Basic theories of geopolitics. Modern geopolitical theories and schools of the West
The main goal of geopolitics is the development of the geostrategy of the state. The founder of geopolitics is Aristotle, who pointed to the geopolitical role of the islands and wrote that Crete, by its position, is intended for a dominant influence on Greece. Actually, the term "geopolitics" was introduced into scientific circulation by R. Kjellen, who understood it as a science that studies the state as an organism and a spatial phenomenon. R. Chellen believed that the strengthening of the state is directly proportional to the expansion of its territory.
Geopolitical concepts are based on the principles of natural landscape and geographic predetermination, based on which it is possible to build a model of behavior of various states. This is the principle of geographical determinism - the predetermining significance of geographical factors in the development of the state. The main criteria used by classical geopolitics are land (fixed space) and sea (dynamic space).
These obvious human ideas about the quality of earthly space gave rise to the terms:
- thalassocracy(from the Greek thalassa - sea, kratos - power) - the power of the country through the sea, implies the presence of metropolises and colonies, discontinuous territory;
- tellurocracy(from lat. Tellus - earth) - the power of the country through land, on which the entire territory of the country is located, implies the quality of territorial continuity.
Historically, thalassocracy is associated with the West and the Atlantic Ocean, and tellurocracy with the East and Eurasia. Further geopolitical constructions led to the emergence of the terms: “sea land” (i.e., islands are the basis for the existence of sea empires) and “terrestrial water” (i.e., land waters - rivers - the main transport arteries that determine the development of land empires).
In the geopolitical theories of the XIX century. natural areas and landscapes were of particular importance. Thus, it was believed that theocratic tendencies are maximum in deserts and steppes, therefore these natural zones contribute to the formation of vast empires. Conservative areas are confined to mountains and forests - zones of little-changing social patterns, where victims of national hostility and ethnic minorities are drawn together. The capitals of states, as a rule, are located on hills - symbols of royal power: on seven - according to the number of planets or on five - according to the number of elements.
The early geopolitical theories were characterized by the categories of "naturalness" (natural borders, spheres of influence, which were determined on the basis of physical and geographical realities - plains, rivers, mountains). The concept of "natural borders" was one of the first in geopolitics, the achievement of natural borders was considered the most important political goal of states.
With the development of geopolitical thought, the terminological vocabulary of geopolitics has also expanded. It includes such terms as: "sphere of influence", "buffer zone" - a zone formed around a certain state in order to stop its expansion, "vital nodes", "roads of life", "crisis arcs" - elements of the geopolitical structure of the world , "dynamic balance of interests". These terms are now widely used in the theory of international relations and the speeches of politicians.
Later, new areas of research appear: the study of geopolitical aspects of the development of the World Ocean, the interdependence between the ecological and socio-economic situation, border areas, conflict zones.
The main principle is the transition from the geopolitics of confrontation to the geopolitics of interdependence. Its essence lies in the study of new subjects of political activity on the world stage: transnational business, governmental and non-governmental international organizations, nationalist and separatist movements, terrorist organizations, people's liberation fronts, partisan and underground movements. Geopoliticians develop scenarios for the future global geopolitical order. At the beginning of the XX century. geopolitics has become dominant in political and geographical studies. Its scientific novelty consisted in the interpretation of the state as a subject of the global system.
The history of scientific geopolitical thought distinguishes several stages in its development:
- "civilized geopolitics" of the formation of a Eurocentric world;
- "nature-centric geopolitics", based on geographical determinism;
- "ideological geopolitics" of the second half of the XX century. - confrontation between the West (capitalism) and the East (socialism).
German school of geopolitics. The main representatives of the German school of geopolitics are F. Ratzel and R. Kjellen. They believed that the state is an organism inextricably linked with the territory, fighting for "living space". This theory, which appeared during the period of rapid industrialization of Germany, which entered into a struggle with England for markets, presented imperialist expansion as a necessary stage of development.
The core of geopolitics at the beginning of the 20th century. occupy specific geostrategies - sets of proposals for the policy of a particular state, based on an analysis of the geopolitical situation.
In 1897, F. Ratzel's work "Political Geography" was published, where the main theoretical provisions of geopolitics as a theory of dynamic understanding of space were outlined. They boiled down to the following:
- states are peculiar organisms, similar to living ones, which are born, grow old and die, that is, they are constantly in motion;
- the growth of states is predetermined in advance, and it is possible to “guess” its limits and consequences only by knowing the laws of geography;
- each state has its own "living space", which it seeks to expand.
States that control several types of territories have great economic and political opportunities, as they are forced to confront a large number of potential challenges, which makes them stronger than others.
Early 20th century: geographic factors of world politics. geopolitics of the early 20th century. geographic factors that play a decisive role in world politics have been identified. This is a desire to expand the area, territorial solidity and freedom of movement.
How was the policy of the main world powers at the beginning of the 20th century explained from these points of view?
Russia possessed an extended territory, territorial solidity, but not freedom of movement, since it did not have access to warm seas. The desire to ensure access to navigable seas explains the wars that Russia has waged over the past centuries on its southern and western borders.
Great Britain had complete freedom of movement thanks to the fleet and dominance on the sea routes. She increased her territory through colonies and dominions, which expanded her living space. Thus, the British Empire was scattered over 26% of the globe, and it was precisely in the absence of solidity that its main weakness was. A political solution was found in the creation of the British Commonwealth of Nations, which economically and politically tied overseas possessions, past and present, to Great Britain.
Germany had neither extended territory nor freedom of movement. The main port cities of Germany - Hamburg, Bremen, Kiel - were located at the mouths of the rivers assigned to the Dutch under the Treaty of Westphalia. However, Germany had a territorial solidity and a single ethnic group, which, as it were, prepared for its expansion, required the expansion of living space. Geopoliticians predicted the expansion and growth of the power of the United States, which possessed all three factors, and political tension in the Asia-Pacific region, where the main power - island Japan - did not have the opportunity to expand its territory.
Theories of Halford Mackinder. His main works: the article "The Geographical Axis of History" (1904), the book "Democratic Ideals and Reality" (1919) H. Mackinder was a representative of the British school of geopolitics, his theories were based on the differences between maritime and continental powers and their fundamental opposites as geopolitical antipodes. The former demonstrate their presence in the world with the help of the military and merchant fleet. Thanks to the fleet, they have mobility, they can protect their own interests around the world, controlling sea communications. Continental powers primarily control the landmasses and trade routes that provide them with everything they need.
According to X. Mackinder's model, in the center of the world there is a giant closed continent - the "middle earth" - an array of motionless land, where the geographical axis of history (the territory of Central Asia) passes. The "Inner Crescent" - the world of moving history and the birthplace of world culture (the countries of the Mediterranean, Western Europe, the Middle East, the Indian subcontinent) - is located between the "middle earth" and the oceans. The Outer Crescent contains the Americas, Sub-Saharan Africa, Australia, and Oceania. This is a zone of maritime powers.
The “Middle Land” is invincible, since the sea powers cannot invade this zone, therefore the countries of the “Inner Crescent” could never subjugate the peoples inhabiting the “Middle Land” (unsuccessful attempts of the Swedish king Charles XII, Napoleon, Hitler). At the same time, the peoples of the "middle earth", on the contrary, can easily invade the countries of the "inner crescent" and subdue them. This means that the peoples of the "outer crescent" and the "inner crescent" must play a deterrent role and always be ready for an attack by the peoples of the "middle earth". After the Great Geographical Discoveries, the balance of power changed only temporarily in favor of maritime countries, since the advent of rail transport again gave impetus to the development of land states.
Similar views were held by the American Admiral A. Mahen (work "The Influence of Sea Power on History, 1660-1783" 1890), who believed that control over the seas means control over the world. In 1943, in the article "The Round World and the Achievement of Peace", X. Mackinder proposed a new model - the union of the "Heartland" (USSR) with the "Middle Ocean" (Great Britain and the USA) against Germany. In this article, he substantiated the need to create a new geopolitical entity - the transatlantic community (North Atlantic bloc - NATO).
American School of Geopolitics. The principles of the British school are based on the American school of geopolitics, the impetus for the development of which was the transformation of the United States into a world power in the second half of the 20th century.
In 1942 Nicholas Speakman's American Strategy in World Politics was published. In his opinion, the role of the leading maritime power passed to the United States - a state located in the "outer crescent", and the role of the main continental rival - to the USSR. The concept of “rimland” was introduced into the new model - a contact zone (“inner crescent”), control over which ensures world domination.
These theoretical constructions formed the basis of the real political strategies of the era of confrontation and the Cold War - "geopolitical containment". Its practical implementation was expressed in the encirclement of the USSR by hostile states and military bases.
Of particular importance in American geopolitics was the so-called "domino effect", according to which the coming of the Communists to power in one country leads to similar processes in neighboring ones.
The concept of the geographical destination of Germany. The Swedish professor Rudolf Kjellen (1864-1922) moved from theoretical geopolitics to practical recommendations. He owns the idea of the geographical purpose of Germany: this country, located in the center of Europe, represents and protects the interests of Europe as a continental bloc, so its actions in the international arena are for the benefit of all European peoples. The geopolitician Arthur Dix showed that the existence of a "united Europe", whose interests are expressed by Germany, is possible only if there is a continuous spatial connection between the North Sea and the Persian Gulf. London's anti-continental strategy has always been aimed at breaking this diagonal: for this, Great Britain used and provoked conflict situations along this line - in the Balkans, in the Dardanelles region, in Armenia, Mesopotamia.
Under the German emperor Wilhelm II (reigned 1888-1918), an alliance was created between Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, the imaginary axis of which ran diagonally from the island of Helgoland (opposite the mouth of the Elbe) in the direction of Istanbul, the Persian Gulf, the Indian Ocean . This provided Germany with a presence in the Mediterranean, control over the Black Sea, the Persian Gulf, and access to the Indian Ocean, where the British then dominated.
After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the creation of a mosaic of states in the Balkans, this axis fell apart. Its restoration became the main goal of German diplomacy and military action in the following decades.
Geopolitical theories of Karl Haushofer as the ideological basis of German expansion in the first half of the 20th century.
K. Haushofer (1869-1945) created the scientific school of geopolitics and the geopolitical journal (“Zeitschrift fur Geopolitik”), the transformation of geopolitics into the ideological basis of German diplomacy in the first half of the 20th century is associated with his name.
The key concept of geopolitics of that time was the concept of "living space", introduced back in the 19th century. Ratzel. Following him, Haushofer believed that Germany's main problems were caused by unfair and tight borders. These provisions corresponded to the views of the German statesmen of that time, since they justified the need for expansion.
K. Haushofer also belongs to the idea of pan-regionalism. He believed that large continental associations are the imperative of the times. The peoples must orient themselves towards a new form of political organization - a large space, which is necessary, since the narrow state framework hinders the development of modern specialized industry and interferes with world trade flows, customs barriers increase the cost of production.
K. Haushofer identified the following potential large spaces that could have been formed by the middle of the 20th century: Euroafrica with the dominance of France and Germany; the USSR with a sphere of influence in Iran, Afghanistan, India; Japan as the geopolitical center of East Asia; United States with a sphere of influence in North and South America. He was one of those who recommended the conclusion of the Soviet-German pact of 1939 (known as the "Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact"), proposed a failed plan for the creation of a continental Eurasian Union, which would include Spain (dictator Franco), Italy (Mussolini), France (the pro-fascist regime in France managed to hold out from 1940 to 1944), Germany (Hitler), the USSR (Stalin) and Japan. This alliance, acting in conjunction with the national liberation movements, was supposed to confront the maritime powers, primarily Great Britain.
After 1945, a large communist region appeared in the center of the "middle land", as a counterweight to which military blocs (NATO, CENTO, SEATO) were formed, and the so-called "cold war" began and real wars - Korean, Vietnamese, Afghan.
The theoretical basis of traditional geopolitics was geographical determinism. Developed by geopoliticians of the first half of the 20th century. strategies have become in fact programs of action for the opposing blocs. Geopolitical ideas about the “great destiny of Germany as the center of Europe”, about the “British Empire on which the sun never sets”, about “Russia helping the Orthodox in the Balkans”, etc., are firmly rooted in the mass consciousness, the thinking of politicians. The gradual transformation of geopolitical ideas into national doctrines was clearly manifested in countries with special national ambitions.
1. Geopolitical theory.
Geopolitics is a scientific discipline / branch of knowledge that studies the interaction of politics with a system of non-political factors (economy, geographical location, demographic situation, climate, landscape).
The relationship between space and politics - the doctrine of the dependence of political events on geographical conditions
Synthetic field of knowledge, which lies at the junction of many sciences
a complex of geographical, historical, political and other factors interacting with each other and influencing the strategic potential of the state.
Any politics is primarily power relations. The subject of power is the one from whom the power comes, the object is the one who performs. Resources for the execution of power: - material; - power / institutional; - spiritual.
Direct transfer of power (see, hear and perform).
In large groups, power relations are determined by the concept of extension (forces must be applied to force them to exercise power). Geographic factor-Distance determines the behavior of the object. Extension mechanisms - technical means.
Geographical environment and climate affect the exercise of power.
Geographical space is our idea of the world around us, consisting of distance, geographical environment, climate, living conditions, etc.
Geopolitics object - The whole complex of power relations at a distance. Geopolitical politics does not stop at state borders.
The end of the 19th - the beginning of the 20th century, the emergence of geopolitics.
one). Cardinal changes in people's views on the world. There are no unknown spaces left.
2). All states by the end of the 19th century divided the whole world. Formation of colonial empires. There are no no man's territories.
The question arose about new forms of relations between states. The question of the possibility of forming global empires. How to prevent the collapse of these empires - this has become the object (subject) of geopolitics.
The idea of the interaction of the political sphere and the geographical one became the main one. The question of the nature of such influence, i.e. why geographic factors influence political relations and what is its nature.
There are 2 main ways to solve this issue:
1. geographically determinism - Ratzel, Kjellen (later Haushofer).
It has been argued that geographic space and the geographic environment itself has a certain power capable of shaping the policy of the state. Direct influence. The nature of this force lies in the uniqueness of geographical space. That is, states are doomed to some kind of geographical fate. The fate of the state is determined by its geographical position.
2. Characteristic for the authors of the late 19th - early 20th century. Rethinking the subject of geopolitics. They began to talk about the indirect, but indirect influence of geographical factors on the fate of the state. A predetermined fate has been replaced by the right to choose. A person can change the fate of the state, but still must take into account geographical factors for more effective actions.
For geopolitics, power relations are primary. Political Geography considers theory from various points of view, including political ones. Geopolitics is not possible where there are no people. P. Geography without people is even better, the presence / absence of a person does not matter, nothing depends on him.
2 levels of geopolitics :
Fundamental. Explores political patterns.
Geostrategy. Applied geopolitics, considers the application of patterns and specific political relations.
Geopolitics as a whole - science or ideology?
Nazi ideology. Using geopolitical constructs to justify certain actions. All this deprives geopolitics of its scientific component. Geopolitics is usually subjective. Haushofer, Kjellen asserted the truth of their theories. Doubting the truth—the search—distinguishes concept from ideology. Having arisen as a concept, it gradually turns into a science.
System of methods of geopolitics .
The main set of methods is adopted from politics, mo. General scientific methods (analysis, synthesis, induction, comparison, deduction).
Specific:
geographic determinism. From this method, geopolitics grew as a scientific concept.
Biological method (organicist). Goes back to the body of Herbert Spencer. Tried to liken society to a living organism. F. Ratzel pointed out that the state is a living organism rooted in the soil.
Systems approach
Structural-functional
The presumption of state loneliness. The interests of these communities lie at the basis of relations between states and peoples. The set of these interests determines the nature and orientation of peoples and states. Initially, there are no friends or enemies, there are only interests.
Construction of geopolitical dichotomies (opposition). Heartland - Rimland (middle earth - marginal), talasocracy - telurocracy (opposition of the forces of water and earth), center - periphery.
2. Geographical determinism as a prehistory of geopolitics.
Geographic determinism is a method that studies the influence of geography on social and political progress.
A generic term for theories that explain the influence of geography on society.
Parminides (VI century BC) Theory of five temperature zones: one hot, two cold and two intermediate. The globe consists of 5 climatic zones, a cat. and determine the activities of the peoples inhabiting them.
Aristotle (384 - 322 BC) The Greeks are more civilized and have a power superiority over the barbarians, as they live in an intermediate geographical zone.
Hippocrates (c. 460 - c. 370 BC) The idea of the influence of geographical conditions and climate on the characteristics of the human body, character traits, and even on the social system.
Herodotus (484 - 424 or 426 BC) Left a detailed description of many peoples of the Mediterranean coast. The idea that the place of residence affects the character of the people.
Strabo (63 - ? AD) The ancient Roman geographer divided the world into quadrangles and placed the inhabited world (Europe, Libya and Asia) within one of them.
Tried to rationally explain the differences between people. We imagined the world differently than we do now. Geography was presented only in the context of the habitation of civilized peoples. Where they are, there is an ecumene, all the rest are barbarians.
With the completion of antiquity, the establishment of feudalism, the ancient tradition is abandoned. Muslims accepted the ancient heritage.
Abd ar-Rahman Abu Zeid Ibn Khaldun (1332 - 1406) The main factor determining the influence of nature on social and political life, according to the theory of Ibn Khaldun, is the climate. Only in countries with a temperate climate do people freely engage in cultural activities, and the inhabitants of the south (that is, countries adjacent to the equator) have no motives for the development of culture, since they do not need either stable dwellings or clothing, and receive food from nature itself in finished form. The inhabitants of the cold northern countries, on the contrary, spend all their energy on obtaining food, making clothes and building dwellings. Consequently, they have no time to study the sciences, literature and arts.
In Europe, with the Renaissance, interest in ancient authors increases, the influence of Christianity on social and political life decreases. Trying to do it rationally. A new surge of rational distinction between peoples and states.
Jean Bodin (1530 - 1596) In the "Book of the State" he outlined the forms of government, the search for the optimal form of government. The search for correct, universal recipes for government. He believed that the peoples of the north were inclined towards rigid forms of government, while the peoples of the south were not at all inclined towards building a government / or light models of government. In the middle lane - forms of government based on the love of work.
In the essay "Method of easy study of history" (1566), he outlined his view of society as the sum of blood-economic unions-families, formed independently of the will of man under the influence of the natural environment. Among the geographical factors, Bodin singled out the climate as the most significant, attributing to its action the physical superiority of the northern peoples over the southern ones and the mountain peoples over the valley ones.
Charles de Montesqui ѐ (1689 - 1755) "The Book of the Spirit of Laws". Tried to find the mechanism of climate influence on mankind. laws must have a definite relation to the physical character of the country, to the climate (cold, warm or temperate), to the nature of the soil, its position, its area, to the way of life of peoples (agricultural, hunting or pastoral). The climate has its direct influence on the physiological state of the body and, above all, on the psychology of people, and through it already on social and political phenomena.
Geographic determinism is beginning to conquer space.
I. Kant, G. Herder, A.R. Jacques Turgot, Hegel - pointed out the influence of geographical factors on human nature.
Johann Gottfried Herder (1744 - 1803) The driving force behind the development of civilization, in his opinion, are external and internal factors. The scientist attributed physical nature and, first of all, such elements of it as climate, soil, geographical location to external factors.
A. von Humboldt and Karl Ritter . (description, coordinate system).
The idea of the dominance of the earth, describes the borders, peoples. These 2 authors shape the geography. Ritter pointed to a clear influence of geography on territory. Opposes nature and humanity. He pointed to the existence of a certain connection between peoples and the soil on which they live. Nature has a profound effect on man. Having moved to other territories, a person feels severe discomfort. Gotta adjust again. With Ritter and Humboldt, the formation of the schools of F., G., V. and R.
In the second half of the 19th century, a clear design of geography. Geo.Determinism becomes scientific, becomes a method, the very nature of the application of that method changes. Henry Thomas Buckle (1821 - 1862). "A History of Civilization in England". Indicates the possibility of the emergence of civilization and the mechanism of its occurrence. Indicates climate as a condition and a factor. He put forward the idea of a set of conditions of the geographical environment that affects the life of society. He considered the interaction of the four main categories that affect the human race: climate, food, soil and the general appearance of nature.
Lev Ilyich Mechnikov (1838 - 1888) "Civilizations and great historical rivers" (1889). Three stages of the formation of civilizations: - riverine-Mediterranean-oceanic
The history of the development of civilization is the history of man's adaptation to his environment. In the course of this adaptation, a person learns not only to overcome the influence of the environment, but also subsequently to use various natural conditions for his life. Geographic factors do not have a permanent impact on the development of human society. Their significance in social progress is changeable over time, and the totality of natural conditions that were limiting factors may tomorrow become a favorable environment for the formation and development of civilization.
3.Anthropogeography of Friedrich Ratzel.
Conditional allocation of several geopolitical schools. 2 main ones that had a huge impact: - German - Anglo-American
They developed simultaneously, had a mutual influence on each other.
The founder of the German school F. Ratzel was a student of K. Ritter. Space is not just the territory occupied by the state and is one of the attributes of its strength. Space is itself a political force. Space is the natural framework in which the expansion of peoples takes place. Each state and people have their own "spatial concept", that is, the idea of the possible limits of their territorial possessions.
1897 "Political Geography". The state is like an organism rooted in the soil. He considered the state a primitive organism, denied the reasonableness of the state. The state goes through a certain life path, it is not absolute, it needs a certain nutrient environment. Living space - provides vital energy for the state. 1901 "Laws of the Spatial Growth of the State". The space of the state grows with the growth of its culture. The very growth of the state is accompanied by the growth of its cultural phenomena. Growth is carried out due to the absorption of small states by large ones. Borders are a peripheral body of the state and testify to its strength or weakness. In its development/growth, the state seeks to select the most valuable elements of the physical environment. The initial impulse to spatial growth was the difference in the cultural level. The trend towards expansion is provided from one state to another and does not fade away.
The Law of Expansion 1) The extent of States increases as their culture develops; 2) The spatial growth of the State is accompanied by other manifestations of its development: in the spheres of ideology, production, commercial activity. 3) The state expands, absorbing and absorbing political units of lesser importance. 4) The border is an organ located on the periphery of the State (understood as an organism). 5) In exercising its spatial expansion, the State seeks to cover the most important regions for its development: coasts, river basins, valleys and, in general, all rich territories. 6) The first impetus to spatial growth is always given by more developed states 7) The general tendency to assimilate or absorb weaker nations pushes for even greater expansion of territories in a movement that feeds on itself.
Includes geopolitics in the system of political sciences, sciences about the state.
Johan Rudolf Kjellen(1864-1922)
studied management systems in order to identify ways to create a strong state; actively participated in politics, was a member of parliament, distinguished by an emphasized Germanophile orientation; considered geopolitics, starting from the works of Ratzel, as part of political science.
Influence on Kjellen's views: Ratzel and Hegel
The strength of the state is a more important factor in maintaining the existence of the state than the law, since the law itself can only be maintained by force.
"Great Powers" (1910) small countries, by virtue of their geographical position, are "doomed" to be subordinate to the "great powers", which, again, by virtue of their "geographical fate", are obliged to unite them into large geographical and economic "complexes". Kjellen pointed out that separate "complexes" of this kind - in particular, the United States, the British Empire, the Russian Empire - were formed back in the 18th-19th centuries, while the formation of a large European "complex", or unity, is the task of Germany.
World War I- a natural conflict that arose between the dynamic expansion of Germany (the Axis countries) and the peripheral European (and non-European) states (the Entente) opposing it. The difference in the geopolitical dynamics of growth - downward for France and England and upward for Germany - predetermined the main alignment of forces.
Introduces the term "geopolitics"
The state tends to: instinct for self-preservation; struggle for existence; upward trend; desire for power
The "struggle for existence" in the life of the state is a struggle for space.
Large states grow at the expense of small ones.
Viable states, whose Space is limited, are subject to a categorical political imperative: to expand their territory through colonization, unification or conquest of various kinds. England was in this position, Japan and Germany are now.
Five Sciences of the State
1. Geopolitics is the science of the state as a geographical organism embodied in space
2. Ecopolitics - the study of the state as an economic force
3. Demopolitics - the study of dynamic impulses transmitted by the people to the state
4. Sociopolitics - the study of the social aspect of the state
Kratopolitika - the study of forms of government and power in relation to the problems of law and socio-economic factors
Kal Haushofer (1869 - 1946) - major general, teacher of geography.
It influenced Hitler's worldview, especially in the matter of geopolitics.
the concept of Tallasocracy and Tellurocracy (power through the sea and land). The global power of the state depends on what the country uses as the basis for its policy - the sea or the land.
Pan-Ideas and Pan-Regions - Haushofer's Pan-Regions were more than just economic blocs. They were based on "pan-ideas" that provided the ideological basis for the region. Expansion as the spread of global ideas of unity (pan-ideas) that generally unite ethnic groups. Pan-ideas: American, European, Asian, Russian. Expansion moves from north to south
The main attention is paid to the boundaries, as a substantiation of the thesis about the living space. Living space is the space that allows the nation to develop. Natural boundaries can be drawn both by sea and by land.
Anglo-Saxon school - Mahan, Mackinder and Speakman.
Alfred Thayer Mahan (1840-1914). In the 1880s he taught naval history. The idea of the influence of sea power. He argued that the economic cycle in any state is associated with 3 main aspects: - production - the exchange of goods and services through waterways; - navigation - what ensures this exchange; - colonies - the circulation of goods exchange at the world level.
Sea routes are key in the economy of the state.
6 main criteria by which the sea power of the state is assessed:
1. The geographical position of the state, its openness to the seas, the possibility of sea communications with other countries. The length of land borders, the ability to control strategically important regions. The ability to threaten enemy territory with your fleet. 2. The "physical configuration" of the state, that is, the configuration of the sea coasts and the number of ports located on them. The prosperity of trade and strategic security depend on this. 3. The length of the territory. It is equal to the length of the coastline. 4. Statistical population. It is important for assessing the ability of the state to build ships and maintain them. 5. National character. The ability of the people to engage in trade, since sea power is based on peaceful and wide trade. 6. The political nature of government. The reorientation of the best natural and human resources for the creation of sea power depends on this.
Mahen's formula = navy + merchant marine + naval bases.
Mahen's ideas inspired some states to create an ocean fleet and expand their colonies. Pointed to the form of relations between states.
The "anaconda" principle Blocking enemy territories from the sea and along coastlines, which gradually leads to the strategic exhaustion of the enemy. First used by the American General McClellan in the North American Civil War of 1861-1865. to block the coast of the southern states.
Halford John Mackinder (1861 - 1947). With the help of his ideas, he tried to justify the policy of his state. 1904 Report "Geographical axis of history".
The whole process of civilization is connected with the struggle of two peoples: those inhabiting the coastal territories and the central ones. Axial region ("Heartland") The essence of Mackinder's main idea was that the role of the axial region of world politics and history is played by the vast internal space of Eurasia and that domination over this space can be the basis for world domination. transport - land robbers. Civilizations are born in the conflict zone of these civilizations. The geographical axis of history is the central region - the initial dominance of land robbers. It cannot be reached by possessing maritime transport. Possession of a pivotal region makes its people invulnerable. 1919 Expands and corrects the original concept in a larger study. The book "Democratic Ideals and Realities". The 2 main political trends are to prevent a repeat of World War 1 and to minimize the possibility of aggressive countries resuming the war in the future. The geopolitical history of the world Pre-Columbian era, In it, the peoples belonging to the periphery of the World Island, such as the Romans, live under the constant threat of conquest from the forces of the "core earth". For the Romans, these were Germans, Huns, Alans, Parthians, etc. For the medieval ecumene - the Golden Horde. Columbian era. During this period, representatives of the "inner crescent" (coastal zones) set off to conquer the unknown territories of the planet, without encountering serious resistance anywhere. Post-Columbian era. Unconquered lands no longer exist. The dynamic pulsations of civilizations are doomed to clash, dragging the peoples of the earth into a universal civil war. The article "The Round World (world) and the Conquest of the World (peace)" (1943) If the Soviet Union emerges from the war victorious over Germany, then it will turn into the greatest land power on the planet. Subjected to a significant revision of its original concept. Now, according to his scheme, the heartland included, in addition to the bulky landmass of the Northern Hemisphere, the Sahara, the deserts of Central Asia, the Arctic and the subarctic lands of Siberia and North America. In this scheme, the North Atlantic became the "Mediterranean Ocean". He abandoned the former rigid dichotomous opposition of land and sea powers. Lenaland - 1) the arctic coast, 2) the wild regions of the Lena and the Yenisei, and 3) the mountain range from Altai to the Hindu Kush plus the Gobi desert, the desert regions of Tibet and Iran
Nicholas John Speakman (1893-1943). Actively used the term "geopolitics". Geopolitics as the most important instrument of concrete international politics, as an analytical method and a system of formulas that make it possible to develop the most effective strategy. Attempts to form a general theory of MO.
"Geography of the World" (1944). Proves the problem of the relationship between state policy and geographical conditions, displays 10 main criteria for the power of the state:
1. the surface of the territory; 2. the nature of the boundaries; 3. population size; 4. the presence or absence of minerals; 5. economic and technological development; 6. financial strength; 7. ethnic homogeneity; 8. level of social integration; 9. political stability; 10.national spirit.
Indicates that the power of the state is based on non-political factors. Shows that the state is able to conduct a successful foreign policy and achieve its goals in the presence of these factors.
Tries to develop Mackinder's ideas. Relations between Heartland and Rimland. Indicates that in the presence of such a dichotomy, no advantages exist, they are equivalent. Rimland can safely minimize Heartland's influence. He understands well the future confrontation between the USA and the USSR. Clearly indicates that their relationship in the future will be hostile.
Karl Haushofer (1869-1946 ).
3 main parts:
- the idea of talasocracy - telurocracy Slightly modifies Mackinder's theory. It is impossible to clearly define where is telosocracy and where is talasocracy. Uses not geographic location, but the definition of power. Primarily not a geographical location, but what the people use for their foreign policy. - idea of pan-ideas and pan-regions The idea of expansion and expansion. Expansion is the result of global ideas of unity - pan-ideas - do not contradict the inner consciousness of ethnic groups, unites these ethnic groups with each other. First, he singled out 3 pan-ideas (American, Asian and European), then plus one more - a pan-Russian idea. The expansion must move from north to south. - the idea of natural boundaries. Focuses on boundaries. Justifies the term about the living space, which allows the development of a certain nation. Natural boundaries are those that describe this living space. Limits living space to the possibility of its development.
Haushofer, like Speakman, lays the ideological foundation of geopolitics. Indicates the presence of internal interests, indicating the connection of politics and geography. Indicates that geography is used as a tool for explaining the policy of the state, geographical factors are important, but not fundamental.
Anglo-American school second half of the 20th century
atlanticism The Atlantist line in geopolitics developed practically without any breaks with the classical Anglo-American tradition. The fundamental model of "sea power" and its geopolitical prospects is being transformed from the scientific developments of individual military geographical schools into the official international policy of the United States.
D. Meinig "The Heartland and the Rimland in Eurasian History" The space of the Eurasian Rimland is divided into three types according to its functional and cultural predisposition: China, Mongolia, North Vietnam, Bangladesh, Afghanistan, Eastern Europe (including Prussia), the Baltic States and Karelia - spaces organically gravitating towards the Heartland .
South Korea, Burma, India, Iraq, Syria, Yugoslavia are geopolitically neutral.
Western Europe, Greece, Turkey, Iran, Pakistan, Thailand - prone to thalassocratic block
W. Kirk "The Geographical Axis of History" He built a historical model in which the main role is played by coastal civilizations, from which cultural impulses come with a greater or lesser degree of intensity into the interior of the continent. At the same time, "higher" cultural forms and historical initiative are recognized for those sectors of the "inner crescent".
S. Gray The "geopolitics of the nuclear age" makes the planetary location of nuclear facilities dependent on the geographical and geopolitical features of the regions. Mondialism The US strategy, developed by American geopoliticians, provides for either the final victory of the West in the geopolitical duel with the East, or the convergence of two ideological camps into something united and the establishment of a "world government"
Saul B. Cohen . Geopolitics of polycentrism . His concept complements the concept of Speakman, differentiates it. Indicates the existence of 5 geopolitical levels in the geopolitical world:
Geostrategic regions (Rimland and Spikeman's Heartland).
Geopolitical regions - regions of conflict between geostrategic spheres - form the basis of relations between H. and R.
Nation states - the level of great states
The second-tier powers are the leading regional powers.
Subnational territories
Each geopolitical region is at a different level of development and balance of power. The concept of "entropy" is introduced as an uncertainty in development. He showed that there are dynamics in geopolitics.
Immanuel Wallerstein. World-systems approach . This concept complements the concept of American geopolitics. F. Braudel - school of annals . Starting from the history of ordinary phenomena, he increases his analysis and comes to the conclusion that in history all processes developed around the so-called. "world-economy" (Venice, Genoa, Amsterdam, London). The 20th century is characterized by the formation of a single world-economy. The whole world becomes a world-system. Distinguish between the concepts of center and periphery. World centers stand out – concentration of resources, development potential. The periphery - the availability of resources, is not capable of any innovation and independent development. It highlights the system of exchange between nations. The semi-periphery is an intermediate link between them. It no longer depends on innovation and the center, it can have significant resources. Depends on imported goods. Able to generate innovations on a small scale.
Rethinking the geopolitical concept after the collapse of the USSR.
Samuel P. Huntington "Clash of Civilizations" The apparent geopolitical victory of Atlanticism on the entire planet actually affects only a superficial cut of reality. A strategic victory is not a civilizational victory. The major boundaries dividing humanity will become the source of conflict, and the prevailing sources of conflict will be determined by culture. The clashes will be between major civilizations.
Zb. Brzezinski . Focuses on giving specific recommendations to the US political course. The absolute enemy of the USSR and the Russian Federation. The need to contain the Russian Federation and build up the power of the United States. The Grand Chessboard (1997) Analyzes the international situation in the world in the late 1990s. A statement of the fact of the inviolability of the United States and their complete dominance in the world. Russia is called a "black hole", it must be contained along the perimeter in order to maintain control over the internal situation. America's choice is leadership or domination.
European geopolitical thought of the late 20th century
After the end of the Second World War, it turned out to be outside the area of interest of researchers. Europe refuses geopolitics as such. 70s France is a process of rethinking geopolitical concepts and geopolitics in general. It becomes the bearer of a new geopolitical tradition.
Yves Lacoste "Herodotus ” were based on the rich geographical tradition of Fr.
Paul Vidal de la Blache (1845-1918). Tries to build socio-geographical concepts. Human development does not always depend on natural conditions. Man also influences geographical conditions, creates his own geographical environment. Civilized peoples change the geographical space, and uncivilized peoples do not change anything, using what they have. The state is not formed as an integral organism, the levels are layered on top of each other in the process of the formation of the state. The state is not an organism, but a social organization of people living and organizing some kind of territory.
Yves Lacoste (born 1929) and the magazine "Herodotus". He began to build his analysis in a geopolitical direction. He subjected geopolitics to a significant revision. Before him, geopolitics was preserved as a doctrine; he transfers it to the sphere of geographical science. Geopolitics of Lacoste This is a completely new definition of geopolitics, in fact - a new discipline. This is not continental thinking based on fundamental planetary civilizational-geographical dualism and associated with global ideological systems, but the use of some methodological models of traditional geopoliticians in a general context, but taken in this case as something independent. This geopolitics is called "internal geopolitics" (la geopolitique interne).
Herodotus rethinks: considers geography in its entirety; systematizes the concept of political geography, its macrolevel recognizes geopolitics. Geopolitics is losing its rigid determinism. Geographical spaces are not important in themselves, but only in the context of human activity. All models that were previously built have no meaning and there is no need to build such concepts. Geopolitics becomes the basis of geostrategy - the behavior of states. Begins to pay attention to external. and int. situations in the country – internal geopolitics.
7. Russian geopolitical tradition.
When it comes to geopolitics, we are talking about concepts, that is, about the views of certain authors. When it comes to political action, it's either geostrategy or just politics. Early 80s - 90s 20th century formation. It is connected with the changing role of Russia in the modern world. 3 main areas of research of geopolitics in Russia: - geopolitics within the theory of international relations - within the framework of geographical science - within the framework of political science
The nature of this division: the subject of geopolitics was stretched into its components:
Geopolitics with t.z. interstate relations
Geopoliticians are geographers. Geopolitics is part of political geography
political science direction. Comprehension of the position of Russia from the point of view. relationships with other countries.
The geopolitical views of Russian politicians largely reflect the ideology of the party itself.
There is no integrity of view, in most cases the authors fail to agree.
N.Ya. Danilevsky concept of "Cultural - historical civilizations".
P. Savitsky . He emigrated from Russia, was a supporter of Eurasianism. The idea of understanding Russia as a dual beginning (Europe and Asia). Russia acts as an independent civilization. Russia is a link between Europe and the Asian space. Connects the Eurasian space.
geopolitical analysis.
The international political system as the basis of geopolitical analysis.
An ordered collection of elements. Significant connections within the system are more significant than outside. The essential connections of the system are those is always more important, more serious than connections with extra-systemic elements. Integrative properties of the system - the system is not a set of properties of individual elements. Accordingly, each element introduces something of its own into the system, and all together it represents something new. States cannot interact with each other. Any state pursues a directed policy to achieve some of its goals. Transition from the system as an object of study to its structure.
Links and elements of the system of interstate relations. Elements - states, international organizations, interstate associations. The allocation of sublevels is irrational. The element is the lower limit of the division of the system. Communication between elements: the relationship that develops between states. Relations are determined by the expediency of the state.
9. Structural relations between states.
Structure - a certain orderliness, a way of communication and interaction, phenomena and properties and relationships.
Structure can be likened to a building or device. It also assumes the regularity of the system (the law of the system).
The structure is always considered as a special way of communication inherent in each system and its elements. There is also a consequence, function and development of the system and causes.
In-variant structure - connections that determine the most important characteristics of the system. This is the logic of any system.
The variant structure is a manifestation of the invariant structure in some specific historical conditions.
The structure of the variant changes under the influence of external factors. The invariant structure defines the logic of the system.
Centropower relations are relations between the most significant elements of the international political system. They are always there. Determined by the strongest ELEMENTS. The whole complex of relations between other states depends on them.
The angles of contradiction are localized complexes of connections, which are characterized by rapid dynamics of development, increased aggravation of relations and instability. The real problems of the relations of states with each other on some specific issues.
Localization can be on a territorial or sectoral basis. They are also system-forming factors, that is, a system can also arise around the nodes of contradictions.
O consciousness of the real influence of the structure on the system.
Basis and superstructure - connected with the awareness of the structure. Really established relations between states are the basis, the superstructure are documents that characterize the actual situation.
The base determines the superstructure.
The problem of relations between system and subsystem.
Any element of the system can be considered as a system. To select a subsystem, the following conditions must be met:
The subsystem scale is smaller than the subsystem scale;
The subsystem must include at least 3 actors;
Actors must be recognized by other actors as elements of a subsystem;
The actors of the subsystem must perceive themselves as such;
The power characteristics of a subsystem are usually weaker than the power characteristics of the whole system;
Changes in the system as a whole lead to changes in subsystems.
Changes to subsystems may or may not lead to system changes.
The system is the reason for the existence of subsystems.
Functioning - maintenance by the system of the necessary state of its relations with the environment with the possibility of variant historical changes. The functioning of the system of interstate relations acts as a necessary element of the integrity and stability of the system in the process of continuous internal disturbances and changes, and in the process of complex interaction with the environment.
Dual process - the system is constantly under pressure from the external environment, so the system seeks to adapt, but the system, due to its internal structure, cannot adapt to them. The line where it all collides is called the functioning of the system.
The law of dynamic balance (describes the functioning of complex systems).
During the development of the system, it is necessary to preserve the main structural links; for this, the system has the property of stability.
Compressor connections are provided by the dynamism of the system. Their presence suggests that the intrusion causes a clear reaction of the system and is aimed at minimizing the influence of the external environment.
The concept of balance of power:
Concrete policy
Within the framework of the system of interstate relations, the relations of the main political forces on the world stage are reflected.
The correlation of forces is defined as the nature of communication between states, specific for each specific period of time. Influences the interaction of states with each other. The balance of power is characterized by such a concept as a situation.
The international political situation is a manifestation of a situational analysis, and a structural crisis is a violation of the balance of power that has developed in the system.
The system cannot work in the usual mode, so there is often a change in the system variant or less often in the structure invariant. Often accompanied by wars or revolutions. Sometimes they are peaceful. A new version of the structure of interstate relations is being formed.
Crises are always irreversible. Inside, the potential is great to create something new.
Subjects of the international political system.
Some non-governmental organizations, some TNCs are either subjects or actors.
With regard to the analysis of states and intergovernmental organizations, the actor and the subject have a difference. Actors indicate that here the action is primary and any person in the arena can be recognized as an actor. The main element is the state, the state has:
sovereignty
Territory
Population
Recognition as sovereign by other states.
Partially recognized or unrecognized states actually exist, but are not recognized.
autonomy
State formations.
All states can be qualified by potential:
Superpowers. They have nuclear weapons and the ability to destroy on a planetary scale. They are incapable of being defeated by other states or coalitions.
Great powers. They significantly influence world development, but do not determine it. Influence the situation in the region or some area.
Middle Powers. Sustained influence in the immediate environment
Small. Weak influence, but have sufficient means to maintain independence and territorial integrity.
Microstates. They do not have the necessary potential to maintain sovereignty.
International organizations and interstate associations. They are specific subjects, as they are derived from the main subjects of states.
Interstate associations are unions or coalitions based on common interests, created to achieve common goals. They are created on a broad base and are aimed at expanding cooperation on as wide a range of problems as possible. It is assumed that states are not able to solve all the problems they face, therefore it is considered rational to unite in an organization and transfer part of their state sovereignty to it for the implementation of specific problems. Therefore, states are interested in:
Clearly limit the scope of these organizations
Clearly identify your interests and benefits from this organization.
The post-war period, the role of international organizations has increased significantly, due to the reluctance of states to carry out a number of functions.
So, international organizations are determined by two criteria:
Territorial criterion, it is formed on a territorial basis. It is important to consider that this feature is decisive for the formation of this organization. Of paramount importance is the proximity of states to each other. There are regional states within the same region or part of the world. (League of Arab States and the Organization of African Unity), interregional - states in different regions, but with common features. Sub-regional - formed within the region (BeNiLux)
By industry. Economic organizations of the WTO, organizations in certain sectors of the world economy, the IAEA and OPEC. Organizations in the field of culture and sports. Military-political organizations of NATO. And universal UN.
The activities of any international organization are clearly regulated by interstate agreements and charters of the organizations themselves. Their competence depends on the legal and political status given to them by states.
9Component of geopolitical analysis.
This refers to a set of indicators and the definition of the relationship between them, which allow us to analyze the existing geopolitical relations.
Factor analysis is an assessment of the indicators inherent in the state and a general assessment of the possibility of this state is highlighted.
Bosk in his "Sociology of the World" singled out physical factors, which include space (geographical location, population, economy: economic resources, industrial resources and agricultural potential, military power) and moral factors (type of political regime and its ideology, level of general and technical education of the population, national morality, strategic position in the international system.
Bryer and Jolily assessed the potential of the states and supplemented the Bosk scheme.
They identified 2 groups of variables:
- independent internal variables: physical - geographical location, minerals, demographic natural resources; structural - political and economic institutions, the ability to use the physical and social environment, technological potential, cultural and human (cultural factors - the value system, language and religion; ideology - self-assessment by the authorities of their role, the perception of the surrounding world by the authorities, the main means of pressure; collective mentality - historical memory, the image of a different behavior in the field of international obligations, a special sensitivity to the problem of national security, messianic traditions, the quality of decision makers, the perception of their environment, the world, physical and moral qualities.
- external independent variables: international system or external environment; actions of other states; public resources and access to them.
Factor analysis.
In geopolitics, two orders of factors are taken into account:
Changeable (associated with the actions of a person or external forces)
Immutable (usually remain unchanged for a long time).
Constant factors indicate the importance of the position of the state, and variables on the behavior of the state on the world stage. The interests of the elite of this state:
Strengthening the importance of the economic factor in geopolitics, that is, today it is preferable not to intervene in wars, since the benefits of war do not compensate for the costs of war.
Military-technical achievements.
Information revolution and related information security
Level of development of natural and technical sciences (creation and trade of ideas)
Cultural and educational qualities of the population
Actualization of world religions (extremist organizations formed on the basis of various religions. Totalitarian sects)
The patterns of work of these factors.
The theory of geopolitical vacuum - nature does not tolerate emptiness, one way or another, space is always occupied by substance.
The struggle between substances for space:
Control over space is lost by all geopolitical substances that do not have signs of self-sufficiency.
With the loss of control over space by one geopolitical subject, another one will certainly acquire it.
The stability, sustainability and security of a geopolitical subject, among other things, is achieved by the optimal size of the controlled space.
The wider the space controlled by one geopolitical entity, the more difficult it is to manage and can lead to instability and destabilization.
The advantage is given to the entity that controls the key geostrategic points
The capacity of a geopolitical subject is a derivative of the degree of its self-sufficiency and control over key geostrategic points.
USA: any state has interests to maintain the established system and should have power. That is, the national interest is the main criterion for the behavior of the state. The national interest is the consent of the whole society on some problems, it must compensate for the absence of civil society, that is, the state interest becomes national. It also matters not in its final form, but in the process of formulation, on which the behavior of the state depends.
The ruling elite formulates the final version of the national interest.
Legitimation - any interest accepted by the political elite must be irrefutably accepted by society. Formulates the elite - supports the people.
The main components of the national interest.
National interest to some extent is the ideology on which this or that elite is based. The vital interests change depending on what the ruling elite considers vital. The society itself is not capable of independently formulating the national interest.
Geopolitical interest is a derivative of national interest, subject and specific. It is the desire of a geopolitical subject to use the territories or water areas of other geopolitical subjects.
Geopolitical interest is the attitude of the state to some territories. It determines the current geopolitical system by economic position and cultural characteristics.
Types of geopolitical interest:
The desire to use the natural resource economic and economic, technical and cultural potential of another subject through a system of geopolitical relations
The desire to directly annex part of one country to another.
The desire to expand the deployment of the military presence on the territory of another subject.
The country must pursue its interests, if necessary, by force without regard to morality and without interest in the interests of other states.
Determining the attitude to the space of a geopolitical subject is the understanding of the territory around us. This maxim is still the main one in the actions of states today.
Determination of the relationship between the subject and the geopolitical space.
Modern geographers: Space is the developed territory around you and how you perceive this environment. Space is subjective, it is the relationship between the subject and space, determined by the relationship of the subject to the given space. Human activity is not determined only by attitude, in combination with the structuring of space, the term territory appears.
Streamlining the relationship between man and space leads to the formation of objective forms of understanding of space.
Geopolitical space includes geographic, political-geographical and economic-geographical position.
Geographical location - the relationship of the subject to geographical structures that lie outside its territory.
Economic and geographical location - the relationship of the subject to geographical structures, but of great economic importance
Political and geographical position - the position of the subject relative to the important centers of the world political system, in the regional system and taking into account the neighborhood of a different order.
Relationship Position Characteristics:
Proximity / remoteness
Neighborhood (direct first-order habituation, indirect second-order neighborhood)
Profitability from the economic, political and military-strategic point of view of the location of different sections of the borders.
The state within itself is heterogeneous, the territory is differentiated. The optimal configuration of borders is a round state.
Pleshakov's typology.
The geopolitical field is a certain degree of control by the power center in a given territory.
5 field types:
Endemic field, originally inherent in the power center. The territory with the highest degree of control over it by the power center. Well structured and the most mastered, its affiliation is not disputed by anyone. It is the core of the state.
Border field. Territory that is largely controlled by the power center, but not yet developed enough to merge with the endemic field. Territorial disputes may begin within the border field. But ownership is rarely disputed.
Cross field. Territory that has become the object of claims of several power centers, but is controlled by one. There can be both official territorial disputes and ideological ones.
total field. The entire continuous territory under the control of one power center. Providing any communication system
Metafield. Territory developed by several power centers. It is not as widespread as the previous ones (Israel and Palestine). Determined by pressure from outside.
A geopolitical reference point is a territory outside the total field.
Control is the ability to influence the ongoing processes in a given object.
Geopolitical control - implies the ability to transfer to the desired geopolitical point such an amount of power resources that will legitimize the power of this power center. The power center must be able to transfer power, ideological, economic, military or other resources to the required point. States are somehow disposed to expansion, both external (historically the highest form of expansion, aimed at spatial growth) and internal (economic or religious).
Globalization is also a form of expansion.
Geopolitical contraction is a vivid display of internal critical circumstances; the inner core is preserved, being freed from cross and sometimes boundary fields.
The border as a line is characterized by a high degree of contrast, it is a product of understanding space. With the help of boundaries, we structure space, all boundaries are conditional, subjective and induced.
State borders are the lines of designation of the zone of control of one power center, outlining the total field.
Natural boundaries - indicate those volumes and territories that are necessary for the survival and functioning of this state.
Artificial borders - set by man at his will.
Any border is tied to a geographic feature.
The process of forming boundaries.
Stage 1. Contractual determination of the direction and extent of borders - delimitation
Stage 2. Establishing boundaries on the ground - demorcation.
Border functions:
Dividing
Connective
The problem of geographic space diversification in geopolitical analysis.
The methodological concept is the idea of points of development: within the framework of any social system, special elements are distinguished, the functional task of which is to ensure the process of development of the system.
Development points are the primary contactors with the external environment, they receive information, process it and adapt the system:
Experience, i.e. a large amount of accumulated information
Self-learning, the ability to perceive, assimilate and process inf.
The ability to self-organize - the synthesis of new knowledge.
Within the framework of geopolitics, development points are a certain territory, which, due to its characteristics, can change the environment. Wednesday.
The concept of polarized development: the presence of growth poles, which are derivative ensembles, as well as centers of concentration of those types of d-ti that are able to spread technical innovations and favor information change.
Such a production pole is completely connected with the surrounding territory by the “center-periphery” relations.
The pole "feeds" the center, and the center exerts its influence on the entire periphery.
The spatial pole is a city endowed with dynamic characteristics and strong growth potential.
The growth potential and dynamic characteristics are determined by the propulsion industry - an industry that is stimulating for the development of relevant industries.
Types of growth poles:
The central place is small and medium-sized cities specializing in servicing the agricultural industry. The task is to create conditions for agriculture; intermediary functions, concentration and processing of agricultural products.
Growth poles - industrial cities, no less than medium in size, high growth rates, innovative industries; but they are not able to generate the information they receive, therefore they are guided by what they are offered
Development poles - agglomerations with a developed economic structure, have the ability to generate and transmit information to lower levels and have several propulsion industries
Poles of integration – several poles of development
Any pole of development must be organically connected with the surrounding territories.
For the emergence of "center-periphery" relations, the presence of organic ties is necessary: the center must develop the periphery, and the periphery should consider the center as the source of its development.
Control over the main poles of development is a key factor.
The power center of any state strives to structure the territory of the state in order to control all ongoing processes.
Development of the territory - the presence of poles of development and some territorial ways to influence the development of territories.
In the course of the interaction of people and the performance of their functions, it is possible to single out territories that affect the development of other industries: the poles of development, the center or small territories are key from the point of view of geopolitics, since they allow you to control significant territories.
Any state consists of a complex of development poles and key geostrategic points, which in the course of human activity acquire special functions and allow the power center to control the processes taking place in the given territory.
In addition to the military And merchant fleets need to have naval bases, otherwise the value of this fleet is equal to zero.
In addition to vertex points, it is also necessary to select edges, the functions of which are performed by the communication system. The linear element is the highways - transportable transport lines with a high technological level. The basis of any state is the presence of points of growth and communications between them. From a geopolitical point of view, the supporting frame of the population is a form of territory development and control of the power center over the entire territory.
Geopolitical issues are at the center... collide with the first formulations of an important geopolitical concepts - the concepts of “world ... figures, Germanophiles. All geopolitical theories off the mark...
GEOPOLITICS
Geopolitics is a science that studies and analyzes in unity the geographical, historical, political and other interacting factors that affect the strategic potential of the state. The object of geopolitics as a science is the planetary space and the resources it possesses, geopolitical processes and phenomena in the world community as a system. The subject of geopolitics is the relationship between state policy and the spatial characteristics of statehood, geopolitical interests and relations of the subjects of world politics.
Geopolitical practice has existed for a long time. The Assyrian kings, conquering new territories, took measures to consolidate them by changing the ethnic composition of these territories, even then the first geopolitical ideas appeared. Geopolitics as a science arose and developed, in general, in line with the evolution of scientific thought at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries. Initially, it was nothing more than the transfer to the sphere of international relations of strict laws of natural history, social Darwinism, organicism, etc.
The entire period of the formation of geopolitics as a science can be divided into three stages, which themselves include many historically established schools:
· classic stage("organic school" by F. Ratzel, R. Kjellen - the author of the concept of "geopolitics"; H. Mackinder and his "geographical axis of history", A. Mahen - the theory of "sea power", the concept of "possibilism" by Vidal de la Blanche, N. Spykman - the author of the concept of "Rimland", K. Haushofer - the theory of the "continental block"), etc.;
· modern geopolitical theories and schools of the West(the ideas of Atlanticism - D. Mining, G. Kissinger, S. Huntington - the doctrine of neo-Atlanticism, the ideas of mondialism - J. Attali, C. Santoro, neo-mondialism - F. Fukuyama, the "new right" - J. Thiriart, I. Lacoste) and others;
Let's turn to classical stage in Western geopolitical thought, within which two main directions have developed: continental and Atlantic. F. Ratzel, Vidal de la Blanche, R. Kjellen, F. Naumann, K. Haushofer and others belong to European continentalism. H. Mackinder, A. Mahen, N. Spykman and others worked in the vein of Atlanticism.
· Friedrich Ratzel (1844-1904). The main ideas and principles of geopolitics in the form in which it was formed by the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries were formulated in the works of the German scientist Friedrich Ratzel. Without naming the new science yet, F. Ratzel nevertheless became the true “father of geopolitics”, it was Ratzel who formulated the main idea of geopolitics, which, in essence, constituted a whole worldview that opened human history from a new perspective.
· In his "Political Geography", published in 1897, Ratzel substantiated the thesis that the state is a biological organism, acting in accordance with biological laws. The essential characteristics of the state are determined by its territory and location, and its prosperity depends on how successfully it adapts to environmental conditions. One of the main ways to increase the power of this organism is territorial expansion or expansion of living space. In the book On the Laws of the Spatial Growth of the State (1901), Ratzel formed the seven laws of geopolitics, one of the first to suggest the increasing importance of the sea for the development of civilization.
· Rudolf Kjellen (1846-1922)- Swedish researcher and politician, follower of F. Ratzel, author of the category "geopolitics", who studied management systems to identify ways to create a strong state. The main thesis formulated by him in the work “Staten som Lifesform” is: “the state is a living organism”. Kjellen spoke of the need for an organic combination of five interrelated elements of politics: economic policy, demopolitics, sociopolitics, cratopoly and geopolitics. He characterized geopolitics as "a science that considers the state as a geographical organism or phenomenon in space." R. Chellen forms the law of autarky, that is, the law of balance between extremes. In his opinion, force is a more important factor for maintaining the existence of the state than law , because that is supported only by force.
· Vidal de la Blanche- Founder of the French geographical school (1845 - 1918). Follower of Ratzel. He owns the concept of "possibilism" (from the word lat. possible - possible). According to this concept, political history has two aspects: spatial (geographical) and temporal (historical). The geographical factor is the environment; historical - the person himself ("the bearer of the initiative"). The influence of the geographical factor on history may or may not become a reality (hence the word possibilism - possibility). The actualization of the action of this factor depends on the person inhabiting the geographic space.
Vidal de la Blanche was the ideologist of France's orientation towards the forces of Atlanticism (on "sea power"), which alone can resist the geopolitical aspirations of Germany, which, being in the center of Europe, is squeezed from all sides by its neighbors and does not have the opportunity to release its energy (for expansion). It was with Germany that Vidal de la Blanche linked the main threat to peace in Europe.
· Karl Haushofer (1869 - 1946)- German military diplomat, then professor at the University of Munich. Based on German interests on the European continent, Haushofer formulated the doctrine of the "Continental bloc", or axis: Berlin - Moscow - Tokyo, directed against the Anglo-Saxon world.
· This political line was called "Ostorientierung", that is, "Orientation to the East". Orientation to the East assumed the unification of the efforts of the three powers: Russia, Germany and Japan, which were to establish the "New Eurasian Order", change the continental space of the entire World Island and remove it from the influence of "sea power".
· However, Haushofer was not consistent in his orientation towards the East. The fact is that in his geopolitical strategy, not only the geographical factor played a role, but also the ethnic one. Ethnically, the Germans were closer to the Anglo-Saxon world than to the Russian or Japanese. German racism came into conflict with continentalism and divided the peoples of Eurasia. Hence the duality, inconsistency and inconsistency of Haushofer's constructions.
· This was the nature of the geopolitical constructions of European continentalism at the beginning of the 20th century. At the same time, the formation of the geopolitics of Atlanticism (England and the USA) is taking place.
· Alfred Machen (1840-1914) - American admiral, theorist of US geostrategy, whose main work is the book "The Influence of Sea Power on History (1660-1783)" (1890). In it, he singled out the conditions that determine the main parameters of sea power: the geographical position of the country, its natural resources and climate, the length of the territory, population, national character and political system. With a favorable combination of these factors, Mahen believed, the formula comes into play: N + NM + NB == SP, i.e. navy + merchant fleet + naval bases = sea power.
· A special place in Mahen's concept is occupied by the position of the sea factor as the main principle for assessing the status of a state. This assessment should be based on 6 criteria:
· 1. Availability of access to the sea, the possibility of sea communications with other countries;
· 2. The configuration of the sea coasts, ensuring the construction of a sufficient number of ports;
· 3. Equating the length of borders with the length of the coastline;
· 4. Population sufficient to build ships and serve them;
· 5. Compliance of the national character of the population with the conditions of maritime trade (since maritime power is based on peaceful and wide trade);
· 6. Correspondence of the political regime to the needs of creating a powerful naval force.
· These are the 6 "sea" criteria, according to which the sea power is determined.
· This direction of Mahan's theory determined his geopolitical strategy. He was a supporter of the Monroe Doctrine, according to which the power of the United States is associated with territorial expansion into nearby countries. Mahan believed that America had a "marine destiny" and that in its realization, as "destiny manifested," it consisted first in the strategic integration of the entire American continent, and then in achieving world domination.
· Halford George Mackinder (1861-1947) - An English scientist, geopolitician and political figure, in his report "The Geographical Axis of History" (1904), said that for the state the most advantageous geographical position is the median, central. Mackinder structures the planetary space in the direction from the center to the periphery by means of a system of concentric circles. The center of this system is the "geographical axis of history" - the Heartland, spatially coinciding with the territory of Russia. Next comes the "inner" or "marginal" crescent, at the intersection of water and land spaces - a belt coinciding with the coastal spaces of the Eurasian continent - Rimland. Next comes the zone, external relative to the mainland mass of the world island - "outer or island crescent".
· All these three zones are connected by constant oppositely directed civilizational and geographical impulses. From the center of Heartland to the periphery, pressure is constantly exerted by the so-called "robbers of the land" (peoples with an authoritarian, undemocratic, non-market character.)
· From the outside, from the regions of the outer crescent, the “robbers of the sea” exert pressure on the world island. The countries of these regions are characterized by a commercial nature and democratic forms of life. These opposing impulses meet in the "inner crescent" zone, which, experiencing opposing cultural influences, becomes a zone of intensive development.
· According to Mackinder's concept, it turns out that world history revolves around its continental axis (which, as already mentioned, coincides with the space of Russia). At the same time, if there is almost no movement in the center of the circle (“archaism reigns”), then in the space of the inner crescent the most important events that make up the content of the historical process take place.
· The "outer crescent" represents the variability and diversity that corresponds to liberal values and democratic regimes.
· Modern geopolitical theories and schools of the West
Consider modern geopolitical theories and schools of the West.
Representative of neo-Atlanticism American scientist S. Huntington in his work "The Clash of Civilizations and the Establishment of the World Order" (1996) put forward a controversial thesis: "a clash between two world civilizations in the 21st century will lead to war and the collapse of the world order." He outlined his doctrine of neo-Atlanticism, in its center is the problem of further relations between Land and Sea, West and East. Western ideology has triumphed temporarily, which will raise the deep cultural layers of the East to the surface. S. Huntington, among the most likely opponents of the West, sees China and Islamic states, primarily Iraq, Iran, Libya, and not Russia or any other Eurasian countries.
Representative of the Atlantic line in geopolitics D. Meinig in his work “Heartland and Rimland in Eurasian History” notes that geopolitical criteria should take into account the functional orientation of the population and the state, and not just the purely geographical assignment of the territory to Land and Sea.
American geopolitician G. Kissinger said that the political strategy of the United States is to unite the disparate "coastal zones" into one whole, which will allow the Atlanticists to gain complete control over Eurasia and the USSR, he proposes to act using the carrot and stick method: war for Vietnam, cooperation for China.
· Z. Brzezinski (1918) - American politician, professor characterized the rivalry between the USA and the USSR as a geopolitical struggle for control over Eurasia and the world. In his work "The Grand Chessboard" (1998), he calls for the development and adoption of a new comprehensive, comprehensive and long-term geostrategy in relation to the whole of Eurasia. The United States controls and arranges the major geostrategic pieces on the Eurasian chessboard, as well as the key geopolitical centers of Eurasia, which is vital to America's long-term and stable leading role in the world.
· F. Fukuyama (1952) - representative of the new mondialism, American social philosopher and political scientist. In "The End of History?" (1989) he argued that the history of ideas was essentially over, as the world recognized liberal democracy as "the ultimate form of government." His neo-mondialism connects the "end of history" and the beginning of a new planetary existence of mankind, where "Market" and "Democracy" will exist. F. Fukuyama integrates the world into a harmonic single machine. All regions of the globe will begin to restructure, like electrons in an atom, focusing on the most powerful economic centers (nuclei).
Representative of the French school of geopolitics J. Attali argued that now the "era of money" has come in the world, which is the universal standard of any value. The whole earth is dominated by market relations based not only on money, but also on information technology, a single homogeneous world dominates, and it is built on the principles of "geo-economics". He believed that no geopolitical factors would have a significant impact. The "geo-economic" project of reorganizing the world is an intermediate option between Atlanticism and mondialism.
Geopolitical ideas of J. Attali presented in more detail Carlo Santoro. He believed that the situation in the world is fraught with civilizational catastrophes, as a result of which the role of international structures will be weakened, national self-consciousness and nationalism will increase in the countries of Eastern Europe, the Third World, in Russia, the disintegration of existing states will intensively proceed, the world will enter a period of small and medium wars. , as a result, new geopolitical spaces will arise.
The French thinker considered himself a New Right J. Thiriart. He built his theory on the rules of “autarchy of large spaces”: a state can fully develop only when it has sufficient geopolitical space, large territories. He believed that Europe would lose its importance if it did not create a single empire to oppose the United States.
· Yves Lacoste occupied a leading position in the course of applied geopolitics. The essence of his view boils down to the fact that geopolitics is not a continental management of the development of historical processes, its main principle is fundamental planetary thinking based on civilizational-geographical dualism. Yves Lacoste reduces geopolitics to a narrow analytical discipline called "internal geopolitics".
Global problems of our time and ways to resolve them.
Russia and modern geopolitical processes.
Geopolitical concepts at the turn of two millennia.
Topic 12. Geopolitical factor in foreign policy.
1. A significant contribution to the development of the theory of international relations was made by the authors of geopolitical theories, who proposed a whole range of ideas that reveal the dependence of the foreign policy of states on factors that allow them to control certain geographical spaces. In the history of political thought, ideas about the influence of the geographical environment on society were developed by Hippocrates, Aristotle, and Plato. The French thinkers J. Bodin (XVI century) and C. Montesquieu (XVIII century) devoted many of their works to the analysis of the influence of climate on the political behavior of people, thereby strengthening this research trend. However, as an independent direction in the theory of international relations, geopolitics took shape only at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. In 1900 a Swedish scientist R. Chellen (1864-1922), who tried to consider the state as a special geographical organism, formulated the term itself "geopolitics", characterizing one of the directions of his political actions.
The most notable contribution to the formation and development of geopolitics was made by English, German and American theorists. The Russians also left their mark on the development of this scientific direction, in particular, N. Danilevsky (“Russia and Europe”, 1869), S. Trubetskoy (“Europe and Humanity”, 1921), G. Trubetskoy (“Russia as a Great Power” , 1910), E. Trubetskoy (“War and the world task of Russia”, 1917). In their works, they investigated the correlation of historical and geographical principles in the political process, revealed the features of domestic strategic thinking in the international arena, showed the links between national and state interests and the values of the Russian people.
The most notable event in geopolitical research was the ideas of the English scientist X. Mackinder (1869-1947), who in his works "Physical foundations of political geography" (1890) and "Geographical axis of history" (1904) formulated the concept of "Heartland", which had a significant impact on the entire subsequent history of geopolitics. In his opinion, the part of the land, artificially divided into Asia, Africa and Europe, is a "world island", which is the "natural location of power." At that time, its core was the Russian Empire with part of the adjacent territories of Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and some other countries that were separated from the countries of the "inner crescent" (which included the states of the Eurasian continent that did not belong to its mainland) and the "outer crescent" (Australia , America and a number of other countries). This "middle land", or Heartland (Eurasia), impenetrable to the influence of maritime empires, was the "axis of world politics." And the one who, according to Mackinder, controlled the Heartland, also controlled the "world island" and, therefore, the whole world. Such ideas consolidated the advantage of the land powers in the existing world balance of power in relation to the maritime and oceanic states. However, this position of the latter should have encouraged them to weaken the power of the countries controlling the Heartland, preventing, in particular, their access to the sea and the unification of the largest states in the given territory (in particular, Germany and Russia), contributing to the fragmentation of states in this space and the creation opposing blocs and coalitions. In addition to substantiating such global geopolitical alignments, Mackinder also formulated the proposition that in the future the alignment of political forces in the world can significantly change the development of technologies that can actively modify the physical environment. Therefore, the decisive world influence should remain with those countries that encourage invention and technical progress, and are also able to organize the entire social system in the most optimal way for this. A number of German scientists, in particular F. Ratzel (1844-1901) and K. Haushofer (1868-1945), offered their own vision of the geopolitical realities of that era, significantly different from the views of the representative of Great Britain, who dreamed of the rise of the former greatness of the “mistress of the seas”. So, Ratzel in his work "Political Geography" (1897) formulated a number of provisions that later formed the basis of the expansionist aspirations of Germany, which had turned from an agrarian into an industrial power. Thus, considering the state as an organism operating according to biological laws, whose vital components are determined by “the position of the country, space and borders”, he believed that the condition for maintaining its viability is the build-up of political power, the essence of which is territorial expansion and expansion of “living space” . Therefore, German politicians should develop their "gift of colonization" in order to gain the country's former power. Taking as a basis the idea of expanding living space, which should guarantee the state from autarky and dependence on neighbors, Haushofer tried to substantiate the idea that the conquest of new territories and gaining freedom in this way is an indicator of the greatness of the state. He recognized the absorption of small states by larger ones as the most important way of territorial expansion of his power. It was on these ideas of the Munich professor that the leadership of Nazi Germany developed its "geopolitical axes" of attacking neighboring states and creating the "Third Reich". It is characteristic that, according to Haushofer, "neither continental nor naval power alone will create a world power," therefore, its "creation depends on a combination of these two factors." A significant innovation in Haushofer's geopolitical constructions can be considered the position he put forward, according to which only powers capable of producing certain "panideas" can occupy a dominant position in the world, in particular, American, Asian, Russian, Pacific, Islamist and European. It is this spiritual framework that gives the territorial claims of states their due strength and justification for their actions.
By the middle of the 20th century, in the conditions of a territorially divided world, the emphasis in geopolitical doctrines was mainly shifted to ensuring security, both for individual states and for the world as a whole. An American scientist put forward his own view on the geopolitical prospects of the “finished world” N. Spikeman (1893-1944), who proceeded from the fact that global security in the world can be ensured by controlling the "continental border", i.e. coastal states of Europe and Asia, located between the continental core and the seas. This space represented, in his opinion, a zone of constant conflict between continental and maritime powers. And the one who will control this rimland (coast), he will exercise control over Eurasia and the whole world. As an ardent supporter of the expansion of American influence in the world, Spykman developed the concept of dominance on the world stage by "oceanic" powers. He argued that the need to build a global security system in the world made these countries, and primarily the United States, face the need to solve primarily technological problems (for example, the creation of ground-based military bases on the mainland, the comprehensive development of transport communications, which make it possible to timely move people and resources), which, as expected, would allow creating a containment "hoop" around the continental core in order to fully control the corresponding space. In fact, Spykman tried not only to justify the leading role of the United States in the post-war order of the world, but also became the first theorist to construct a geopolitical concept of the behavior of this superpower in the international arena.
A major contribution to the development of geopolitical ideas was made by J. Rosenau, who put forward the concept that the world of global politics began to take shape of two intersecting worlds: first, a polycentric world, in which, along with states, various corporate structures and even individuals began to operate and which began to contribute to the creation of new ties and relationships in world politics; and secondly, the traditional structure of the world community, where the main position is occupied by nation-states. The intersection of these two worlds demonstrates the dispersal of power resources, the emergence of opposing tendencies, for example: the growth of an individual's ability to analyze the political world is combined with the extreme complexity of political relationships, the erosion of traditional authorities is adjacent to the strengthening of the role of civilizational principles in justifying the policy of states, the search for identity goes along with constant reorientation political loyalties, etc. At the same time, according to Rosenau, the decentralization of international relations and relations, and most importantly, the blurring of the concept of "power" and, as a result, a change in the content and meaning of the concept of "security threat" have become recognized factors in this world. In the 60-80s. In the 20th century, geopolitical theories were practically not used to substantiate and explain new geographic configurations, to expand spheres of influence and expansion of representatives of the two warring blocs. The "iron fist policy" pursued by the United States in Vietnam and other parts of the world, or the USSR's aggression in Afghanistan, were justified mainly by ideological provisions. And only since the mid-80s. (mainly in American science) geopolitical justifications for foreign policy actions began to be re-constructed.
In modern conditions, interpretations of geopolitical principles have received a new development, they have been significantly enriched. So, S. Huntington considers the dispute of civilizations as a source of geopolitical conflicts. The concept of the “golden billion”, according to which only a limited number of people can get the benefits of civilization due to the lack of world resources, predicts an aggravation of interstate conflicts over resources and territory, while emphasizing the need for prosperous states to create artificial obstacles in relations with less developed countries . Along with such confrontational forecasts, a number of politicians and theorists offer a “non-polar” interpretation of a world based on universal harmony and cooperation of states, put forward models like a “common European home”, which imply the creation of a system of collective security for states and peoples that exist in an interconnected, nuclear-free and interdependent world.
Significant changes are also taking place in the interpretation of the geopolitical principles themselves, which have begun to be applied to the analysis of domestic political processes.
2. The geopolitical processes taking place in the world have sharply raised the question of Russia's place in the new world order. This question is answered differently in the west and east. Almost all Western political scientists pay attention to the constant instability that characterizes the relationship between Russia and Europe, Russia and the West. And they explain this instability with four structural geopolitical trends:
First, in terms of its territory, population and natural resources, Russia surpasses any European state: its main problem has always been the efficient use of these huge reserves;
Secondly, throughout history, Russia did not have clearly defined borders both in the west and in the east, which pushed it to constant expansion in order to stabilize the peripheral regions: however, this did not solve the problem, but, on the contrary, deepened it, since it was created new periphery;
Thirdly, between Russia and the great European powers there have always been small politically weak states, which also strengthened the expansionist mood in Russia, the desire to establish itself to the west;
Fourth, geographically, as well as politically and culturally, Russia is located between Europe and Asia, as a result of which it has never felt completely belonging to either one or the other.
In addition, the Russian cultural tradition played a significant role. Awareness of the fact of constant technological lagging behind the West led to serious contradictions. From the recognition of this fact, it was concluded that it was necessary to use his achievements to modernize the Russian economy, but at the same time, Russia has always been afraid of the negative impact of Western values on society and culture, which limited the possibilities of technological cooperation. At the end of the 19th century, the first of two main stages of creative self-awareness of Russia's geostrategic place began. The most important contribution to it was made by S.M. Solovyov, V.O. Klyuchevsky, A.P. Shchapov, B.N. Chicherin, I.L. Solonevich and others S.M. Solovyov proved the geographical predestination of the emergence of Russian statehood and the most intensive economic development of land in the center of the Central Russian Upland. Therefore, Moscow was destined to lead the unification of Russian lands and create a strong centralized state, thanks to the peculiarities of its geographical position. It was in the natural and climatic conditions of the area that he saw the decisive factor that influenced the nature of the activity and the form of organization of the population. The nature of this area, "stingy" for gifts, accustomed the inhabitants to perseverance and firmness, not promising an early reward for the labor invested. The nature of Russia, in comparison with Western Europe, Solovyov called the "stepmother", and not the "mother" for her people. From this, he concluded that the reasons for Russia's backwardness were determined by much more severe living conditions than those of the Western European peoples. The Russian people had to wage a fierce struggle for survival and, in the full sense of the word, win back living space from nature. This left a special imprint on the whole way of his life.
Further understanding of the geopolitical position of the country was developed in the works of the Eurasians. Creators Eurasianism were the philologist and historian Prince N.S. Trubetskoy (1890-1938), geographer and geopolitician A.N. Savitsky (1895-1968), son of the great Russian natural scientist - historian G.V. Vernadsky (1877-1973).
Historically, Russia has evolved as an empire, as a supranational state, and it is not surprising that spatial pulsation has become the way of its existence, when political borders either enclose a certain territorial community within Russian limits, or cut it off from the historical state core. In the process of forming the territory of the Russian state, the stability of the historical core was ensured through the absorption of unstable geopolitical zones and the incorporation of former opponents. Russia made a choice not in favor of an endless war with a restless neighbor and its temporary pacification, but in favor of annexing this neighbor, appeasing it in the intra-imperial space.
The messianic-globalistic foundations of Russian geopolitics are often associated with the activities of Elder Philotheus from the Pskov Spaso-Elizarov Monastery, who in 1510 formulated the concept of "Moscow-the third Rome" and this idea became the cornerstone of the Russian geopolitical tradition. Ivan the Terrible is considered the first Russian geopolitician. Under him, the main features and priorities of Russian geopolitics were established: the absorption of unstable geopolitical zones of former opponents (Kazan, Astrakhan, Siberia), the struggle for access to the sea (the Livonian wars for the Baltic states and the simultaneous activation of the open northern direction through the White Sea) began to assert traditionalist principles in state policy, first of all, conservative monarchism, connection, Orthodoxy with autocracy within the framework of the people's monarchy. The most characteristic feature of Russian geopolitics was its conservative orientation. Its most striking manifestation of this was the transformation of the country into a "European gendarme" after the organization of the "Holy Union" by Alexander I (act of September 14, 1815). In fact, Russia assumed the role of a geopolitical barrier to the spread of bourgeois-democratic forms of organizing political space through the conservation of the existing European regimes. A peculiar result of this course was the policy of Nicholas I. In 1848-1849, Russian troops entered Austria to suppress the Hungarian revolution and defend the power of the Habsburgs.
N.Ya. Danilevsky presented the direction pan-Slavism. The main content of this concept is the idea of Slavic unity, defended by its independence and originality. Danilevsky believes that an All-Slavic Federation with a center in Constantinople should appear in the world. This federation included only two Slavic-Orthodox states - the Russian Empire and the Kingdom of Bulgaria, one Slavic-Catholic (Kingdom of Czech-Moravian-Slovak) and one Yugoslav state, connecting both confessions (Kingdom of Serbo-Croat-Slavic). It also included the Orthodox, but non-Slavic, Kingdom of Romania and the Kingdom of Hellenism, and, to top it all off, the Kingdom of the Magyars. Obviously, the concept of N. Ya Danilevsky synthesized pan-Slavic tendencies with the ideas of pan-Orthodox unity and basically reflected Russian geopolitical ambitions in the western and southwestern direction, and so accurately that, in the end, it was implemented in the socialist community of European states.
At the beginning of the 20th century, as a result of revolutionary transformations and wars in Russia, a new geopolitical direction won - socialist continentalism. Formally denying any geopolitical content, in essence, it was anti-Atlanticism, which was embodied in the confrontation with the leading superpower of the Atlantic world. In this direction, the antagonism of the maritime and continental countries was resolved through the accomplishment of the world socialist revolution by the proletariat. In practice, socialism had to be built first in one country, and then in several. After the Second World War there was an expansion and complication of this geopolitical structure. In 1949, a Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) was established to coordinate economic, scientific and technical cooperation between the socialist countries, and in 1955 the Warsaw Pact Organization was a military-political organization that resisted Atlantic pressure. The world system of socialism included: the USSR, Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Albania, Mongolian People's Republic, China, Vietnam, Cuba. DPRK. In general, this system did not go beyond the Heartland and united the continental states. The efficiency and high stability of such a design was possible only in extreme conditions of direct power confrontation. The policy of peaceful coexistence between the two systems has been weakened and therefore manifested and aggravated the internal contradictions of the socialist camp.
In the mid-1980s, for the first time in the history of our country, the Atlantic geopolitical orientation became predominant. In the last century, geopoliticians talked about the "Anglo-Saxon" type of civilization or about capitalist, bourgeois democracy, in our time the term Atlanticism is more often used. It is understood as a whole system of geopolitical ideological, economic, informational and cultural relations, designed to preserve the world civilization of the countries of the northern sector of the Atlantic Ocean.
History has already raised the question of the possibility of preserving the integrity of Russia. In the context of the continuing Atlantic orientation, the country found itself "pushed" deep into the Eurasian continent, which resulted in a significant deterioration in its geopolitical position. Between it and Europe, a wide strip of newly created independent states of the Baltic States, Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova has formed, not counting the former socialist countries of Eastern Europe, many of which have not the best feelings for Russia. Its access to the open seas has significantly worsened - and after all, it has continuously fought for them throughout its history. This struggle had clear and precise geopolitical grounds: all the main rivers of Russia flow into either the Arctic Ocean or the Caspian impasse. The doom of elementary necessities of life - that's what prompted Russia to break through to the seas. Without them, she suffocated in her continental spaces.
In the current discussion within the country about the place of Russia in global geopolitics, three main areas can be distinguished:
a) atlantic
b) a departure from strong ties with the West and the choice of an "eastern alternative",
c) a balance between East and West, the use of advantages from communication with both while maintaining Russian identity.
In the 90s. sharply increased attention to the problem of Russia's national interests. The national interest includes a system of relations that combines the needs of the functioning and development of the nation-people as a single organism. It is based on the needs of society necessary for its development and functioning, the protection of the people from threats from other states and natural and climatic factors, as well as the maintenance of social peace and order within the country.
In the European political tradition, the two poles in the understanding of national interests belong to liberals and conservatives. The first explain civil society as their main carrier of private owners, the second - the state and its social spokesmen - the bureaucracy. In modern Russian political life, the leading trends are national conservative and national liberal. National conservatives see the priority task of politics in strengthening the economic and military-strategic position of the country in the world, seeing the most effective means of achieving this goal in the economic activity of the state. For national liberals, the needs and interests of civil society are a priority, the means of realizing which is the foreign policy activity of the state. National conservatives give priority to those factors of state policy that formulate the permanent interest of the nation, independent of changing circumstances, while national liberals are more interested in the changing parameters of national interest that can make adjustments to the political course of the state. Today, the most important geopolitical problem for Russia is the task of its survival. Since the most important of the geopolitical tasks now is no longer re-development, but at least the settlement of the Non-Chernozem zone of Russia. The process of depopulation has gained momentum in the Chernozem zone of the country. The issue of the country's survival is the implementation of the program for its development. Forgotten Siberia and the Far East are already seen as a sphere of interest for neighboring countries. The whole world is interested in the economic development of this region, with or without Moscow, this development will take place. The task of modern Russian geopolitics is to clearly and clearly formulate and rationally state the essence and main possible directions of these programs. It is clear that they must be connected with the direct influence of Russia on the Heartland through the maintenance of the geopolitical balance. On the eve of the information society, this influence should be, first of all, political, cultural, informational, civilizational and, last but not least, forceful.
3. A complex of global problems has a growing impact on world development, including international relations. These problems can be divided into the following main groups:
Problems predominantly of a socio-political nature: the prevention of nuclear war; ending the arms race; resolution of regional interstate conflicts; maintaining peace by establishing trust between peoples, creating a system of universal security;
Problems predominantly of a socio-economic nature: overcoming underdevelopment and related poverty and cultural backwardness; ensuring efficient production and reproduction of the world gross domestic product; search for ways to resolve the energy, raw materials and food crises; optimization of the demographic situation in developing countries; development for peaceful purposes of the near-Earth space and the World Ocean;
Socio-environmental problems caused by the deterioration of the natural habitat of people; ensuring environmental safety involves the development of resource- and energy-saving technologies, the creation of waste-free industries, the rationalization of land use, the preservation of unique natural areas, environmental monitoring, etc.;
Human problems: observance of social, economic and individual rights and freedoms; elimination of hunger, epidemic diseases; overcoming the alienation of man from nature, society, the state and the results of his own activity.
Global problems can only be solved by pooling the intellectual, material and financial resources of all mankind, which for the first time in history is beginning to realize its ancestral essence, the priority of universal human interests and values. This process has an impact on the sphere of international relations, on the development and implementation of foreign policy. It is accompanied by a reassessment of values, a rethinking of the essence and criteria of social progress. The prospects of mankind largely depend on finding a balance of their own and planetary interests.
geopolitics state attitude
- · Geopolitics - a scientific discipline / branch of knowledge that studies the interaction of politics with a system of non-political factors (economy, geographical location, demographic situation, climate, landscape).
- The relationship between space and politics - the doctrine of the dependence of political events on geographical conditions
- Synthetic field of knowledge, which lies at the junction of many sciences
- · a complex of geographical, historical, political and other factors interacting with each other and influencing the strategic potential of the state.
Any politics is primarily power relations. The subject of power is the one from whom the power comes, the object is the one who performs. Resources for the execution of power: - material; - power / institutional; - spiritual.
Direct transfer of power (see, hear and perform).
In large groups, power relations are determined by the concept of extension (forces must be applied to force them to exercise power). Geographic factor-Distance determines the behavior of the object. Extension mechanisms - technical means.
Geographical environment and climate affect the exercise of power.
Geographical space is our idea of the world around us, consisting of distance, geographical environment, climate, living conditions, etc.
The object of geopolitics is the whole complex of power relations at a distance. Geopolitical politics does not stop at state borders.
The end of the 19th - the beginning of the 20th century, the emergence of geopolitics.
- one). Cardinal changes in people's views on the world. There are no unknown spaces left.
- 2). All states by the end of the 19th century divided the whole world. Formation of colonial empires. There are no no man's territories.
The question arose about new forms of relations between states. The question of the possibility of forming global empires. How to prevent the collapse of these empires - this has become the object (subject) of geopolitics.
The idea of the interaction of the political sphere and the geographical one became the main one. The question of the nature of such influence, i.e. why geographic factors influence political relations and what is its nature.
- There are 2 main ways to solve this issue:
- 1. geographically determinism - Ratzel, Kjellen (later Haushofer).
It has been argued that geographic space and the geographic environment itself has a certain power capable of shaping the policy of the state. Direct influence. The nature of this force lies in the uniqueness of geographical space. That is, states are doomed to some kind of geographical fate. The fate of the state is determined by its geographical position.
2. Typical for authors of the late 19th - early 20th century. Rethinking the subject of geopolitics. They began to talk about the indirect, but indirect influence of geographical factors on the fate of the state. A predetermined fate has been replaced by the right to choose. A person can change the fate of the state, but still must take into account geographical factors for more effective actions.
For geopolitics, power relations are primary. Political Geography considers theory from various points of view, including political ones. Geopolitics is not possible where there are no people. P. Geography without people is even better, the presence / absence of a person does not matter, nothing depends on him.
- 2 levels of geopolitics:
- - fundamental. Explores political patterns.
- - geostrategy. Applied geopolitics, considers the application of patterns and specific political relations.
Geopolitics as a whole - science or ideology?
Nazi ideology. Using geopolitical constructs to justify certain actions. All this deprives geopolitics of its scientific component. Geopolitics is usually subjective. Haushofer, Kjellen asserted the truth of their theories. Doubting the truth - the search - distinguishes the concept from the ideology. Having arisen as a concept, it gradually turns into a science.
System of methods of geopolitics.
The main set of methods is adopted from politics, mo. General scientific methods (analysis, synthesis, induction, comparison, deduction).
Specific:
- - geographic determinism. From this method, geopolitics grew as a scientific concept.
- - biological method (organicist). Goes back to the body of Herbert Spencer. Tried to liken society to a living organism. F. Ratzel pointed out that the state is a living organism rooted in the soil.
- - systems approach
- - structural and functional
- - the presumption of state loneliness. The interests of these communities lie at the basis of relations between states and peoples. The set of these interests determines the nature and orientation of peoples and states. Initially, there are no friends or enemies, there are only interests.
- - construction of geopolitical dichotomies (opposition). Heartland - Rimland (middle earth - marginal), talasocracy - telurocracy (opposition of the forces of water and earth), center - periphery.
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