Legislative power is represented by the Parliament - the National Assembly. It consists of 299 members elected for four years. Most (about 80%) of the deputies are elected by direct vote. The rest - according to party lists.

Judicial power is represented by the Supreme Court, whose members are appointed by the president (the head of the Supreme Court is approved by parliament). There are also lower-level courts and specialized courts (family court, military tribunal, etc.). In 1988, the Constitutional Court appeared in South Korea, whose duties include checking the laws and decisions of the authorities for compliance with the country's Constitution.

Administrative division

According to the Constitution, South Korea consists of 9 provinces and 7 cities of central subordination, equated in status to the provinces. Local governments are elected.

Economy

According to Article 119, the goals of the government are to ensure sustainable and balanced growth of the economy, "proper distribution of income", and to prevent "misuse of economic power". Article 125 defines foreign trade as a state-controlled strategic area of ​​the economy.

The constitution also provides for the right to work, the existence of a minimum wage and the provision of acceptable working conditions. Workers are allowed to form trade unions and independent associations.

Human rights

South Korea, according to the Constitution, is a democratic state that provides the population with civil rights and freedoms. Citizens cannot be punished, forced to work, except in cases provided for by law. Those arrested and detained, as well as members of their families, have the right to know the reason for their detention.

However, human rights are also stipulated in several amendments to the Constitution, as well as in other laws, such as the National Security Act, which provides for the restriction of human rights in certain exceptional cases.

The constitutional development of the Republic of Korea begins its countdown on July 12, 1948, when the Constitutional Assembly adopted the country's first constitution. This Basic Law was developed after the liberation of the Korean Peninsula from Japanese occupation. The American military administration acted on the territory of its southern part, which, of course, had a strong influence on the draft Constitution. This, apparently, determines the evaluation of the Constitution of 1948 as "pro-Western in its style and alien to the majority of the Korean people"<1>. This Constitution established a presidential form of government and was called the Constitution of the First Republic. In 1958 and 1954 amendments were made to it concerning the election of the president and the terms of his office. The third amendment was made in 1960 after the fall of the Syngman Rhee government. This amendment introduced a bicameral legislature and replaced the presidential system with a parliamentary one. In the same year, 1960, an amendment was adopted that affected the abolition of the principle of the absence of retroactive effect of the law for persons who violated the law in the last elections. The Basic Law edited in this way became known in Korean sources as the Constitution of the Second Republic.

<1>For a general description of the legal system of the Republic of Korea, see: Legal systems of the countries of the world: a Handbook. M.: NORMA, 2001. S. 344 - 345.

In 1961, as a result of a military coup, the Council of National Reconstruction, headed by General Pak Chung-hee, came to power. And in 1962, an amendment was adopted that restored the presidential form of government, and in 1969, another one that removed the two-term limit on the presidency, which allowed Park Chung-hee to become president for the third time. This document was called the Constitution of the Third Republic.

The death of President Park Chung-hee led to the collapse of the Yusin system, and in 1980 the government of the Republic of Korea created a specialized committee to review the Constitution. The draft prepared by this committee was adopted by an overwhelming majority in a referendum. This Constitution became the foundation of the Fifth Republic and served as the model for the current Constitution of 1988, called the Constitution of the Sixth Republic.

The constitution consists of a preamble, 130 articles, 6 transitional provisions. It is divided into 10 chapters: General provisions, rights and obligations of citizens, the National Assembly, executive bodies, the judiciary, the Constitutional Court, election commissions, local self-government, the economy, constitutional amendments.

In Art. 1 of the Constitution, the state system of the Republic of Korea is defined as democratic, and its people are declared the bearers of sovereignty<2>.

Article 3 establishes that the territory of the Republic of Korea consists of the Korean Peninsula and the nearest islands<3>.

<3>North Korea has a different opinion. Article 1 of the Socialist Constitution of the DPRK states that "The Democratic People's Republic of Korea is a sovereign socialist state representing the interests of the entire Korean people." (Quoted from: The Constitution of the Socialist States. T. 1. M .: Legal Literature, 1987. P. 313.)

The state of division forced the legislator to include in the Constitution (Article 4) provisions on the desire of the Republic of Korea for a peaceful unification based on the principles of freedom and democracy<4>.

<4>The socialist constitution of the DPRK in Art. Article 5 formulates analogous propositions in a somewhat different way: the DPRK is fighting for the complete victory of socialism in the northern part of the country, for rejecting external forces, to achieve the peaceful unification of the Motherland on democratic principles and complete national independence on a countrywide scale. (Quoted from: The Constitution of the Socialist States. T. 1. M .: Legal Literature, 1987. P. 313.)

In Art. 5 peace-loving principles of foreign policy are proclaimed.

Article 8 guarantees a multi-party system.

The central link in the system of state bodies of the Republic of Korea is the President of the Republic, who is the head of state and the guarantor of the integrity of the country and heads the executive branch. He is elected by direct universal suffrage for a term of five years and cannot be re-elected. The powers of the president are significant.

It is endowed by the Constitution with legislative powers, among which are:

a) the right of legislative initiative;

b) the right of suspensive veto;

c) the right to issue decrees "concerning issues referred by the legislation to its jurisdiction in a specially defined area" in accordance with Art. 75. These decrees are executed in writing and countersigned by the Prime Minister or the Minister concerned.

Such a provision gives a certain originality to the legal status of the president, since it actually determines his political irresponsibility, placing it on the person who countersigned the decree. However, this does not mean weakening the powers of the head of state, since he forms and heads the government.

The President, in accordance with the Constitution and the law, appoints officials (Article 78 of the Constitution). First of all, this is the prime minister, but for his appointment, the president must obtain the consent of parliament. On the advice of the Prime Minister, the President appoints the members of the Council of State, without the consent of Parliament. The head of state also appoints the head of the Audit and Inspection Department and its members. With the consent of the National Assembly, the President appoints the President of the Supreme Court and its members, as well as the President and members of the Constitutional Court.

A feature of the South Korean Constitution is the detailed regulation of the president's powers to ensure national security in emergency situations. In the event of unrest, an external threat, a natural disaster and during a “difficult financial situation or economic crisis” (paragraph 1 of article 76), he can take the minimum necessary financial or economic measures, as well as issue decrees that have the force of law in that case , "if it is necessary to take urgent measures to ensure national security or public peace" and if it is not possible to convene parliament. However, it should be noted that, unlike the Yusin Constitution, the president must now notify the National Assembly and obtain its approval, and if this is not received, then these actions and decrees become invalid.

The President can also impose martial law and declare the mobilization of the Armed Forces. Moreover, martial law can be of two types:

• state of emergency;
• precautionary martial law.

When a state of emergency is declared, freedom of speech, the press, association and assembly may be restricted, and the powers of the government and courts may be revised. In the modern history of Korea, a state of emergency was introduced in October 1972 and at the end of 1979. Moreover, in the conditions of a state of emergency, two versions of the Basic Law of the country came into effect.

The President of the Republic of Korea, as the head of state, is endowed with foreign policy powers: he represents the country in relations with foreign states (Article 66), concludes and ratifies, with the consent of the Parliament (Article 60, paragraph 1), international treaties, and also declares war and makes peace (Article 73). These provisions are characteristic of the legal status of the presidents of most presidential republics.

The president can submit to a national referendum questions relating to diplomacy, national defense, unification, and others (Article 72).

The President is the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces.

The President exercises his executive functions through the State Council (government), consisting of 15 to 30 members, and is its head. The composition of the State Council includes:

• president (chairman);
• prime minister (deputy chairman);
• Deputy Prime Minister;
• 19 ministers heading the respective line ministries;
• two government ministers.

The State Council considers and discusses the main directions of policy and issues appropriate recommendations to the President (Article 89) on the following issues:

• development of the main directions of state policy and activities of the executive branch;
• declaration of war, conclusion of peace treaties and other important aspects of foreign policy;
• preparation of draft amendments to the Constitution, proposals for holding nationwide referendums, consideration of treaties, bills and presidential decrees;
• budget proposals, basic plans for the disposal of state property, the conclusion of contracts associated with large financial obligations on the part of the state, and other important financial issues;
• emergency presidential decrees, emergency measures or decrees of a financial and economic nature, declaration or lifting of martial law;
• issues of military construction;
• demands to convene extraordinary sessions of the National Assembly;
• assessment and analysis of the results of state affairs management;
• determining the most important areas of activity for each ministry and coordinating their work;
• actions aimed at the dissolution of any political party;
• consideration of applications relating to the activities of executive bodies;
• appointment of the Attorney General, rectors of state universities, ambassadors, commanders of all branches of the armed forces and other officials and heads of large industrial enterprises in accordance with the law;
• consideration of other issues submitted for discussion by the President, Prime Minister or any of the members of the Council of State.

The Prime Minister participates in making major decisions in the field of public policy. He also has the right to act on behalf of the president on matters that may be delegated to him by the head of state, as well as to issue orders on his own behalf. The Prime Minister has the right to make recommendations to the President regarding the appointment or dismissal of members of the Council of State. Members of the Council of State bear collective and individual responsibility only to the President for their work.

According to the Constitution, the State Council is an advisory body, since the final decision is made by the head of state, which is typical for presidential republics.

The National Assembly is a unicameral supreme legislative body, consisting of 299 members elected for four years, 2/3 of which are elected in general elections, and the remaining seats are distributed proportionally between parties that have received five or more seats in direct elections (Law "On Elections in National Assembly" 1987). Deputies are representatives of the whole people (Jungkook Eui-won) and have a representative mandate.

The National Assembly includes 17 standing committees, the most important of which are committees on legislation and justice; on foreign policy; for internal affairs; finance; on economic issues; on issues of national defense and security, which is responsible for issues that are under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Defense and the Intelligence Service (Article 37 of the Act "On the National Assembly"). In addition, ad hoc committees may be set up if necessary.

The judicial system is represented by the Supreme Court, Courts of Appeal, District Courts and the Family Court. Article 103 of the Constitution proclaims the independence of judges and defines the guarantees of independence. It should be noted that the term of office of members of the Supreme Court is limited to six years. The question of the constitutionality of normative acts is decided by the Constitutional Court, consisting of nine judges appointed by the President, with three candidates proposed by the Parliament, and three more by the Chairman of the Supreme Court, the rest are determined by the President himself.

In Art. 119 The Constitution establishes that the economic order of the Republic of Korea is based on respect for the freedom and conscious initiative of enterprises and individuals in the field of economy. But the state reserves the right to "regulate and coordinate economic issues in order to improve the balance of growth and stability of the national economy, ensure the correct distribution of income to prevent market dominance and abuse of economic power, and to democratize the economy through the harmonization of relations between subjects."

According to the method of change, the Constitution of the Republic of Korea of ​​1988 is among the rigid ones. The following procedure for its modification is envisaged: proposals for amendments may be proposed either by the President or by a majority of the members of the National Assembly. Approval of the amendments submitted for discussion requires a qualified majority of 2/3 votes within 60 days from the date of submission for discussion. After approval in Parliament (no later than 30 days), the amendments are submitted to a national referendum and must be approved by a majority vote of citizens (more than half), subject to the participation of more than 50% of citizens eligible to vote.

HISTORY

I. A. Tolstokulakov,

Senior Lecturer, Department of History, Economics and Culture of Korea, FENU

DEVELOPMENT OF THE DEMOCRATIC PROCESS AND THE CONSTITUTIONAL ISSUE IN SOUTH KOREA

In the past few decades, the efforts of researchers in many countries of the world have been directed to studying the rapid socio-economic and political development of the Republic of Korea, which in a short historical period has turned from a poor one, devastated by a long period of colonial rule and a devastating war of 1950-1953. an agrarian country into an advanced industrial state, which has taken one of the leading places on the world stage. And yet, to replace the successful rise of the South Korean economy in the late 90s. came an unprecedented financial and economic crisis! It is becoming more and more obvious that the socio-political system of the country lags far behind the high rates of economic growth.

Domestic Korean scholars have done a lot in the past decade to comprehend the experience of the political and economic development of our Far Eastern neighbor. Their work has both scientific and theoretical and clearly expressed applied significance for Russia, which is at the stage of large-scale socio-economic transformations. However, the problem of the relationship between the general level of socio-economic development and the possibility of establishing a democratic system has not been fully studied on the example of South Korean society.

Before a situation emerged in the country that made it possible to effectively reproduce models of democratic development, Korea faced the mediocrity of the first post-war leaders, a state of complete economic collapse and economic ruin in the 50s, a period of undivided domination of authoritarian orders under the military-bureaucratic system of President Park Chong-hee ( 1961-1979). In the 80s. South Korean military elite, relying on

on the ruling circles under its control, unsuccessfully tried to restore the main features of the former regime. Nevertheless, Park Chung Hee's policy of economic reform created socio-economic and political conditions that ensured the inevitability of democratic reforms at the turn of the 1980s and 1990s. The transition to a new stage of economic and technological development, conceived and carried out during the reign of the military group led by Park Chong-hee and continued without significant economic achievements under Jeong Dooghwan (1980-1987), Ro Dae-woo (1988-1992) and Kim Yongsam ( 1993-1997), served as a catalyst for the processes of modernization and movement towards democracy.

Scholarly discussions about the relationship between the level of economic development and the degree of democracy in Korea are conducted in three main areas: the contribution of the ruling authoritarian circles to the process of accelerated industrial development; the sequence of democratic transformations within the framework of the economic course pursued by the government; economic consequences of the developing democratic process. The author of this article sees his task in highlighting such an important component of the democratic system as the development of the constitutional process in the Republic of Korea.

After the end of the Second World War, the newly formed independent states of the “Third World” are faced with the acute task of transition from a traditional society to a modern one, i.e. the problem of comprehensive modernization, "covering all spheres of public life - economic, social, political, legal and cultural"2. The vector of development of the process of political modernization in many young countries, among which, without a doubt, South Korea can be attributed, is aimed at a deep reform of the traditional political culture and the former socio-economic order, through overcoming the authoritarian legacy to building a truly democratic system and creating the foundations civil society3. The central place in this process is given to the formation of the constitutional model of government as the main attribute of a democratic political system.

Throughout the existence of the South Korean state (and recently the 50th anniversary of its founding was celebrated), one of the most acute problems of society has been the constitutional issue. An analysis of the solution to this problem in the Republic of Korea (hereinafter - the RK) gives us the opportunity to understand and highlight the features of the development of the democratic process in many countries of the "third world" that have already made or are just undergoing a transition from authoritarianism to democracy.

During the half-century existence of the South Korean state, six different political regimes successively replaced each other, which received the name "republic" with an indication of its serial number4, nine editions were adopted

Basic law of the country 5. Such a frequent change in its content over a relatively short historical period shows that the constitutional issue in the country has always been acute and the struggle around it has not weakened.

The first constitution of the Republic of Korea was promulgated on July 17, 1948.6 It became the basis of the political regime proclaimed less than a month later, on August 15, on the day of the third anniversary of the country's liberation from the Japanese colonial yoke, the Republic of Korea and operated within the political system of the I and II Republics. The further history of the Basic Law of the Korean state can be called without exaggeration a stormy process full of numerous events. For half a century, nine versions of the constitution were in force in the country, attempts were made to revise it twelve times (successful, as noted above, were nine of them); eight presidents were in power (Kim Taejun - the eighth head of state), elected both in general presidential elections and by indirect voting; five nationwide constitutional referendums were held; the highest legislative body - the National Assembly - was subjected to the procedure of dissolution three times, including by force. Thirteen times martial law was introduced in the republic, which was in effect for a total of 1825 days (more than five and a half years). In total, 5539 various legislative acts were adopted7.

Let us cite in chronological order the following most important historical events related to the development of the constitutional issue in South Korea:

1) the first direct general parliamentary elections in the history of the Korean people on May 10, 1948 to the National Constitutional Assembly8;

2) the war on the Korean Peninsula, which resulted in the introduction of a state of emergency during the period from June 1950 to July 1953;

3) the adoption in July 1952 of amendments to the constitution, which were essentially a revision of the Basic Law: they introduced a system of direct presidential elections and a bicameral legislature in order to ensure the re-election of Rhee Syngman9;

4) the falsification of the results and violence during the presidential elections on March 15, 1960 and the general April uprising that followed;

5) the introduction of the foundations of a parliamentary republic in order to ensure parliamentary control over the government under the administration of Premier Chang Mena and President Yun Boson in August 1960 - May 1961;

6) May 1961 military coup by Major-General Park Chung-hee, replacement of the constitution by the National Reconstruction Emergency Act;

7) promulgation in October 1972 of the plan of emergency measures and the adoption of the constitution of the Yusin era10;

8) the physical removal of President Park Chung-hee and the ensuing military coup led by Chung Doo-wan;

9) a wave of civil disobedience and mass resistance to authoritarian authorities in June 1987, the introduction of amendments to the constitution to ensure direct elections of the head of state;

10) the transfer of power to the civil administration of Kim Yong Sam based on the presidential elections in December 1992;

11) the election of opposition leader Kim Taejun as president and the peaceful transition of power from the ruling party to the opposition party in late 1997 and early 1998.

It is these events of the country's political history that indicate that the constitutional issue is the cornerstone and indicator of the development of democratic processes in South Korea.

In general, the constitution of any country should be perceived as a fundamental (or basic) law that reflects and regulates the coordinated interaction of its political structure and the fundamental principles of the social, economic and political system. There is no need to prove that from this point of view we perceive the constitution and the entire constitutional process as the result of the global modernization of the Third World countries.

Comparative analysis and an objective assessment of the history of the development of the constitutional process, including the constitutional culture in the Republic of Kazakhstan, allow us to distinguish three main stages in it:

Formation of the institutional foundations of a democratic system, implementation on Korean soil and implementation of the basic constitutional norms within the framework of the political system of the I and II Republics;

The struggle for a return to democratic constitutionalism and the restoration of democratic constitutional norms under the authoritarian regime of the III - V Republics;

Restoration of democratic constitutionalism within the political system of the VI Republic.

The introduction of the Constitution, the first in the history of the Korean state, on July 17, 1948, eliminated the legacy of 35 years of colonial rule and summed up the political result of the three-year management of the US Military Administration in the American occupation sector of the Korean Peninsula. This event is of extremely important historical significance, since the creation of an independent republic based on the principles of democracy and respect for sovereign civil liberties and individual rights was proclaimed. For the first time in the history of the country, the modern concept of human rights was institutionalized, based on the principles of protecting individual freedom and universal equality, the concept of parliamentary democracy, according to which the people "delegate to the representatives of power structures the right to conduct public

affairs within the framework of the national mandate or social order”11. According to the Constitution of 1948, the country's governance system implied the separation of the three branches of power in order to prevent excessive concentration of powers in one hand and to prevent abuse of power.

Despite these positive factors, we can also point out the weak and sometimes negative aspects of the first edition of the Basic Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan:

The preamble of the constitution states that the Republic of Korea is the sole legitimate state of the Korean people, thereby ignoring the real situation on the Korean peninsula; such a formulation of the problem aggravated the mutual rejection of the two Korean states;

The introduction of a mixed form of government, which combined elements of both presidential and parliamentary political regimes and became a compromise between presidential and parliamentary forms of government;

Creation of a legislative base for excessive centralization of political and economic systems, including “nationalization and socialization at the stage of economic recovery until the moment when the conditions for the transition to a market economy based on free capitalist competition are created”12;

The declarative nature of one of the most important provisions of the constitution in terms of the fact that “all the working people of the country have the right to an equal (our italics. - I.T.) share of the total income”13; which was not supported either by the realities of the country or by other legislative acts (such a norm, perhaps, cannot be found in any constitution of other states).

Certain provisions of the constitution did not correspond to the realities of the historical moment, since the conditions of ideological confrontation in the Cold War era affected its drafting. For the same reason, for many years, Soviet Korean studies argued that the creation of the Republic of Kazakhstan in the southern part of the peninsula on the basis of, as it was then customary to write, a “democratic” constitution was a fiction, since “the attributes of bourgeois democracy and democratic freedoms ... were not provided with anything”14 . For the Soviet oriental school, it was characteristic to regard the Republic of Kazakhstan as a puppet dictatorial regime, completely dependent on the United States. The 1948 constitution was assessed as pseudo-democratic, designed to protect the interests of the American monopolies and their South Korean "minions"15. Only recently has there been a shift away from such ideological attitudes16.

A distinctive feature of the 1948 Constitution is the combination of presidential and parliamentary forms of government, and this is not accidental, since it was the result of a political compromise reached in the early summer of 1948 between the main candidate for the presidency, a key political figure of the time, Lee Seung-man and his opponents from the National Constituent

assembly led by the Minjudan Democratic Party. As a result of the conflict that arose at an early stage of the constitutional process and its half-hearted solution in the constitution of 1948, the problem of the relationship between presidential and parliamentary structures, executive and legislative power runs like a red thread through the entire history of the political regime of the Republic of Kazakhstan. From the first day of its existence, the Basic Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan carries the prerequisites for its subsequent revision and introduction of constitutional amendments. At the center of the struggle of the country's political circles and parties has always been the question of the balance of power and the delimitation of powers between the parliament and the head of state; this issue in the conditions of South Korea took the form of an antagonistic contradiction between parliamentary democracy and the authoritarian institution of the presidency.

The initial stage of the development of the constitutional process turned out to be another significant problem for Korean society. It seems obvious to us to raise the question of whether the constitution was sufficiently national and based on the proper level of public consensus. It should be noted that the lion's share of the work on the preparation of its draft was carried out by employees of the legal department of the US Military Administration in Korea17, and this largely led to an extremely complex and contradictory attitude towards the first edition of the Basic Law on the part of various sections of the public. There was no procedure for public recognition of the Law: there were no parliamentary hearings, no public discussion of the draft, no open consultations with experts.

A serious test of the constitutional norms of the young South Korean state was the war on the Korean Peninsula (1950-

1953). Under the state of emergency, the constitution loses its fundamental role, the powers of the civil administration are significantly curtailed, and there is a narrowing of the civil legal framework. At the same time, it is important to emphasize the fact that the introduction of the state of emergency and related emergency legal acts fully complied with the provisions of the Basic Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

During the war years, power is concentrated in the hands of President Lee Syngman. Under conditions of strict censorship, the press creates for him the charisma of an outstanding fighter for national independence, a defender of the people from communist aggression. The president's personal political ambitions are also on the rise. As a result, in the early 1950s in the presence of a democratic constitution, it begins to take shape, and by the mid-1950s, the regime of authoritarian rule by Lee Syngman is finally formed. One of the president's goals is to create a new constitution for the country.

Using the procedure for amending the constitution provided for by the Basic Law, President Lee, on the eve of the presidential election, conceived and implemented the idea of ​​the first constitutional

On July 4, 1952, an amendment imposed on the National Assembly of the Republic of Kazakhstan to change the structure of the parliament provided for its division into two chambers, and the upper House of Councilors was completed by appointing deputies by the president himself. The second amendment abolished the procedure for electing the head of state by the National Assembly, according to the new Article 53 of the constitution, the president began to be elected "by secret ballot through universal, equal and direct elections"18. From a formal legal point of view, the second edition of the constitution to a greater extent ensured the democratization of the presidential elections, but the real reasons for the constitutional reform were the struggle against the growing opposition to the president in parliament and the fear of Syngman Lee about a possible failure in the elections within the walls of the National Assembly. The 1952 reform also freed the head of state from direct responsibility to the supreme legislative body.

To strengthen the regime of personal power of the President in November

1954 The second revision of the constitution is carried out. The third edition of the Basic Law provides for the possibility of repeated election of one person for repeated presidential terms (previously, the president could stay in office for no more than two 4-year terms in a row). The president also received additional powers to personally supervise the activities of all ministers and the most important state institutions.

Revision of the constitution in 1952 and 1954 shows an obvious tendency to gradually endow the president with, in fact, dictatorial powers. However, one cannot completely deny the importance of a further step towards the democratization of the electoral system, which was the transition to the practice of general presidential elections. The move allowed Lee Seung-man to secure a third presidential term.

The growth of authoritarian tendencies, the formation of a personality cult of Lee Syngman against the backdrop of a deteriorating economic situation in the late 1950s, another attempt by the authorities to deprive the Korean people of the possibility of free expression of will during the presidential elections of 1960 - all this determined the collapse of Lee Syngman's regime. The blatant falsification of the results of the elections of March 15, 1960, caused a wave of popular anger that swept over and cracked in April the authoritarian system that began to take shape towards the end of the First Republic.

Opposition forces against Lee Syngman grouped around the largest opposition party, Minjudan, which, without taking an active part in the overthrow of the authoritarian regime, took advantage of the fruits of the popular uprising. The Democratic Party proclaimed that it was ready and able to change the situation in the country and the hard life of the people if it stood at the helm of political power. Its leaders promised to restore general democratic norms and freedoms, to cope with unemployment and

corruption of the state apparatus, cut its maintenance costs, significantly increase wages, streamline the tax system, etc.19 The promises made by Minjudang during a powerful propaganda campaign met the aspirations of the general population, so it is not surprising that she managed to win the parliamentary elections on July 29 1960

In mid-June, on the eve of the elections to the National Assembly, the parliament adopts a new fourth edition of the constitution, which provides for the reorganization of the highest authorities. The division of the legislature into two chambers is confirmed. The election of the president is again held within the walls of the National Assembly by a qualified (2/3) majority vote of the deputies of both chambers. The president is endowed with exclusively representative functions of the head of state, he was removed from executive power. In addition, the most important achievement of democratically minded circles of society is the reduction of the age limit for participation in elections from 21 to 20 years. This constitutional reform fundamentally changes the country's political system, as it means a transition to a parliamentary-type republic. On October 1, the creation of the Second Republic is proclaimed. “Never again in the history of the Korean state do we encounter a regime of a parliamentary republic.”20

The Second Republic was faced with the task of developing not only the economy, but also the democratic principles in the life of Korean society: the genuine provision of democratic rights and freedoms, the final elimination of authoritarian forms of government, the construction of a welfare state. But the political practice of its leaders, who declared parliamentary democracy a social ideal, was often limited to demagogic arguments about the role of democracy, or even had an anti-democratic character. Suffice it to mention the Temporary Emergency Anti-Communist Law, or the law on the control of demonstrations, adopted in March 1961 at the suggestion of the Minjudan parliamentary faction. The democratic aspirations of the administrations of Prime Minister Chang Myung and President Yun Bosung have not stood the test of time. The situation in the country is gradually getting out of control of the government, political and socio-economic chaos is growing, which caused the fall of the Second Republic on May 16, 1961.

The development of the constitutional process under the conditions of a totalitarian dictatorship and the struggle for the restoration of democratic norms (1961-1987)

On the night of May 15-16, 1961, as a result of a military coup, the Military Revolutionary Committee (soon renamed the Supreme Council of State Reconstruction) came to power in the country, the ideological inspirer and leader of which was Major General Park Chong-hee. Thus began a 26-year period of a totalitarian military-bureaucratic state, the personal dictatorship of General Pak and a long

struggle for the restoration of constitutional democracy in the Republic of Korea.

The operation of the constitution was temporarily suspended, it was replaced by a series of emergency laws on state reconstruction. The military authorities promised to draw up a new constitution and by the summer of 1963 return power to the civil administration.

Pak Chong-hee made his own contribution to the development of the theoretical problems of Korean democracy, he formulated and substantiated the idea of ​​"administrative democracy", which became the ideological basis of the Republic proclaimed on December 17, 1963. This theory is based on the thesis that “the natural and highest stage in the development of modern society is the state, endowed with

unlimited power functions. The essence of Park Chung-hee's theory lies in the substantiation of the overwhelming power of state structures, the inevitable strengthening of the role of state mechanisms in the organization of society. Accordingly, the basic liberal freedoms are suppressed, the people are removed from participation in the political process, and under the conditions of a paramilitary regime, the degree of bureaucratization and militarization of the entire socio-political life of the country is growing. Not just the norm of life, but one of the main tasks of the state is becoming a universal police and bureaucratic control over all spheres of society and the individual.

Based on the new tasks of the Korean state, the Supreme Council for State Reconstruction is developing a draft constitution, which entered into force on December 17, 1963. But back in November 1962, they were submitted to a national referendum, and on December 17, 1962? d. the main provisions of the constitutional reform are approved - this was the fifth revision of the constitution. The main content of the reform is the restoration in full of the presidential form of government and the empowerment of the head of state with new powers. The 1962 constitution still proclaimed the principles of bourgeois democracy, but their implementation was not guaranteed in any way. The functions of the National Assembly, limited by the third edition of the Basic Law, this time were further curtailed by granting additional rights to the head of state. And in this case, the constitutional issue, as subsequent events showed, was finally decided in his favor.

The fifth edition of the constitution reflected the desire of Pak Chong-hee to strengthen the regime of personal power in every possible way, the president was endowed with the broadest powers: the right to form a government,

appoint and dismiss its head, conclude and ratify international agreements, declare war and conclude peace, lead the armed forces of the Republic of Kazakhstan, etc. Thus, almost all the functions of the parliament of the era of the Second Republic were transferred to Park Chonghee. The National Assembly again became unicameral22.

General Park wins the 1963 and 1967 general presidential elections. In October 1969, he, through the national

The next (sixth) revision of the constitution23, with the help of which he manages to secure the possibility of re-election for a third term, which was not allowed by the Constitution of 1962.

In October 1972, Park Chung-hee takes the next step towards consolidating his personal dictatorship. The political system of the III Republic was considered by him as a temporary stage in the course of building a totalitarian regime. The ideas of strengthening the authoritarianism of all parts of the state apparatus were embodied in the so-called "renovation reforms", the implementation of the president's plans began with the introduction of martial law on October 17, 1972.

The seventh constitutional reform ended in record time, by November 21 of the same year, when the Yusin Constitution, quasi-democratic in essence, and fixed the foundations of the military bureaucratic regime of the Fourth Republic, also called Yusin, came into force, already tested through a national referendum.

The 1972 constitution provided:

Significant restriction of human rights and civil liberal freedoms;

Further transfer of many functions of legislative power to government bodies subordinate to the president - the State Council and the newly created National Congress for Self-Unification (Korea). The main task of the Congress is the election of the President (we see this as a return to the practice of indirect elections of the head of state) and the appointment of a third of the members of the National Assembly according to the list approved by the President. This institution has largely replaced parliament;

Giving the president the right to introduce a state of emergency and implement emergency measures without the consent of parliament;

Introduction into practice of mechanisms that allow Park Chung-hee to remain the head of state for life;

Establishment of "inherently anti-constitutional norms that restrict the rights and opportunities of the National Assembly

control and influence the internal political situation in the country.

As a result, the Yusin Constitution legally ensured the legal independence of the president and his regime from the parliamentary body, which became nothing more than a “democratic decoration for Park Chung-hee’s authoritarianism”25.

The violation of the elementary constitutional norms that have become familiar to Korean society, the totalitarian regime built on the basis of the personal dictatorship of Park Chong-hee could not exist unchanged for a long time. The resistance of the broad masses of the people grew, the movement for the restoration of democratic constitutionalism grew stronger, the struggle for human rights and liberal freedoms expanded. The main contradiction of the Yusin regime was between its

constitutional guise and anti-democratic essence was waiting for its resolution.

On October 26, 1979, President Park Chung-hee was assassinated, and Major General Jeon Duhwan took the lead in the new leadership of the country - the National Security Emergency Committee. Having carried out a coup d'etat twice (December 12, 1979 and May 17-20, 1980), he restored order in the country with a "hard hand". The removal of Park Chung Hee was accompanied by an increase in democratic expectations in Korean society, but further events brought even greater suffering to the people, heated the political situation in the country to the limit.

In the fall of 1980, the general prepared and held a national referendum on October 22, achieving the adoption of the eighth edition of the Basic Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Even earlier, on August 10, Jung Duhwan left the armed forces, and on August 27, as a result of a vote of the electoral college on a non-alternative basis, he became the "civilian" president of the V Republic.

The new edition of the constitution was not much different from the previous one, its main provisions have not changed. The President, like a third of Parliament, was still elected by the National Congress by self-unification. The National Assembly did not have the constitutional right to express disagreement with the actions of the president and other executive bodies and remained a "democratic screen" for the regime. With regard to the rights and freedoms of citizens declared this time, it is enough to say that the authorities officially warned that they would arrest anyone who dares to criticize the president and the government26.

The Constitution of the 5th Republic eliminated some of the negative aspects of the Yusin regime, providing tools to prevent the president from staying in power indefinitely. It greatly facilitated the process of peaceful transformation of the military-bureaucratic system and the transfer of power to the civil administration. Although the Basic Law of 1980 contained many democratic articles regarding basic civil rights, restrictions on the functions of administrative bodies and the introduction of an independent judiciary, its main task remained "to cover with a democratic decoration what in reality basically preserved the principles of a dictatorial regime"27.

The anti-popular nature of Chon Duhwan's dictatorship was manifested in the cruelest bloody suppression of the democratic opposition, and a staunch unwillingness to return to the practice of direct presidential elections. And this regime, which caused the broadest anti-government movement in the mid-1980s, eventually collapsed under the pressure of an irreversible process of democratization. Despite the significant achievements of the authoritarian regimes of Park Chong-hee and Chung Doo-wan in the economic sphere, their serious encroachments on the rule of law and democracy led to the collapse of the totalitarian state and the end of

the long 26-year period of regressive development of democratic and constitutional processes.

Restoration of democratic constitutionalism within the political system of the VI Republic

The return to the constitutional foundations of 1948 begins at the end of April 1986, when, under pressure from the international democratic community and a powerful opposition movement within the country, Chon Duhwan was forced to allow a discussion on a new edition of the Basic Law. On June 21, the National Assembly forms a special committee to revise the constitution of the 5th Republic, but failed to bring together the points of view of the ruling circles and the opposition on the constitutional issue. A certain split was also outlined among the leaders of the anti-government camp. This situation allowed the president to interrupt the development of the constitutional process in April of the following year, declaring that elections would be held in February 1988 on the basis of the old version of the constitution, and the discussion and adoption of a new version was postponed to the fall of 1988, after the Seoul Olympics.

The opposition called on the people to disobey, and a wave of protests swept across the country. The culminating moment is the speech of Ro Daewoo, appointed on June 10, 1987 as Chong's official successor and candidate for the presidency of the ruling Democratic Justice Party (Jongmindan), who on June 29 published his "Declaration on Democratization"28. His proposals met all the demands of the opposition: to revise the constitution, adopt a new democratic law on elections and return to the principle of direct universal suffrage in the election of the head of state, release all political prisoners and prevent new repression against opponents of the regime, guarantee individual rights and civil liberties, to ensure true freedom of speech, to form local self-government bodies on the basis of free elections29. Chong Duhwan was forced to accept the idea of ​​national consensus based on democratic reforms proposed by Ro Dae, since it fully met the increased demands of society for the socio-political and economic liberalization of the regime.

In order to satisfy the desire of the Korean people for democratization and to ensure the peaceful and smooth nature of the democratic development of the constitutional process, in the summer and autumn of 1987, the Constitutional Commission of 8 people, representing both the government and the opposition, was actively working. The first (1948) and fourth (1960) editions of the Basic Law became the basis for the work of the Commission, the question of balance between the branches of the executive and legislative authorities again arose, this time “a successful compromise was reached, which ensured the stability of society and the political system for many years VI Republic"30. The ninth edition of the constitution passes through parliament on October 12, and is adopted on October 27, 1987

in a national referendum (93.1% of the referendum participants voted for the draft Constitution of 19873).

For the first time in the history of the country, the development of the autumn 1987 constitutional process ensured a peaceful and truly constitutional transfer of power from one president to another, which took place following the results of direct general elections on December 16, 1987. The events of that time can also be considered as a transition (or the beginning of a transition, since the new President Ro Daewoo is a former military man and the closest associate of the dictator Jeong in the army), power from the military into the hands of the civil administration. The peaceful nature of the transformation of the military-bureaucratic dictatorial regime of the 5th Republic into the democratic political system of the 6th demonstrated the maturity of Korean democracy; in fact, the anachronisms of the early 1980s were eliminated, and the regulatory framework of the Korean state was brought into line with the political realities of the time.

The idea of ​​a national consensus based on the democratic reforms proposed by Ro Daewoo was enshrined in the preamble, 10 chapters, including 130 articles, and 6 “additional and transitional provisions” of the final XI chapter of the Constitution of the VI Republic32. It was put into effect on February 25, 1988, this date is also the moment of the official proclamation of the VI Republic.

The latest version of the Basic Law, which is currently in force, is based on the ideas of the rule of law, consolidates democratic forms of government, declares the principle of separation of powers and clearly delineates the competence of each branch of power. It introduces the foundations of a multipolar political system, provides for a multi-party system in the constitutional order and creates equal conditions for the opposition movement. The 1987 Constitution guarantees the observance of individual individual rights and a wide range of democratic freedoms. For the first time in the history of the Korean state, Art. 5 of the Constitution clearly limits the functions of the armed forces, separates them from the levers of state administration and prohibits the army from participating in political activities33. Another innovation is the introduction of a legal institution independent of the state - the Constitutional Court, the status of which is defined in Art. 111-113 Chapter VI34.

Fundamentally new relationships were created between the legislative and executive branches of government through a significant expansion of the powers of the unicameral National Assembly. He was returned to parliamentary functions, cut off during the formation of the dictatorial regimes of Pak Chong-hee and Jeondukhwan; there is reason to believe that the role of the supreme legislative body has been practically restored in the spirit of the fourth edition of the Basic Law. The presidential term was reduced from 7 to 5 years, the head of state is deprived of the right to re-election, at the same time, being the head of the executive branch according to the constitution, the president retained in his

hands significant rights and control over the government. We can talk about the preservation of the institute of strong presidential power in the political system of the VI Republic. The further development of the constitutional process in the Republic of Korea is directly related to the establishment of a balance between the principle of parliamentary democracy and the institution of the presidency.

Since 1988, all three presidents of the Republic of Kazakhstan, who succeeded each other, have been following the course of ensuring the stability of the political system of the VI Republic, therefore, for 10 years (again, for the first time in the history of Korea), the constitution in the 1987 edition has been in force in the country, and the process of further improvement is developing. and democratization of the legal system based on it.

Assuming the presidency, Ro Daewoo vowed to do everything in his power so that "the era of peace, tranquility and stability, the great era of ordinary people, will finally come to Korean soil"35. Subsequently, his promise "was realized in the course of creating conditions for the practical participation of all Koreans in the national political process and ensuring a decent, and in the long term - a decent standard of living for the entire nation"36. Perhaps the most impressive change under Ro Daewoo is the real provision of freedom of speech and the significant activation against this background of the media, the free press. Based on constitutional norms, the president at the beginning of 1988 abolishes censorship of the press and other restrictions on the activities of the media. It should also be noted that South Korea made a breakthrough in foreign policy in the second half of the 1980s, when the country occupied a strong position in the international arena and achieved the first significant success in establishing an internal Korean dialogue at the turn of the 1980s and 1990s.

Ro Daewoo seeks to consolidate the practice of a peaceful, non-confrontational transfer of power from one president to another. To ensure constitutional continuity, on December 22, 1990, the country's three leading political parties (the ruling Chongmindan and two opposition parties - the Democratic Reunification Party led by Kim Yongsam and Kim Jongpil's New Republican Democratic Party) announced a merger into the Liberal Democratic Party of Korea (Hanguk Minjadan ). This event becomes an important stage in the development of constitutional democracy and the political system of the VI Republic. Former leader of the opposition camp Kim Yong-sam entered the echelons of power, becoming the official successor to Rho Dae-woo and eventually the ruling party's presidential candidate.

Having won the election campaign on December 18, 1992, he becomes the country's first truly civilian president in the last three decades (since 1961). Thus, the procedure for the transfer of power from the military to civilian circles is completed, during which Ro Daewoo played an intermediate, transitional role.

The new president continued the course towards further democratization of Korean society and the state, maintaining stability

and law and order. In the course of a serious reform of the legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan, he managed to complete the transition to democracy on the basis of the Constitution of 1987. Kim Yongsam chose the path of deepening and further development of democratic reforms "from above", the object of his attention and the point of application of the main efforts is the whole complex of laws of the Republic of Kazakhstan, which should have been brought into full compliance with the democratic spirit of the constitution. It strives to “consolidate the transition to development based on the values ​​of democracy and freedom, and seeks in its activities the optimal combination of the interests of the state, society and the individual”37. The name of Kim Yong Sam is associated with the final triumph of liberalism and reaching a new level of awareness and ensuring individual freedom.

Without going beyond the framework of the Basic Law, the President implements several important sub-constitutional acts:

Amends the Law on the Activities of Political Parties (December 1993);

Improves legislation on military service, military and civilian personnel of military institutions (December 1993, December 1995 and January 1997);

completely reforms the legislation on the National Security Planning Bureau38, significantly changes the content of anti-communist legislation (January 1994 and December 1996);

Enacts the Law on the Alternative Electoral System, according to which the election of officials of the civil administration can be carried out exclusively on a competitive basis and introduces criminal liability for violation of the norms of the electoral legislation (March 1994);

The most important amendments to the Law on the National Assembly are adopted, in which for the first time in the political practice of the Republic of Kazakhstan a bipolar system is introduced and opposition forces receive equal rights to parliamentary activity (June 1994)39.

All changes in the civil, criminal and procedural legislation of the country are made in the spirit of expanding and strengthening democratic norms. No less attention is shown by Kim Yongsam in relation to laws in the economic and financial spheres, and here the course of further liberalization of the regulatory framework, begun under Ro Daewoo, continues.

We can say with confidence that Kim Yong Sam managed to finally destroy the institutional foundations of authoritarianism, which were preserved in some places from the previous regime.

Relying on the constitution, the president was able to legislatively ensure strong control over all state and army structures both from the parliament and from the executive branch. Under his persistent pressure, and with broad public and media support for the president's efforts, many high-ranking government and military officials were forced to resign, retire, or face prosecution.

civil servants involved in crimes against the people, repression or stained with bribery and corruption. In the three months since Kim Yong-sam's inauguration, more than a thousand top leaders of the army and state institutions have passed through the democratic "purgatory"4. Moreover, the president managed to significantly reform the armed forces and national security agencies, removing the most politicized elements from them.

Even the former dictator Jeong Duhwan and the initiator of democratic reforms Ro Daewoo suffered inevitable punishment for crimes against the nation41. In December 1995, a special law was passed making them responsible for the mass executions of demonstrations in support of democracy in April-May 1980. On its basis, both former presidents of the country were arrested and convicted, but subsequently pardoned by the head of the Republic of Korea.

Another important stage in the development of the democratic and constitutional process is the creation of a system of elected local self-government, local authorities received the right of "local autonomy", which replaced the principle of universal centralization within the IV and V Republics.

The leading principle of domestic policy under Kim Yongsam is the achievement of a public compromise and the rejection of the use of political violence against opponents. The era of absolute dominance of the executive structures ended, the authority was restored, the role of the parliament increased. The opposition received "hitherto unknown, practically equal to the ruling circles,

sti for participation in the political life of the country. It becomes an integral part of the political system of the VI Republic.

December 18, 1997 was a new peak in the development of the constitutional process in South Korea. The 15th presidential election held on that day brought victory to the leader of the opposition National Congress for New Politics, Kim Tae-jun, and ensured "a peaceful transition of power from the ruling party to the opposition for the first time in the entire 50-year history of the Republic of Korea"4. Until now, the power of the president has been transferred to a pre-prepared official successor "from hand to hand" in the upper echelons of the same ruling structure; this was the case in two cases (1988 and 1992) of the three precedents for the peaceful transition of power: from Jung Dooghwan to Ro Dae and from the latter to Kim Yong Sam. The third peace procedure in 1997 bears a significant qualitative difference: “for the first time in the history of South Korea, the transfer of power “horizontally”, i.e. from one political party to another. This allowed Kim Taejun, already in his inaugural speech on February 25, 1998, to call his government "people's" and proclaim the beginning of

new era of people's government.

In the conditions of the most acute financial crisis, Kim Taejun devoted almost the entire first year of his term to finding a way out of the difficult economic situation and solving strategic problems.

given "to overcome its consequences by 2003,"46 but the public and the political circles of the country set before the new president the task of further advancement on the path of democracy. Kim Taejoong is expected to address the following political issues:

Summing up the results of democratic construction within the framework of the political system of the VI Republic and the constitutional consolidation of the democratic gains of the Korean people (according to Korean researchers, the need for a new edition of the Basic Law of the country becomes obvious);

The transition from the policy of delimitation of powers and functions of power structures, the implementation of "local" reforms in the economic, social and political spheres to the development and implementation of a new direction of national policy - the "policy of integration", i.e. a comprehensive understanding and integrating approach to the practical solution of all the problems facing Korean society at the moment;

Further ensuring the continuity of the political and economic course of the government47.

We must understand that the solution of these problems is directly related to the strengthening of the role of the president, who exercises his powers in accordance with the constitution. The constitutional process again returned to the traditional problem of the Korean state. A "strong" president is a past stage in the country's history, so the concentration of power in his hands can alarm the nation. In order to avoid accusations of authoritarian habits, Kim Taejun emphasizes that along with strengthening the role of the president, which is objectively necessary in the current situation, he will “in every possible way develop the “democracy of participation” of broad social strata in government.” In his opinion, this will make it possible to create "transparent power at all levels and finally eradicate corruption - a terrible vice of the state system of Korea"; we are also talking about creating the foundations of a civil society, “autonomous in relation to power structures”4*.

The President seeks to improve the efficiency of the administrative apparatus, primarily in the economic field. To this end, immediately after his inauguration, he carried out the largest downsizing in the history of Korea and the restructuring of the government and the presidential administration.

At the initiative of Kim Taejun, the activity of the State Council provided for by the Constitution of 1987 as the highest deliberative body under the president is being revived. The Council is becoming an important tool for collective discussion and collegial decision-making on the most important state affairs. In accordance with the Basic Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan, the activities of the State Council are currently managed by the president himself, Kim Yong-sam once entrusted this function to the prime minister.

Under Kim Taejun, a new executive body was created - the Committee for the Coordination of Economic Policy, which became an advisory body on the problems of overcoming the crisis. In order to accelerate anti-crisis measures in the financial and economic spheres, the current president, unlike Kim Yong-sam, actively uses the practice of presidential decrees, which is also fully consistent with the constitution, but is a new form within the development of the constitutional process.

Life has decreed that the tasks of economic reform are once again coming to the fore. Kim Taejun sees its content in building a liberal market system, he is sure that "economic growth prospects are based on democracy"49. It is on it that the efforts of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan are concentrated at the moment.

South Korea managed to avoid falling into the abyss. Along with serious economic tasks, the authorities are solving the problem of creating conditions for further adaptation of the political system of the VI Republic to the new socio-economic and political realities of the country. One can not only conclude that the existence of the institute of strong presidential power made it possible to finally destroy the authoritarian system and ensure the progress of the Republic of Korea along the path of democratic reforms, but also to assume that the exclusive role of a strong and democratic leadership of the country in the person of the head of state will be preserved in the future. democratic consolidation based on the principles of "democratic participation" and will determine the development of the constitutional process in South Korea in the near foreseeable future.

NOTES

1 For details on the essence of the financial and economic crisis in South Korea, see: Sinitsyn B.V. Financial crisis in the Republic of Korea and its consequences // Korea: Sat. Art. To the 80th anniversary of the birth of Professor M.N. Pack. M.: International Center for Korean Studies, Moscow State University - Publishing House "Ant", 1998. S. 405-410.

3 See: Tolstokulakov I.A. civil society in the country. On the question of its formation // Russia and the Asia-Pacific Region. 1998. No. 3. S. 93-102; he is. Confucian Traditions and the Formation of Civil Society // Fifth Far Eastern Conference of Young Historians / Institute of History, Archeology and Ethnography of the Peoples of the Far East, Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Vladivostok, 1998, pp. 106-112.

four! Republic (1948-1960), II Republic (1960-1961), III Republic (1963-1972), IV Republic (1972-1979), V Republic (1980-1987) and now the existing regime of the VI Republic (since 1988).

"They often erroneously talk about the "nine constitutions" of the Republic of Korea, but we emphasize that the current constitution and its predecessors are nothing more than various modifications of the constitution adopted on July 17, 1948. The revision of the Basic Law of the Republic of Korea was carried out in 1952, 1954 , 1960, 1962, 1969, 1972, 1980. The Constitution of the VI Republic was approved on October 29, 1987.

* In the main capital work on the history of Korea [History of Korea (from ancient times to the present day): In 2 vols. Vol. 2. M .: Nauka, 1974. S. 196.] an error was made, since the date 07/12/1948 is indicated there G.

7 Data are as of 3G.G4.199B.

CONSTITUTION OF THE REPUBLIC OF KOREA
(SOUTH KOREA).
Adopted: July 17, 1948
Status: October 29, 1987.
PREAMBLE
We, the people of Korea,
proud of its magnificent history and traditions dating back to time immemorial,
Supporting the good causes of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea established as a result of the independence movement on March 1, 1919, and the democratic ideals of the uprising against injustice that took place on April 19, 1960,
taking upon themselves the mission of carrying out democratic reforms and the peaceful unification of their native state, as well as deciding to strengthen national unity through the establishment of justice, philanthropy and brotherly love,
eradicate all social vices and unjust practices,
to ensure equal opportunities for every person, and to promote the full development of individual abilities in all spheres, including political, economic, social, by strengthening a free and democratic order leading to the manifestation of individual initiative and social harmony,
and also to help each person fulfill those duties and obligations that are inextricably linked with freedoms and rights, as well as
improve the quality of life of all citizens and contribute to the preservation of peace on the planet and the general prosperity of mankind, thus ensuring security, freedom and happiness for our state and its eternal prosperity,
With this document, on the basis of a national referendum held in accordance with the resolution of the National Assembly, we amend the Constitution, which was enacted on July 12, 1948 and has subsequently been amended eight times.
CHAPTER I. MAIN PROVISIONS
Article 1
Democracy
1. The Republic of Korea is a democratic republic.
2. The supreme power of the Republic of Korea belongs to the people; all state power also comes from the people.
Article 2
Nationality
1. The nationality of the Republic of Korea is established by law.
2. According to the law, the duty of the state is to protect citizens living outside the Republic of Korea.
Article 3
Territory
The territory of the Republic of Korea includes the Korean Peninsula and its neighboring islands.
Article 4
Unification, World
The Republic of Korea strives for unification, therefore it develops and pursues a policy of peaceful unification based on the principles of freedom and democracy.
Article 5
War, armed forces
1. The Republic of Korea is doing everything possible to maintain peace on the planet and avoids participation in any wars of conquest.
2. The armed forces carry out the sacred mission of ensuring national security and protecting state lands; while maintaining their political neutrality.
Article 6
International agreements, status of foreign citizens
1. International agreements duly concluded and enforced in accordance with the Constitution and generally accepted norms of international law shall have the same effect as the internal laws of the Republic of Korea.
2. The state guarantees that foreign citizens will be granted the status established by international law and international agreements.
Article 7

1. All public officials are servants of the people and are responsible to the people.
2. The status and political impartiality of public officials are guaranteed in accordance with the law.
Article 8
Political parties
1. The state guarantees the freedom to form political parties and the protection of a multi-party political system.
2. Political parties must be democratic in their goals, organization and activities, and have such an organizational structure that people can participate in shaping the political will of the party.
3. Political parties are under the protection of the State. The state can actively finance parties in accordance with the conditions provided for by law.
4. If the aims or activities of a political party are contrary to the fundamental democratic order, the government is empowered to take steps to dissolve that party through the Constitutional Court; in such a case, the party will be dissolved in accordance with the decision of the Constitutional Court.
Article 9
culture
The state does its best to preserve and enhance the cultural heritage and develop national culture.
CHAPTER II. RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF CITIZENS
Article 10
Self-esteem, the pursuit of happiness
All citizens have human value and dignity, and the right to achieve personal happiness. The duty of the state is to strengthen and protect the fundamental and inviolable rights of every person.
Article 11
Equality
1. All citizens are equal before the law. It is prohibited to discriminate against a person in the political, economic, social or cultural sphere in connection with his sexual, religious or social affiliation.
2. No caste can be recognized as privileged. The creation of privileged castes in any form is prohibited.
3. Badges of distinction or honor in any form are awarded exclusively to those persons for whom they are intended; they don't grant any privileges.
Article 12
Freedom of the individual, personal integrity
1. All citizens have the right to individual freedom. No person may be arrested, detained, searched, subject to confiscation of property or interrogation, except as provided by law. No person shall be punished, subject to precautionary restrictions or forced labor, except as provided by law, provided that all procedures prescribed by law are followed.
2. When investigating a criminal case in court, no citizen may be subjected to torture or forced to testify against himself.
3. In case of arrest, detention or search of a person, he must be presented with a warrant issued by a judge at the request of the accusing party in compliance with all due procedures.
However, if the person suspected of committing a crime was detained at the scene of the crime, or if there is a risk that a person suspected of committing a crime for which a penalty of three years or more is imposed may escape or destroy evidence, investigating authorities have the right to request an arrest, detention or search warrant after an arrest, detention or search has been made.
4. Any person who has been detained or arrested has the right to the immediate assistance of a lawyer. If the accused cannot afford the services of a lawyer, the state shall appoint a lawyer for him in the manner prescribed by law.
5. No person may be arrested or detained without being informed of the reason for the arrest or detention, as well as the right to use the services of a lawyer. The family of an arrested or detained person, as well as other relatives specified by law, must be immediately notified of the reason, place and time of arrest or detention.
6. Any person arrested or detained shall have the right to take legal action to review the lawfulness of the arrest or detention.
7. If the confession of guilt was made against the will of the accused, as a result of torture, violence, threats, excessively long detention, deceit or any other similar act, or if, in a formal trial, the confession of the accused is the only evidence of his guilt, such a confession cannot be accepted as evidence of guilt and does not provide grounds for imposing punishment on the accused.
Article 13
No punishment without a law establishing it, being prosecuted twice for the same offense, retroactive law, family obligations
1. No citizen may be convicted of an act that is not a crime under the law in force at the time the crime was committed; a person also cannot be prosecuted for the same offense twice.
2. Restriction of the political rights of citizens is prohibited; no person may be deprived of rights to property by retrospective law.
3. No citizen shall be subject to unfavorable treatment as a result of an act which was not committed by himself, but by his relative.
Article 14
residence, change of residence
All citizens have the right to freely choose their place of residence and change it at their own discretion.
Article 15
Occupation
All citizens, without exception, have the right to freely choose their occupation.

Article 16
Housing, search, confiscation of property
All citizens, without exception, have the right to be free from forced entry into their homes. In the event of a search of the dwelling or confiscation of property, the owner must be presented with a warrant issued by the judge at the request of the prosecutor.
Article 17
Privacy
The private life of every citizen is inviolable.
Article 18
Confidentiality of private correspondence
The confidentiality of private correspondence of citizens cannot be violated.
Article 19
Freedom of conscience
All citizens have the right to freedom of conscience.
Article 29
Religion, church
1. All citizens without exception have the right to freedom of religion.
2. No religion can be recognized as a national religion, church and state are independent of each other.
Article 21
Freedom of speech, press, assembly, association
1. All citizens without exception have the right to freedom of speech and press, assembly and association
2. Censorship of the word and press, as well as the procedure for permitting meetings or associations, is prohibited.
3. The standard of information services, television and radio broadcasting services, as well as issues necessary to ensure the operation of newspapers, are regulated by law.
4. It is forbidden to offend honor, violate the rights of other people, as well as undermine public morality or social ethics in public speeches or press materials. In the event that a public speech or material published in the press offends the honor or violates the rights of other people, the injured person may file a lawsuit in court for damages caused by such speech or printed material.
Article 22
Education, intellectual property rights
1. All citizens without exception have the right to study and master crafts.
2. The rights of authors, inventors, scientists, engineers and artists are protected by law.

Article 23
Private property, public welfare, property confiscation
1. All citizens without exception have the right to private property. The size of private property and restrictions on its possession are determined by law.
2. Property rights are exercised in accordance with the principles of the common good.
3. The confiscation, use or restriction of private property for the purposes of public necessity, as well as the compensation due to it, shall be regulated by law.
However, in this case, only compensation is paid.
Article 24
Voting right
All citizens, without exception, have the right to vote under the conditions prescribed by law.
Article 25
The right to hold public office
All citizens, without exception, have the right to hold public office under the conditions prescribed by law.
Article 26
Petition
1. All citizens, without exception, have the right to submit a written petition to any government agency in accordance with the conditions established by law.
2. The state is obliged to consider all such applications.
Article 27
Right to trial
1. All citizens have the right to be tried in accordance with the law; the court must be carried out by judges whose qualifications comply with the requirements of the Constitution and legislation.
2. Citizens who are not in active military service or members of the armed forces cannot be tried by a military court in the territory of the Republic of Korea, except for those cases of crimes that are prescribed by law and are related to important secret military information, sentries, guard posts, supply harmful food and drink, prisoners of war, military supplies and equipment, and in cases where a state of emergency has been declared.
3. All citizens without exception have the right to a speedy trial. The accused has the right to a speedy public trial, unless there are good reasons why such a trial cannot be carried out.
4. The accused is presumed innocent until a court decision is made on his guilt.
5. A person who has suffered as a result of a crime, in the process of conducting legal proceedings on this case, has the right to make a statement in accordance with the conditions provided for by law.
Article 28
Wrongful deprivation of liberty
Where a suspect or accused has been apprehended but not subsequently charged under indictment in accordance with the law, or subsequently acquitted in court, such person is entitled to seek just compensation from the State under the conditions provided by law.
Article 29
Responsibility of the State and State Officials to Citizens
1. If a person has suffered losses as a result of an illegal act committed by a public official at the time of the performance of his official duties, this person may demand fair compensation from the state or a state institution within the framework of the conditions provided for by law. In this case, the public official is not released from liability.
2. In the event that a person who is in active military service or a member of the armed forces, a police officer or any other person provided for by law has suffered damage related to the performance of his official duties, such as combat activities, exercises, etc., this person has no right to initiate a claim for damages by the state or a state institution on the basis of illegal actions of public officials during the performance of their official duties, but solely for the purpose of compensating for losses incurred under the law.
Article 30
Citizens who have become victims of the criminal acts of others
Citizens who have suffered bodily injury or died as a result of a criminal act committed by another person may receive state assistance under the conditions provided for by law.
Article 31
Education
1. All citizens have equal rights to receive an education appropriate to their abilities.
2. All citizens raising children are responsible for at least their primary education, as well as other education prescribed by law.
3. Compulsory education is provided free of charge.
4. The independence, professionalism and political impartiality of education, as well as the autonomy of institutions of higher education, are guaranteed under the conditions prescribed by law.
5. The state promotes continuous education.
6. Fundamental issues relating to the education system, including schools and continuing education, administration, education funding and the status of teachers are determined by law.
Article 32
Work
1. All citizens without exception have the right to work. The state makes every effort to promote the employment of citizens and guarantee optimal wages through social and economic methods, and also establishes a system of minimum wages within the conditions prescribed by law.
2. Labor is the duty of all citizens without exception. The state, based on democratic principles, legislates the framework and conditions in accordance with which every citizen fulfills his duty to work.
3. The requirements for working conditions are determined by law in such a way as to guarantee the preservation of the dignity of each person.
4. Working women must be socially protected from unfair discrimination in matters of employment, pay and working conditions.
5. Working children must be socially protected.
6. Opportunity to work must be provided under the conditions prescribed by law, in the first place to those persons who have outstanding service to the state, wounded veterans, police officers, family members of military personnel who have lost their breadwinners, as well as police officers who have died in the line of duty.
Article 33
Associations
1. In order to improve working conditions, workers have the right to establish independent associations, conclude collective agreements and collective action.
2. Only public officials defined by law have the right to form independent associations, enter into collective agreements and collective action.
3. The right to collective action of workers in important sectors of the defense industry may be restricted or revoked under the conditions prescribed by law.
Article 34
Social Security
1. All citizens have the right to live with dignity.
2. The state is obliged to do everything possible to improve social security and social security.
3. The state is doing everything possible to improve social security and respect for women's rights.
4. The state is obliged to pursue a policy to improve the social welfare of both senior citizens and youth.
5. Citizens who are unable to earn a living on their own due to physical disability, illness, old age, etc., are under the protection of the state in accordance with the conditions prescribed by law.
6. The state does everything possible to prevent disasters and protect citizens from misfortunes.
Article 35
Environment, living conditions
1. All citizens, without exception, have the right to an environment that is pleasant for life and favorable for human health. The state and all its citizens are doing everything possible to protect the environment.
2. Human rights in relation to the environment are determined by law.
3. The state does its best to provide favorable living conditions for citizens through housing policy, etc.
Article 36
Institute of marriage and family. Motherhood. healthcare
1. Marriage and the family are based on the dignity of the individual and the equality of the sexes, and the state is obliged to do everything possible to achieve this goal.
2. The state makes every possible effort to protect motherhood.
3. The state protects the health of all citizens.
Article 37
Restrictions, inviolability of fundamental human rights and freedoms
1. The freedoms and rights of citizens cannot be respected on the grounds that they are not listed in the Constitution.
2. The freedoms and rights of citizens may be limited by law only in cases where this is necessary for the purposes of security, compliance with the law, order or public welfare. Even with such restrictions, no aspect of fundamental freedoms and human rights can be violated.
Article 38
Duty to pay taxes
All citizens, without exception, are obliged to pay taxes according to the conditions prescribed by law.
Article 39
Commitment to military service
1. All citizens have the duty to defend their nation under the conditions prescribed by law.
2. No citizen deserves unfavorable treatment by reason of the performance of his duty of service in the armed forces of the state.
CHAPTER III. NATIONAL ASSEMBLY
Article 40
Parliament
Legislative power is vested in the National Assembly.
Article 41
Elections
1. The National Assembly consists of members elected by general, equal, direct and secret vote of citizens.
2. The number of members of the National Assembly shall be established by law, but shall not be less than 200.
3. The constituencies of the National Assembly, proportional representation and other matters relating to elections to the National Assembly shall be determined by law.
Article 42
Term of office of members of the National Assembly
The term of office for members of the National Assembly is four years.
Article 43
Incompatibility of public offices
Members of the National Assembly, in accordance with the law, may not simultaneously hold any other public office.
Article 44
Immunity of members of the National Assembly
1. During the sessions of the National Assembly, no member of the National Assembly may be arrested or detained without the consent of the National Assembly, except in cases of arrest at the scene of a crime.
2. In case of arrest or detention of a member of the National Assembly immediately before the beginning of the session, that member, at the request of the National Assembly, must be released, unless the member of the House was detained at the scene of the crime.
Article 45
Exemption from punishment
Outside the National Assembly, none of its members is responsible for an officially expressed opinion or vote cast during a meeting of the National Assembly.
Article 46
Duties of members of the National Assembly
1. Members of the National Assembly are required to maintain high standards of integrity.
2. Members of the National Assembly are obliged to give priority to national interests and perform their duties in accordance with conscience.
3. Members of the National Assembly shall not abuse their office to acquire property rights or benefits from office, or to assist others in doing so, by entering into contracts with or disposing of the State, public organizations or government activities.
Article 47
Sessions of the National Assembly
1. A regular meeting of the National Assembly shall be held once a year in accordance with the conditions prescribed by law. Extraordinary sessions of the National Assembly may be convened at the request of the President or at least one-fourth of the members of the Assembly.
2. The duration of a regular meeting does not exceed one hundred days, and an extraordinary session - thirty days.
3. In the event that the President requests the convening of an extraordinary session, he must clearly indicate the duration of the session and the reasons for its convening.
Article 48
Speakers
The National Assembly elects a Speaker and two Vice Speakers.
Article 49
Quorum, majority vote
Unless otherwise provided by the Constitution or law, a decision by the National Assembly requires the attendance of the assembly by a majority of its members, as well as the simultaneous voting of a majority of the members present. In the event of an equality of votes in the voting, it is considered that the proposal has been rejected.
Article 50
Publicity
1. Sessions of the National Assembly are public. However, based on the decision of a majority of the members present, and if the speaker deems it necessary in the interests of national security, meetings may be closed to the public.
2. The need to make public sessions that have been closed to the public is determined by law.

Article 51
Bills under consideration
Bills and other matters submitted to the National Assembly may not be rejected on the grounds that they were not considered during the session in which they were submitted, unless the term of membership of the members of the National Assembly has ended.
Article 52
Bill Submission Initiative
Bills may be introduced by members of the National Assembly or by the chief executive.
Article 53
Bills approved by the National Assembly
1. Every bill approved by the National Assembly must be sent to the Chief Executive and put into effect by the President within fifteen days.
2. In the event of objections to a bill, the President is authorized, within the period specified in paragraph 1, to return the bill to the National Assembly with a written justification for the objection and a request to reconsider the document. The President is also empowered to carry out these actions during the recess between sessions of the National Assembly.
3. The President is not empowered to require the National Assembly to reconsider a bill in part or with proposed amendments.
4. In the event of an application for revision of a bill, the National Assembly shall review it, and, in the event that the bill has been re-adopted in its original form with the participation of more than half of the total membership of the assembly and the simultaneous vote of two-thirds or more of the members present, the bill becomes law. .
5. If the President fails to enact a bill or, within the period specified in paragraph 1, requires the National Assembly to reconsider it, then such bill shall become law.
6. The President shall immediately enact the law formed in accordance with paragraphs 4 and 5. If the President does not enact the law within five days of its approval in accordance with paragraph 5, or after the return of this law to the Chief Executive in accordance with paragraph 4, the law must be promulgated by the speaker.
7. Unless the legislation provides otherwise, the law shall enter into force within twenty days from the date of its entry.
Article 54
Budget
1. The National Assembly considers and decides on the national budget bill.
2. The Chief Executive prepares a budget bill for each financial year and submits it to the National Assembly within ninety days before the start of the financial year. The National Assembly decides on this bill within thirty days before the start of the financial year.
3. If a budget bill is not passed before the beginning of the financial year, the chief executive, until the adoption of the budget bill by the National Assembly, within the budget of the previous financial year, is authorized to spend on the following items:
1) ensuring the operation of agencies and institutions established in accordance with the Constitution or legislation;
2) implementation of the necessary embezzlement provided for by law; as well as
3) continuation of projects for which budgetary funds were previously provided.
Article 55
reserve fund
1. In case it is necessary to carry out continuous expenditures for a period of time exceeding one year, the head of the executive branch must obtain the approval of the National Assembly for the specified period of time.
2. The reserve fund must be approved by the National Assembly as a whole. Spending from the reserve fund must be approved during the next session of the National Assembly.
Article 56
Amendments to the budget bill
If it is necessary to change the budget, the head of the executive branch is authorized to form an additional draft law on the additional budget and submit it to the National Assembly for consideration.
Article 57
Amendments to the budget bill
The National Assembly, without the consent of the Chief Executive, is not empowered to increase the amount of spending on any item of expenditure, nor to create any new item of expenditure in the budget presented by the Chief Executive.
Article 58
government loans
If the head of the executive branch plans to take public loans or conclude contracts that involve the imposition of financial obligations on the State that exceed the budget, then the conclusion of such contracts requires prior approval from the National Assembly.
Article 59
taxes
The types and amounts of taxes are determined by law.
Article 60
Approval of international agreements
1. The National Assembly has the power to consent to the conclusion and ratification
– agreements concerning mutual assistance and mutual security;
– agreements concerning important international organizations;
– agreements on friendship, trade and navigation;
– agreements concerning any restrictions on sovereignty;
- peace agreements;
- agreements imposing important financial obligations on the State or its people; as well as
– agreements concerning legislative issues.
2. The National Assembly is empowered to approve the declaration of war, the dispatch of armed forces to foreign countries, and the deployment of foreign troops on the territory of the Republic of Korea.
Article 61
Investigations
1. The National Assembly has the power to study public affairs or to investigate certain aspects of public affairs, and also has the right to demand the production of documents relating to them, the examination of witnesses, as well as the production of testimony or the expression of opinions.
2. Procedures and other important aspects of the study and investigation of public administration are determined by law.
Article 62
Government and Parliament
1. The Prime Minister, members of the Council of State or government delegates are empowered to attend meetings of the National Assembly or its committees and report on the administration of the State or to express their opinion and answer questions.
2. At the request of the National Assembly or its committees, the Prime Minister, members of the Council of State or government delegates shall be required to attend any meeting of the National Assembly and answer questions. If the Prime Minister or members of the Council of State have been requested to attend a meeting, the Prime Minister or members of the Council of State are authorized to send members of the Council of State or government delegates to attend any of the meetings of the National Assembly and answer questions.

Article 63
Recommendations for removal from duty
1. The National Assembly is empowered to make recommendations for the removal of the Prime Minister or a member of the Council of State from his duties.
2. The recommendations for suspension referred to in paragraph 1 may be put forward by one third or more of the members of the total number of members of the National Assembly and adopted by a simultaneous vote of a majority of the members of the National Assembly.
Article 64
Working order of the National Assembly, disciplinary measures
1. The National Assembly is authorized to establish the rules of its work and internal regulations, provided that they do not contradict the law.
2. The National Assembly has the power to review the qualifications of its members and to take disciplinary action against its members.
3. In order to expel any of the members of the National Assembly, it is necessary that two-thirds or more members of the total number of members of the assembly vote for this decision simultaneously.
4. No legal action may be initiated in court over a decision made in accordance with paragraphs 2 and 3.
Article 65
Impeachment
1. In the event that the President, Prime Minister, members of the State Council, heads of executive ministries, judges of the Constitutional Court, judges, members of the Central Electoral Committee, members of the Accounting and Audit Commission, as well as other officials appointed to office in accordance with the law who, in the course of their office, have violated the Constitution or any other laws, the National Assembly is empowered to take action to impeach them.
2. Actions for the purpose of impeachment referred to in paragraph 1 may be proposed by one third or more of the members of the total number of members of the National Assembly; to approve this decision, a majority of the members of the assembly must simultaneously take part in the vote. However, a proposal to impeach the President must be put forward by a majority of the members of the National Assembly and approved by two-thirds of the total number of members of the assembly.
3. A person against whom action of impeachment has been taken shall be suspended from exercising his powers until a final decision on impeachment has been rendered.
4. An impeachment decision entails nothing more than removal from public office. However, it does not release the impeached person from civil or criminal liability.

CHAPTER IV. HEAD OF THE EXECUTIVE POWER
Section 1. President
Article 66
head of state
1. The Head of State is the President, who represents the State in relations with other states.
2. The President is responsible and fulfills the duties of maintaining the independence, territorial integrity and continuity of the State and the Constitution.
3. The President is obliged to contribute to the achievement of the peaceful unification of his state.
4. Executive power is vested in the executive branch of power headed by the President.
Article 67
Elections
1. The President is elected by universal, equal, direct, secret ballot of the people.
2. In the event that two or more persons receive the same majority of votes during the elections held in accordance with paragraph 1, then the person who receives the greater number of votes at a public meeting of the National Assembly in which a majority of the members of the National Assembly attended is elected President. .
3. If there is only one candidate for the office of President, then this person cannot be elected President until he receives at least one third of the possible number of all votes.
4. Any citizen who is eligible to be elected to the National Assembly and who, at the time of the presidential election, has reached the age of forty years or more, may be elected President.
5. All aspects related to the election of the President are determined by law.
Article 68
Transfer of presidential powers
1. The person who assumes the office of President after the office is vacated by the incumbent President shall be elected between seventy and forty days before the expiration of the term of office of the incumbent President.
2. In the event that the office of President is vacated, the incumbent dies or is disqualified by court order or for any other reason, his successor must be elected within sixty days of the vacancy.
Article 69
Oath
During the inauguration, the President takes the following oath:
“I solemnly swear before the people that I will faithfully fulfill the duties incumbent on the President, uphold the Constitution, defend the State, strive for the peaceful unification of the motherland, help preserve the freedom and improve the well-being of the people, and make every effort to develop national culture.”
Article 70
Term of office of the President
The President's term of office is five years; The President cannot be re-elected.
Article 71
Vacant post of President
If the office of President is vacant, or if for any reason the President is unable to perform his duties, then his duties are transferred to the Prime Minister or members of the Council of State in order of priority, in accordance with the law.
Article 72
Referendum on Public Policy
If the President sees the need for this, he is authorized to call a referendum on important political issues relating to diplomacy, national defense, unification, as well as other issues relating to the fate of the nation.
Article 73
Agreements, foreign affairs
The President makes and ratifies agreements; authorizes, receives or sends diplomatic representatives on instructions; declares war and makes peace.
Article 74
Armed forces
1. The President shall act as Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces in accordance with the conditions provided for by the Constitution and the law.
2. The structure and procedure for the formation of the armed forces is determined by law.
Article 75
Decrees
The President is authorized to issue presidential decrees relating to a specially defined range of issues within his powers in accordance with the law, as well as issues necessary for the implementation of laws.
Article 76
emergency powers
1. In times of internal unrest, external aggression, natural disasters, or severe financial or economic crises, the President is authorized to take the minimum necessary financial and economic action or issue decrees having the force of law, but only when urgent action is necessary to preserve national security. or public peace and order, but not enough time to wait for the National Assembly to convene.
2. In the event of a major threat to national security, the President is authorized to issue decrees having the force of law, but only when necessary to preserve the unity of the nation, and it is not possible to convene the National Assembly.
Section 2. Executive branch of government
Subsection 1. Prime Minister and Members of the Council of State
Article 86
Prime Minister
1. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President with the consent of the National Assembly.
2. The duties of the Prime Minister include assisting the President and directing the Executive Ministers.
3. No member of the armed forces may be appointed Prime Minister while he is on active duty.
Article 87
Members of the State Council
1. Members of the State Council are appointed by the President on the recommendation of the Prime Minister.
2. Members of the State Council assist the President throughout the entire period of their membership in the State Council.
3. The Prime Minister may recommend to the President that any member of the Council of State be removed from office.
4. No member of the armed forces may be appointed to the position of a member of the Council of State while he is in active military service.
Subsection 2 Council of State
Article 88
State Council
1. The State Council considers the most important policy issues that fall within the terms of reference of the head of the executive branch.
2. The State Council consists of the President, the Prime Minister and other members, the number of which is not more than thirty and not less than fifteen.
3. The President acts as Chairman of the Council of State and the Prime Minister as Deputy Chairman.
Article 89
Powers of the Council of State
The following issues are put forward for consideration by the State Council:
- the main plan of state affairs and the general policy of the head of the executive branch;
- declaration of war, conclusion of peace, as well as other important issues related to foreign policy;
- Draft amendments to the Constitution, proposals for national referendums, proposed agreements, bills and presidential decrees;
- budget, settlement of accounts, basic plans for the disposal of state property, contracts relating to the financial obligations of the State and other important financial matters;
- emergency decrees and emergency financial and economic measures or presidential decrees, as well as the declaration and lifting of martial law; important military issues;
– demands for the convening of early sessions of the National Assembly; the awarding of awards;
– granting amnesty, mitigation of punishment and restoration of rights;
– division of jurisdiction between executive ministries;
– basic plans concerning the granting and distribution of powers in the executive authorities;
– assessment and analysis of the management of public affairs;
- formulating and coordinating important policies of each executive ministry;
– actions to dissolve political parties;
– study of petitions concerning the policy of the executive branch, directed to the head of the executive branch;
- Appointment of the Attorney General, the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the Chief of Staff of each branch of the armed forces, the rectors of national universities, ambassadors and other civil servants and heads of important state enterprises in accordance with the law;
- other matters submitted by the President, the Prime Minister or a member of the Council of State.
Article 90
Advisory Council of Political Elders
1. For the purpose of advising the President on important state issues, an advisory council of political elders may be established, consisting of senior statesmen.
2. The last of the ex-Presidents becomes the chairman of the advisory council of political elders. However, if the last of the ex-Presidents is absent, the President himself appoints the chairman.
3. The organization, functions and other necessary matters relating to the advisory council of political elders shall be established by law.
Article 91
National Security Council
1. The National Security Council is created for the purpose of advising the President on the formation of foreign, military and domestic policies related to national security issues before their consideration by the State Council.
2. The President presides over meetings of the National Security Council.
3. The organization, functions and other necessary matters relating to the National Security Council shall be determined by law.
Article 92
Advisory Council for Democracy and Peaceful Unification
1. An Advisory Council for Democracy and Peaceful Unification may be organized to advise the President on the formation of a policy aimed at peaceful unification.
2. The organization, functions and other necessary matters relating to the Consultative Council for Democracy and Peaceful Association shall be determined by law.
Article 93
Advisory Council on National Economic Issues
1. An Advisory Council on National Economic Issues may be organized to advise the President on the formation of important policies for the development of the national economy.
2. The organization, functions and other necessary matters relating to the Consultative Council on National Economic Issues shall be determined by law.
Subsection 3. Ministries of Executive Power
Article 94
Heads of ministries
The heads of executive ministries are appointed by the President from among the members of the Council of State, on the recommendation of the Prime Minister.
Article 95
Decrees of the Prime Minister and Heads of Executive Ministries
The Prime Minister or head of each executive ministry shall have the power, by authority conferred by law, presidential decree, or ex officio, to issue regulations from the prime minister or executive ministry on matters within his jurisdiction.
Article 96
Ministry organization
The establishment, organization and functions of each executive ministry shall be determined by law.
Subsection 4. Reporting Review Commission
Article 97
The Accounts Review Commission is established under the direct jurisdiction of the President in order to review and examine the processes of settling revenues and waste of the State, the budget of the State and other organizations established by law, as well as the quality of the performance of their duties by executive agencies and civil servants.
Article 98
Membership, tenure
1. The commission for the verification of accounts consists of at least five and no more than eleven members, including the chairman.
2. The chairman of the commission is appointed by the President with the consent of the National Assembly. The term of office as chairman is four years; The Chairman may be re-elected only once.
3. Members of the commission are appointed by the President on the recommendation of the chairman. The term of service for members of the commission is four years; members of the commission may be appointed for a second term only once.
Article 99
Verification, reporting
The Accounts Review Commission reviews the closure of the income and expenditure accounts annually and reports to the President and the National Assembly on the results of the review in the following financial year.
Article 100
The structure of the audit committee
The structure and functions of the reporting review commission, the qualifications of its members, the list of civil servants subject to verification, and other important issues are determined in accordance with the law.
CHAPTER V. LEGAL PROCEEDINGS
Article 101
Litigation
1. Judicial power belongs to the courts, which consist of judges.
2. The judicial system includes the Supreme Court, which is the highest judicial body of the State, and courts at certain levels.
3. The qualifications of judges are determined in accordance with the law.
Article 102
Court Structure
1. Departments may be created in the Supreme Court.
2. The Supreme Court includes chief judges.
However, judges who are not judges of the Supreme Court may be included in the Supreme Court under the conditions prescribed by law.
3. The structure of the Supreme Court and lower level courts is determined in accordance with the law.
Article 103
Independence of judges
Judges exercise their powers independently, in accordance with their conscience and in accordance with the Constitution and legislation.
Article 104
Procedure for appointing judges
1. The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court is appointed by the President on the recommendation of the National Assembly.
2. Judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President on the recommendation of the Chief Justice and with the consent of the National Assembly.
3. Judges other than the Chief Justice and Judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the Chief Justice with the consent of the Conference of Judges of the Supreme Court.
Article 105
Judges' tenure
1. The term of service as Chief Justice is six years; a judge cannot be reappointed to this post.
2. The term of office of a judge of the Supreme Court shall be six years; according to the law, judges cannot be reappointed to this post.3. The term of office for a judge other than the Chief Justice and Judges of the Supreme Court is ten years; according to the law, judges cannot be reappointed to this post.
4. The retirement age of judges is determined in accordance with the law.
Article 106
Sanctions, early retirement
1. No judge may be removed from office except in cases of impeachment, imprisonment or a heavier penalty; he also cannot be suspended from office; the salary of a judge cannot be reduced; a judge may not be subject to unfavorable treatment, except for disciplinary action.
2. If a judge is unable to perform his duties due to a serious deterioration in mental or physical health, he may be dismissed under the conditions prescribed by law.

Article 107
constitutional revision
1. When the constitutionality of a law is challenged in court, the court requires the decision of the Constitutional Court and makes its decision on its basis.
2. The Supreme Court is empowered to make a final review of the constitutionality or legality of administrative decrees, regulations and actions in the event that their constitutionality and legality are challenged in court.
3. An appeal against a decision of an administrative body to a court may be carried out as a procedure preceding the trial. The procedure for appealing a decision of an administrative body to a court is established by law and complies with the principles of legal proceedings.
Article 108
court administration
The Supreme Court, within the framework of the law, is empowered to create regulations regarding trials and internal discipline, as well as regulations for resolving administrative matters of the court.
Article 109
Publicity
Litigation and court decisions are open to the public.
However, where there is a risk that a trial will undermine national security, disturb public peace and order, or damage public morals, such trials may be closed to the public in accordance with the decision of the court.
Article 110
Military courts
1. Military courts may be established as special courts for the administration of justice in military matters.
2. The Supreme Court has final appellate jurisdiction over military courts.
3. The structure and powers of military courts, as well as the qualifications of their judges, are determined in accordance with the law.
4. Military trials carried out on the basis of emergency military law cannot be reviewed on appeal in the case of crimes committed by soldiers and members of the armed forces; military espionage; as well as crimes defined by law regarding guard posts, sentry posts, the supply of harmful food and drink, prisoners of war, with the exception of death sentences.

CHAPTER VI. CONSTITUTIONAL COURT
Article 111
Competence, order of appointment
1. The Constitutional Court has the competence to make decisions on the following issues:
– unconstitutionality of the law at the request of the courts;
- impeachment;
- dissolution of a political party;
– jurisdictional disputes between government agencies, government agencies and local governments, as well as between local governments; as well as
– petitions concerning the Constitution, according to the legislation.
2. The Constitutional Court consists of nine judges whose qualifications allow them to perform the duties of judges; judges are appointed by the President.
3. Of the judges referred to in paragraph 2, three are appointed from persons elected by the National Assembly and three from persons nominated by the Chief Justice.
4. The head of the Constitutional Court is appointed by the President with the consent of the National Assembly from among the judges of the Constitutional Court.
Article 112
Term of office
1. The term of office of a judge of the Constitutional Court shall be six years; Judges may be re-elected to this office under the conditions prescribed by law.
2. Judges of the Constitutional Court may not join any political party or participate in political activities.
3. None of the judges of the Constitutional Court may be removed from their duties, except for removal as a result of impeachment, sentence to imprisonment or a more severe punishment.
Article 113
Majority, house rules
1. In order for the Constitutional Court to rule on the unconstitutionality of a law, impeachment, dissolution of a political party or a petition regarding the Constitution, the consent of at least six judges is required.
2. The Constitutional Court, within the framework of the law, may introduce regulations regarding trials and internal discipline, as well as regulations on administrative issues of the court.
3. The structure, functions and other necessary matters relating to the Constitutional Court shall be determined by law.

CHAPTER VII. ORGANIZATION OF ELECTIONS
Article 114
Organization of election committees
1. Electoral committees are organized for the purpose of lawfully managing the conduct of elections and national referendums, as well as for adjudicating administrative matters relating to political parties.
2. The Central Electoral Committee consists of three members appointed by the President, three members elected by the National Assembly and three members appointed by the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. The chairman of the committee is appointed from among the members of the committee.
3. The term of office of committee members is six years.
4. Committee members may not join political parties or participate in political activities.
5. No member of the committee may be removed from office except in the event of impeachment, imprisonment, or more severe punishment.
6. The Electoral Committee, within the framework of legislation and decrees, is authorized to establish procedures regarding the organization of elections, national referendums and administrative matters of political parties, as well as procedures for regulating internal discipline in accordance with the law.
7. The structure, functions and other necessary matters relating to the election committees at each level are determined in accordance with the law.
Article 115
Instructions
1. The electoral committees at each level are empowered to issue the necessary instructions to the administrative departments regarding administrative matters relating to elections and national referendums, which include the preparation of voter lists.
2. Upon receipt of such instructions, the relevant administrative departments are obliged to carry them out.
Article 116
Election campaigns
1. Election campaigns are conducted under the leadership of election committees at each level within the framework established by law. Equal opportunities are guaranteed to everyone.
2. Unless otherwise provided by law, political parties or candidates shall not bear the costs of holding elections.

CHAPTER VIII. LOCAL AUTONOMY
Article 117
local government bodies
1. Local government bodies are responsible for administrative matters relating to the welfare of local residents, dispose of property, and are also authorized to issue regulations regarding local autonomy within the framework of legislation and legal regulations.
2. The types of local government bodies are determined by law.
Article 118
local council
1. Local government bodies have councils.
2. The structure and powers of local councils, the procedure for electing their members, the procedure for electing the heads of local government bodies, as well as other issues related to the structure and work of local governments are determined in accordance with the law.
CHAPTER IX. ECONOMY
Article 119
Orders and management of the economy
1. The economic structure of the Republic of Korea is based on respect for the freedom and creative initiative of commercial organizations and individuals in the field of economic relations.
2. The state regulates and coordinates economic activities in order to maintain balanced growth and stability of the national economy, ensure a fair distribution of income, prevent market dominance and misuse of economic influence, and democratize the economy by establishing harmony among economic actors.
Article 120
Natural resources
1. Permits for the use, development and consumption of minerals and other important minerals, marine resources, water energy, as well as the forces of nature available for economic use, may be granted for a certain period of time, within the conditions specified by law.
2. Land and natural resources are under the protection of the State; The state determines a plan for their balanced development and use.
Article 121
Agriculture
1. With regard to agricultural land, the state shall strive to implement the principle “land to the peasants”. Agricultural leases are prohibited.
2. Lease of agricultural lands and their consignment disposal in order to increase agricultural productivity and organize their rational use, or due to unavoidable circumstances, is allowed under the conditions provided for by law.
Article 122
Land ownership laws
The State, within the framework of the conditions provided for by law, establishes the restrictions and obligations necessary for the effective and balanced use, development and protection of the land resources of the nation, which is the basis of the productive activity and daily life of all citizens.
Article 123
Farming and fishing
1. The state develops and implements a plan for the integrated development and support of farming and fishing communities in order to protect and stimulate agriculture and fishing.
2. The state undertakes to stimulate the economies of district farms in order to ensure the balanced development of each region.
3. In order to protect the interests of farmers and fishermen, the State shall make every effort to stabilize the prices of agricultural and fishing products by maintaining a balance between the demand and supply of these products, as well as improving the system for bringing them to the market and marketing.
4. The state promotes the formation of organizations of farmers, fishermen and private entrepreneurs, leading small and medium-sized production, based on the principles of mutual assistance and guarantees their independent activity and development.
Article 124
Consumer rights Protection
The state guarantees support for the consumer protection movement aimed at regulating activities in the field of consumption and improving the quality of products, within the framework of the conditions provided for by law.
Article 125
international trade
The state stimulates international trade, regulates and coordinates it.
Article 126
Ban on nationalization
Private enterprises may not be nationalized or transferred into the possession of local governments, the State may not exercise control over them, except as provided by law, when it is necessary for the protection of the nation or the national economy.

Article 127
Technical innovations, standardization
1. The state makes every effort to improve the national economy by developing science and technology, information and labor resources, as well as promoting the introduction of technical innovations.
2. The state establishes a system of national standards.
3. The President shall establish consultative organizations necessary for the achievement of the purposes referred to in paragraph 1.
CHAPTER X. AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION
Article 128
Initiative
1. A proposal for an amendment to the Constitution may be made either by a majority of the members of the National Assembly or by the President.
2. Amendments to the Constitution relating to the extension of the term of office of an incumbent President or changes allowing re-election to the office of President shall be void with respect to the President in office at the time the proposal for this amendment to the Constitution is made.
Article 129
Announcement of amendments to the Constitution
Proposed amendments to the Constitution must be announced by the President within twenty or more days.
Article 130
Majority, referendum
1. The National Assembly decides on proposed amendments within sixty days of their public announcement; the adoption of an amendment by the National Assembly requires a simultaneous vote of two-thirds or more of the members of the total number of members of the National Assembly.
2. Proposed amendments to the Constitution shall be put to a national referendum no later than thirty days after the adoption of the amendment by the National Assembly, and confirmed by at least half of all votes cast by at least half of the citizens eligible to take part in the election of members of the National Assembly.
3. If the proposed amendments to the Constitution are accompanied by the conditions specified in paragraph 2, then they become finalized and are subject to immediate announcement by the President.

CHAPTER XI. PROVISIONS FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE CONSTITUTION
Article 1
Introduction
The Constitution comes into effect on February 25, 1988.
However, the approval of laws and amendments to laws necessary to give effect to this Constitution, the election of the President and members of the National Assembly in accordance with this Constitution, and other preparations for the enforcement of this Constitution may be made before the coming into force of the Constitution.
Article 2
First presidential election
1. The first election of the President in accordance with this Constitution shall be held no later than forty days before the entry into force of the Constitution.
2. The term of office of the President in accordance with the Constitution begins on the day of its entry into force.
Article 3
First parliamentary elections
1. The first elections to the National Assembly under this Constitution shall be held within six months of the promulgation of the Constitution. The term of office of the members of the National Assembly elected in accordance with this Constitution shall begin from the moment of the first convocation of the National Assembly in accordance with the Constitution.
2. The term of office of the members of the National Assembly holding this office at the time of promulgation of the Constitution shall end on the day before the first convocation of the National Assembly in accordance with paragraph 1.
Article 4
Government officials
1. Public officers and government-appointed officials in undertakings who were in office at the time this Constitution came into force shall be deemed to have been appointed to their offices in accordance with this Constitution. However, public officials whose election or appointing authorities have been changed in accordance with this Constitution, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, and the Chairman of the Commission of Inspection and Audit, continue to hold their posts until, in accordance with the Constitution, in their place no other candidate is elected, and their term of office ends the day before their successor takes office.
2. Judges attached to the Supreme Court who do not hold the office of Chief Justice or Judges of the Supreme Court and who are in office at the time of the coming into force of this Constitution shall be deemed to have been appointed to their offices in accordance with the Constitution notwithstanding the provisions of paragraph 1.
3. The provisions of the Constitution which determine the terms of office of public officials or limit the number of terms of office of public officials shall come into force from the date of the first election or appointment of such public officials in accordance with the Constitution.
Article 5
Previous law
Laws, decrees, decrees and treaties in force at the time this Constitution comes into force shall remain in force unless they are in conflict with this Constitution.
Article 6
Former organizations
Organizations in existence at the time of the entry into force of this Constitution and performing functions within the scope of the powers of new organizations to be established under this Constitution shall continue to exist and perform their functions until such time as new organizations are created in accordance with the Constitution.