The reasons for the successful conquests of the Mongol Tatars. Mongol conquests
The formation of the Mongol state and the Mongol conquests
1. Mongolia before the formation of the state.
2. Creation of the Mongolian state.
3. The main directions, reasons for success and consequences of the Mongol conquests.
1. Mongolia before the formation of the state
By the end of the 12th century, several large unions of Mongol tribes roamed over a vast area from the Great Wall of China to Southern Siberia, from the upper reaches of the Irtysh to the Amur.
Ethnonym " Mongol" in the shape of « mengu", "mengu-mo", "mengu-wa" - first found in the Chinese chronicles of the Tang Dynasty. So the Chinese called a group of "barbarians" (all the steppe peoples) who roamed their northern borders, which obviously reflected their self-name. The Chinese called the northern Mongolian tribes "black" Tatars , and the nomads adjacent to the Great Wall of China "White" Tatars . There is also such a concept as "wild" Tatars, applicable to peoples engaged in hunting and fishing and living in the most remote northern regions of Mongolia. From this it can be assumed that during this period the Tatars dominated the steppe. The steppe peoples included nomads three tribes (Manchu, Mongolian, Turkic), but all these nomads called themselves the general concept of "Tatals", hence the "Tatars". As they moved away from China, the influence of settled peoples on nomadic peoples had a weaker effect or was completely absent.
The natural conditions of Mongolia (steppes, mountain pastures) from ancient times determined the main occupation of the Mongols - nomadic cattle breeding, that is, the Mongols - nomads nomads. In the steppes of Central Asia, nomadic pastoralism emerged from the primitive complex agricultural-cattle-breeding-hunting economy.
Chinese Chan Chun described the habitats of the Tatar-Mongol as "a giant valley, the size of which is 7-8 months of travel in length and width, ... abounding in water and grass," where people and herds "today go, tomorrow they stand, where there is water and grass." In the XI century. a long period of drought has ended. This contributed to the shift of the boundaries of the steppe zone to the south to the Gobi desert, the growth in the number of livestock and especially the population.
The main element of the Mongolian society was the clan headed by the steppe aristocracy (bagaturs, noyons 3). The clan jointly owned nomadic lands, performed religious rites. In the minds of most of the Mongols, the notion of collective responsibility for each member of the clan was stable. Joint farming and nomadism was called smoking (the camp-kuren was arranged around the yurt of the tribal elder and could number up to a thousand wagons, i.e. families)
Natives of the clan, who did not want to accept the rules of behavior and life within the team, became "people of long will." These people united in organized detachments under the leadership of military leaders. "People of long will" along with the Mongolian clans were a powerful force in the steppe.
The Mongols had tribal associations, which by the indicated time were not so much ethnic as political communities. Each of these associations had its own leader - Khan . As a rule, the khans at that time were already hereditary rulers, although the electoral system of the era of military democracy continued to exist, when the khan as a military leader was chosen by representatives of the tribal aristocracy. Sources indicate that in the XI-XII centuries. in Mongolian society, the steppe nobility stood out - “noyons”, people of the “white bone”. They bore special titles: "Bogatyr", "Sharpshooter", "Strongman", "Wise", etc.
From the second half of the XII century. the rivalry of individual aristocratic families for power, for the distribution of pastures, the removal of other people's herds and the kidnapping of brides of "foreign bone" intensified. Iranian scientist, vizier of the Mongolian Ilkhans, Rashid ad-Din (12471318) reports: “Each tribe had a sovereign and an emir. Most of the time they fought and fought each other, quarreled and robbed each other.”
As a result of tribal enmity, as well as China's traditional policy of pitting nomads against each other to prevent their unification, robbery, theft, arbitrariness, lawlessness, and adultery have become commonplace. Thus, the need for political unification became obvious.
Even at the end of the XII century. Temujin (1154/1162(?) -Aug. 25, 1227), the son of Khan Yesugei, stood out among the Mongols, who experienced many disasters after the death of his father: childhood in the struggle of small nomads; in his youth, he was a prisoner in China, where he learned a lot, including learning about the weaknesses of the Middle Kingdom. He gathered young warriors ("people of long will"), who formed horde(team) and lived on military booty. They fought with their neighbors and accepted into their ranks everyone who was ready to submit to their way of life. Soon all the peoples of the Mongols submitted to the horde, and Temujin was proclaimed at the kurultai in 1206 (the year of the Tiger / Leopard) kaan , i.e. Genghis Khan ("Ocean Khan" - "Lord of the World"; in Turkic - Tengis Khan).
In the issue of unification, 2 trends emerged:
Most of the aristocracy preferred to unite at the level tribal confederation while maintaining their real power on the ground. But this could not ensure socio-political stability, because. tribal unions in Mongolia fell apart as quickly as they arose. This trend was driven by Jamukha , supported by the Tatars.
trend towards a highly centralized state the supporter of which was Genghis Khan, supported by the Mongols.
In a difficult war, Genghis Khan defeated the Tatars, almost completely exterminating them. Jamukha was executed. He persuaded the steppe aristocracy to create a state. Then Genghis Khan began the unification of the steppes. The internal struggle was very fierce and more difficult for the Mongols than subsequent external conquests.
These were typical steppe wars, after which the prisoners were boiled in cauldrons, "equated to the axis of the cart", pregnant women were ripped open. In Mongolian legends about this struggle it is written: “The starry sky used to turn. They didn’t lie down on the bed here, the mother wide earth shuddered - that’s what a pan-lingual strife was going on. Genghis Khan himself said that "the highest pleasure for a man is to defeat his enemies, drive them in front of him, take everything from them, see the faces of their loved ones in tears, squeeze their daughters and wives in the arms."
2. Creation of the Mongolian state
From 1206, the history of Mongolian statehood begins, which initially had an imperial tendency. The military character of the state was manifested in the oath taken to the Great Khan. The power of the Khan was also figuratively manifested in the rituals that accompanied the accession to the power of the Great Khan: the nearest nobles laid a sword in front of him, and he asked: “Is each of you ready to do what I command, go where I send, kill whom I will I order?" The nobles answered: "Ready." Then the Khan said to them: "From now on, let the word of my mouth be my sword."
The power of the Great Khan was also manifested in the fact that he was the ruler over life, death and property of each subject.
Factors hindering the peaceful development of the state:
During the process of centralization, nomadic pastoralism fell into decline, i.e. the basis of the economy. This pushed them to seize new herds and pastures from their neighbors.
The entire male population was mobilized into the army, trained in the art of war, aimed at war as the most effective means of acquiring material well-being.
Carrying out plans for aggressive campaigns, Genghis Khan, first of all, took up the military-administrative structure of the state.
The territory of Mongolia was divided into two parts: the left wing and the right wing, between which was the territory of Genghis Khan's own nomad camp. Such a division of the territory dates back to the time of the Huns and other tribal associations - the ancestors of the Mongols. Their experience greatly influenced the process of organizing the Mongol Empire.
Each of the three large districts (right and left wings and the center) was divided into "darkness" (10 thousand people), "thousands", "hundreds" and "tens". The territorial division corresponded to the principle of staffing the army, headed by tenth, sotsky, thousandths and temniks. of the best warriors, which played a huge role in strengthening the combat capability of the army. Companions of Genghis Khan were at the head of the territories, nukers and noyons .
Thus, Genghis Khan, having shown himself earlier as an outstanding commander, now showed himself as a talented organizer and politician. He turned the earlier warring tribes into a single powerful horde, placing it on a solid foundation. His domestic and foreign policy was aimed at protecting the interests of the noyonism. The administrative system also served these purposes. Under Genghis Khan, the city of Karakorum, the center of crafts and trade, became the capital of the empire.
Such a military-administrative structure of the state reflected the process of replacing former kinship ties with new administrative-territorial ones. Members of the former tribal collectives turned into vassals dependent on military leaders.
The positions of noyons (temniks, thousanders, centurions) were hereditary, but they did not have the right to own the nomad camp and the population that roamed on this land (they could not transfer or sell).
Relatives and closest associates of Genghis Khan received destinies and subjects for personal use. The latter were not included in the thousands and carried duties only in favor of their masters.
Such a mobile system of government was brought to life by the peculiar conditions of the aristocracy, which was looking for enrichment through military adventures and made it possible for Genghis Khan to mobilize the required number of soldiers at any time.
In addition to the power of the Khan, the Mongols were still subject to the harsh ancient law Great Yasa , which prescribed to each of the Horde members the observance of the basic rules of behavior and attitude towards their neighbors: deceit, failure to help a comrade in a war, strife between friends and any quarrels were especially severely punished.
Thus, the principles of the Mongol state laid down by Genghis Khan became the basis of the Mongol Empire. You can talk about " the dual nature of the "steppe empires" . Outwardly, they looked like despotic conquering states, because. were created to extract a surplus product outside the steppe. From the inside, these empires remained based on tribal ties without taxation and exploitation of pastoralists. The strength of the ruler's power was based on his ability to organize military campaigns and redistribute income from trade, tribute and raids on neighboring peoples.
3. Main directions, reasons for success and consequences of the Mongol conquests.
The history of the Mongolian state is the history of conquests. Reasons for the Mongol conquests:
The nomadic nobility lived by robbing their own people and neighboring peoples. Thus, robbery, primarily of non-Mongolian peoples, is the main source of enrichment for the nobility and the main reason for the Mongol conquests. From the Great Wall of China to the Hungarian border - a grassy-steppe space;
Genghis Khan was faced with the task of distracting the nobility from separatist tendencies, and keeping the created empire from rapid collapse. This could be achieved by plundering Eurasia;
In the conditions of the Mongolian state, it was necessary to divert the attention of the masses from the deteriorating situation. So, from the sources you can find out that many Mongol warriors and cattle breeders did not have horses. A nomad without a horse in the conditions of the XIII-XIV centuries was neither a warrior nor even a shepherd. The impoverishment of the vast majority of the Mongols was a widespread phenomenon. At times, vagrancy was not only widespread among them, but also took on a huge scale.
In terms of the scale of expansion and the consequences of the Tatar-Mongol invasion, it can only be compared with the invasion of the Huns.
With a relatively small army, the Mongol expansion was carried out like a fan in 3 directions:
southeastern - China, Korea, Japan, Indochina, Java.
southwestern - Central Asia, Iran, the Caucasus, the Arab Caliphate.
northwestern - Russia, Europe.
The first blow Genghis Khan brought down southbound , on the state of the Tanguts, Xi-Xia and Jin. The first blows against the Tangut state were delivered in 1205; in 1207 and 1209 - the second and third campaigns against the Tanguts. As a result of the victories of the Mongols, the Tanguts were forced to make peace with them and pay a large indemnity. Since 1211 campaigns against the Jurchens (in 1215 Beijing was taken).
In 1218 it was announced western hike, which was preceded by victories over the Kara-Khitans and the tribes of Southern Siberia. The main goals of the western campaign were the rich territories and cities of Central Asia (the state of Khorezmshah, Bukhara, Samarkand), which was conquered in 1222. The development of this direction led the Mongols to the Caucasus, to the southern Russian steppes.
Thus, Northern China (1211-1234) and Central Asia were hit hardest when Mongol expansion was on the rise. Northern China literally turned into a desert (a contemporary wrote: “Traces of terrible devastation were visible everywhere, the bones of the dead made up whole mountains: the soil was loose from human fat, the rotting of corpses caused diseases”).
AT Central Asia everything that resisted was subjected to a "general massacre" ("katliamm"). Rashid ad-Din wrote that Genghis Khan gave the order to kill every living creature from any kind of people and any breed of cattle, wild animals and birds, not to take a single prisoner and no prey. Here, most of the cities were subjected to a "general massacre."
By 1233, some areas were conquered Iran and about the same time -
1236 - completed the conquest Caucasus;
1256 The Mongols re-invaded Iran as a result of which the valleys of Western Asia turned into a desert;
1258 - fell Abbasid Caliphate and Baghdad, the largest city on earth, was taken, which also underwent a "general massacre."
Only the Mameluks managed to defeat the Mongol detachment in Palestine (1260), thereby protecting Egypt from the Mongol invasion. It was a victory comparable to the victory of Charles Martel over the Arabs at Poitiers, because. it marked a turning point in repelling the wave of invasion.
Starting with the conquest of Russia (1237), we can talk about the gradual attenuation of the Mongol expansion. At the turn of the expansion, between 1237 and 1241. The Mongols invaded Europe. Their onslaught, as in Asia, was cruel and intimidating. Having devastated Russia, southern Poland and a significant part of Hungary, in Silesia they destroyed the army of German knights (1241) near the city of Legnica, west of the Oder River.
From Western Europe, the Mongols began to retreat in 1241/42, despite the fact that all the battles of 1241-1242. have been won. Khan Batu (Khan of the Golden Horde from 1243 to 1255; grandson of Genghis Khan) did not meet powerful organized resistance in Europe. Apparently, only the problems associated with the choice of a successor to Genghis Khan (after the death of Khan Ogedei) forced the leaders of the Mongols to turn east after this victory. Khan Batu understood that he could not keep Poland, Hungary and the lands of the southern Slavs under his rule. By 1243, all the Mongol armies were withdrawn beyond the Carpathians. From Hungary, they managed to collect tribute only once.
In the 40s. 13th century Batu Khan created the Tatar-Mongolian state Golden Horde (Western Siberia; northern Khorezm; Volga Bulgaria; Crimea; steppes from the Volga to the Danube). Capital Cities : Sarai-Batu (Old Saray; modern Astrakhan region); Sarai-Berke (from the 1st half of the 14th century; New Saray; modern Volgograd region). The Russian principalities were in vassal dependence on the Golden Horde. From the 15th century the empire broke up into Siberian, Astrakhan, Kazan, Crimean and other khanates.
The extreme western limits of the invasion turned out to be the German city of Meissen and the countryside in Austria, where the Mongol detachment killed up to a hundred peasants.
Under Khubilai (1278-1294; 5th Great Khan), Mongol expansion reached extreme southern and eastern points: prolonged conquest of Vietnam, unsuccessful campaigns in Japan, unsuccessful invasion of the island of Java (resolute resistance of the people). Thus, the Mongol Empire could only exist as long as it was at war:
only conquests held it together.
Reasons for the success of the Mongol conquests: Reasons for internal order:
The military and diplomatic talent of Genghis Khan. Genghis Khan himself was remarkable for his amazing ability to adapt to unfamiliar conditions and willingly used Chinese and Muslim-Turkic "specialists" in his army. He organized a magnificent "service of informers", and merchants of all nationalities and religions delivered a lot of information to him, whom he encouraged in every possible way. Genghis Khan also succeeded in the cold-blooded, thoughtful use of diplomatic measures and military force in accordance with the circumstances. All these qualities allowed Genghis Khan, his gifted sons, grandchildren and military leaders to continuously win victories over the next enemy.
ideological justification the conquests of Genghis Khan was the idea of his being chosen by the Eternal Sky as the khan of all peoples;
The social homogeneity of Mongolian society and the relative weakness of antagonism within it;
The presence of cavalry. In the steppe, a man is inseparable from a horse and a saber (“human centaur”). Horses were decorated with blankets made of human skin, and the skulls of dead enemies were hung from the saddles. In the steppe you have to kill first - otherwise they will kill you → you need to train in the ability to kill every day.
Under the command of Genghis Khan was an excellently organized and disciplined army; it consisted of horse archers and had exceptional mobility (up to 150 km per day) combined with superiority in long-range weapons. (Army of Genghis Khan≈129 thousand, Batu≈142 thousand); if a warrior fled from the battlefield, a dozen were punished; 10 people retreated - a hundred were punished. The army created by Genghis Khan was a decisive factor in the success of the relatively small ethnos of the Mongols.
The Mongol conquests, which crushed the civilization of the Middle Ages, became possible thanks to a fundamental discovery - Mongolian bow("saadak"). It was a complex killing machine, glued together from bone and wood of various kinds. An arrow from this bow pierced any armor for 400 meters. The Mongols taught children from the age of 3 to the bow, gradually increasing its size.
A variety of tactics used depending on specific conditions:
mercy tactics in surrender; the tactics of encircling a large area with several detachments and moving towards their center, surrounding and squeezing the enemy;
The empire of Genghis Khan united the military forces of the largest part of the nomads of Central Asia (not only Mongolian, but also many Turkic, Manchu, Tungus, etc.).
Numerous, solidarity, submission to the power of one khan, who was the sovereign ruler over life and death, the person and property of all his subordinates.
Causes of the external order
The fragmentation of the conquered territories, the rulers of which were afraid to arm the people against the Mongols;
The betrayal of the merchants, which was a cosmopolitan force (informers, spies, guides for military detachments);
Crowd tactics (forward civilians, then Mongol warriors).
Consequences of the Mongol conquests
Describing the consequences of the Mongol conquests, Yelü Chutsai, who literally saved China from extermination, wrote: "The heavenly network was torn, the earth's axis was broken, human justice disappeared."
As a result of the conquests by Genghis Khan, his sons and grandsons, an empire was created, unprecedented in size (from Korea in the East to Syria in the West; including the territory of Central Asia, China, the Caucasus, Afghanistan, Iran). The cities of Russia were burned and taxed; devastating raids were made on Hungary, Drake, Moravia and Poland.
The consequences of the invasions were different for different regions: they were the most severe for Central Asia (huge human losses, destruction of the irrigation system). They were heavy for China, especially northern. But here we can also talk about assimilation :
Khubilai's heirs learned the basics of Chinese culture, including language and writing. In particular, the whale. lang. the biography of Genghis Khan was translated (only this translation has survived to this day). But for the indigenous population, they remained strangers;
In the XIV century. the rulers of various parts of the Mongol Empire adopted Buddhism or Islam. This meant that in fact they were subjugated by the cultures in which they lived - Chinese, Persian or Arabic.
If we talk about Russia, then here we should talk, first of all, about the grave consequences in terms of spirituality. In present time there is a controversy: “Was there a yoke?”. Most major historians are supporters of the traditional point of view that the Mongol invasion played a completely negative role in the history of the Russian people. Others: Consequences both negative and positive. Thirdly, the consequence was the formation of an empire and an imperial space.
Metaphor: nomads are not only children, but also fathers of the desert. This fully applies to the Mongols, especially in relation to Northern China, Central Asia.
The territory of Mongolia was largely affected (after the creation of the empire, the population of Mongolia decreased sharply; the color of the Mongolian population settled throughout the continent). The aggressive policy slowed down not only the progressive development of the conquered countries, but also the development of the productive forces and culture of Mongolia itself. The Mongol Empire, created by fire and sword, on the blood of enslaved peoples, torn apart by internal contradictions, did not have a single economic base, in the end, fell under the blows of the conquered peoples.
In the period preceding the formation of statehood among the Mongols, the tribes that lived here had their own names and were not called Mongols.
To the "black" Tatars, most researchers include the Mongols 3 Bagatur - warrior; noyon - master; representative of the steppe nobility.
During this period, the Mongols are pagans.
Kurultai ˂Turk. - advice of nomadic nobility.
Kaan is the Mongolian name for Chinese emperors.
Meritum ˂ lat. - merit, cratos ˂ Gr. - power.
Nuker - a native of the aristocracy, a vassal of the emperor, primarily indebted to military service
Jochi since 1224 he was the khan of the Jochi ulus in the west of the Mongol Empire (the territory of northern Kazakhstan); since 1240 the Golden Horde; Chagatai(received Central Asia as an inheritance); Ogedei(eldest son of Genghis Khan; 1186-1241; from 1229 successor to the Great Khan); Tuluy(youngest son; ruler of central and western Mongolia).
An extensive scientific literature is devoted to the Mongol-Tatar invasion and the Mongol period in our history. Of the works of authors who wrote about the Mongol-Tatar ruin of Russia, the books of V.
V. Kargalova: "Mongol-Tatar invasion of Russia in the XIII century."; "The overthrow of the Mongol-Tatar yoke"; "The End of the Horde Yoke". In them, the author analyzes the events of the period of the Mongol invasion, shows the balance of power between the Mongols and Russia, considers the tragic consequences of the Golden Horde yoke.
In the historiography of this problem, presented by the multi-volume works of S. M. Solovyov, N. M. Karamzin, V. O. Klyuchevsky, as well as in later historical literature, the Mongol-Tatar attack on Russia is considered as an invasion of conquerors who established their three-hundred-year yoke. LN Gumilyov presented an unconventional view of these events, far beyond the limits of the prevailing ideas, in his book "From Russia to Russia". In it, L. N. Gumilyov came to the conclusion that there was no ruin of Russia by Batu, there was no Horde yoke, and ancient Russia acted in alliance with the Golden Horde. These two extreme concepts of the Mongol-Tatar invasion have found their place in modern science, there are their supporters and opponents. However, the system of state administration of the ancient Russian lands during this period did not find its special consideration in these works. It cannot be considered without showing the course of the historical process in our Fatherland in the 13th-14th centuries.
Traditionally, the development of historical events of the specified time begins to be considered from the reasons for the Mongol conquest. We will try not to focus on them, referring readers to the available literature, where these reasons are shown widely and thoroughly. We state only the fact that the Mongols in the canal of the XIII century. in a short time they subjugated Northern China, the Siberian peoples, conquered Central Asia. The successes of the Mongols sometimes seem amazing. This people, with a total number of no more than two million people, by the middle of the 13th century. managed to create the largest state in world history, stretching from the Black Sea to the Pacific Ocean.
The main reason for such successes was not only the strength of the Mongol-Tatars, but also the weakness of their opponents, who were going through a period of feudal fragmentation. By the time of the first, so far, reconnaissance campaign in Eastern Europe, which began in 1222, the Mongols had vast combat experience and “perfectly practiced tactics of action. The Italian Franciscan monk Plano Carpini, sent by the Pope as a scout and missionary to the Horde in 1245, told about the tactics of the conquerors and their way of life in the most detailed way from medieval authors. Carpini left the book "History of the Mongols", included in the collection "For the Russian Land . Century XIII". From it we learn that the Mongol army was divided into tumens (in Russian translation - "darkness") - ten thousandth parts, thousands, hundreds, tens. In all these units there was a strict discipline: in the event of a flight of one, the entire ten were killed, in the event of a flight of a dozen, a hundred were killed, etc. Thus, a kind of mutual responsibility was created in the army. The same paramilitary system was adopted in the state administration of the Mongol-Tatars.
Just such an enemy, cruel, treacherous and disciplined, appeared in 1223 on the borders of the Russian land. Historians give interesting calculations of the number of Mongol-Tatar troops. In pre-revolutionary historiography, the size of the horde was determined at three hundred thousand people.
The determination of the number of soldiers who came to Russia was based on an analysis of the mobilization capabilities of the Mongol empire. But it is known that each Mongol warrior had at least three horses. A million horses in the winter on the lands of North-Eastern Russia had nothing to feed. Therefore, modern researchers are inclined to believe that Batu brought to Russia in 1237 no more than forty thousand horsemen.
We did not set ourselves the task of reviewing the course of the Mongol-Tatar invasion. He is quite famous, starting from the storming of Ryazan and ending with a campaign in Western Europe. We confine ourselves to the results of this invasion, which are of paramount importance for the entire system of state power and administration in Ancient Russia.
Figuratively, VL Yanin summed up the results of the Mongol-Tatar invasion in one of his articles. Without giving his article in your own words, we present the fragment in full.
"There is no era in the history of medieval Russia more terrible than the tragic thirteenth century. Our past was cut in two by a crooked Tatar saber. And for contemporaries of the Mongol invasion, the horrors of the bloody devastation of Russia became the starting point of time. Even then, as now, mentioning this or that event , we say: it happened before the Mongol invasion or after it.
Archaeologists see in the earth a terrible trace left by the conquerors. Sometimes he appears before them as a black coal layer of a conflagration. And often such a layer is the last in a series of layers; above it is a pine forest or arable land, and in itself - countless remnants of the dead, which there was no one to remove.
The consequences of the yoke were truly terrible. V. V. Kargalov in his book "The overthrow of the Mongol-Tatar yoke" cites the following of them:
1. Destruction of cities. A city like Ryazan has ceased to exist at all in its old place. Modern Ryazan is the ancient town of Pereyaslav-Ryazansky, founded in the 11th century. It becomes the new capital of the principality, and the name is transferred to it. Now, on the site of the once flourishing city, there is a settlement overgrown with bushes. According to archaeologists, of the 74 cities known from the splits. Russia of the XII-XIII centuries. 49 were devastated by Batu, and in 24 life did not resume, and 15 turned into villages.
2. The disappearance of entire craft specialties. In ancient Russia, for example, glassmaking was known. In Moscow Russia, it was revived only at the end of the 17th century. with the help of Italian and German masters. The reason for the decline of the craft is the withdrawal of many Russian craftsmen to the Horde, their death during the storming of cities by the Mongols. As you know, the secrets of craftsmanship in the Middle Ages were a secret and were passed down from father to son. There was no one to hand them over to those who were killed or died in a foreign land.
3. The burning of many villages and villages, and as a result, the desolation of fields, the reduction of sown areas.
4. Violation of traditional trade routes, combined with the ruin of cities, led to a sharp reduction in foreign trade, led to the foreign economic isolation of Russia.
Many more painful and deplorable consequences can be named. But it was not only the ruin during the invasion. The yoke of the state created by the conquerors - the Golden Horde - was established over Russia. This yoke had an impact on the management system of the ancient Russian lands. This system of government contributed to the fact that the Russian people, under the yoke, not only retained their national independence, but also found the strength to forever expel the hated oppressors from their native places.
More on the topic 3.1. Causes and consequences of the Mongol-Tatar conquest.:
- Chapter 3. The system of state and local government during the Mongol-Tatar yoke and the Golden Horde (XIII-XIY centuries)
Mongolian nomadic tribes were at the stage of decomposition of the tribal system. By the beginning of the XIII century. Genghis Khan managed to create a huge steppe empire, the size of which was not equal in history
Reasons for conquests
1. The desire of the tribal nobility to enrich themselves.
2. Acquisition of new pastures.
3. Ensuring the security of their own borders.
4. Gaining control over trade caravan routes.
5. Receiving tribute from the countries of agricultural and urban culture.
Conquests and campaigns of the Mongols
1223 - the defeat of Russian troops in the battle with the Mongols on the Kalka River.
Batu's campaign and the beginning of the Mongol-Tatar yoke
After the defeat of the Volga Bulgaria, at the end of 1237, aty fell upon the principalities of North-Eastern Russia. During the assault on Russian cities, the conquerors made extensive use of the military-technical achievements of the conquered peoples, mainly China - wall-beating guns and throwing machines. One by one, almost all the cities of North-Eastern Russia were captured and destroyed - Ryazan, Vladimir, Suzdal. In March 1238, in the battle on the City River, the conquerors defeated the squad of the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yuri Vsevolodovich. Then Batu moved to Novgorod, but before reaching it 100 miles, the hordes of conquerors turned back.
The retreat of Batu was caused primarily by the enormous losses suffered by his army on the campaign. Not a single Russian city surrendered without a siege and assault. When the Mongols returned, the small town of Kozelsk appeared on their way. The defense of the city against the many times superior enemy forces lasted seven weeks.
The reason for the victories of the conquerors was, first of all, their huge numerical superiority. According to historians, Batu brought 120-140 thousand soldiers to Russia. All Russian lands, including Novgorod, could put up no more than 30-40 thousand warriors, and most of them were not professional combatants, but city militias. But these forces also acted in isolation.
Having received reinforcements from the east, Batu continued his march to the west. Chernigov and Pereyaslavl were destroyed. In 1240 Kyiv fell after the siege. Then Baty with fire and sword walked through the Galicia-Volyn land, defeated Hungary, Poland, Croatia. The army of knights sent to meet the Mongols by the emperor of Germany was defeated. And yet, in 1242, Batu turned back. Western Europe was saved from the horrors of the Mongol devastation because Russia took the brunt of it.
In the lower reaches of the Volga, Batu founded the capital of his state - the city of Sarai. The state of Batu and his successors was called the Golden Horde. Here in 1243 all the surviving Russian princes, who were at the head of the devastated lands, were called. From the hands of Batu they received labels - letters of administration. So Russia fell under the yoke - vassal dependence on the Golden Horde, became one of its uluses.
The Russian principalities retained internal self-government, but their rulers were subordinate to the khans in everything. The main expression of the yoke was the heaviest tribute levied on each inhabitant - men. To determine the amount of tribute, the conquerors conducted a population census (number). The actions of the princes and the serviceability of the tribute were observed by the representatives of the khans - the Baskaks.
Reasons for the defeat of Russia in the fight against the Mongol-Tatars
1. Feudal fragmentation and strife between the princes.
2. The superiority of the Mongols in the art of war, the presence of an experienced and numerous army.
The consequences of the Mongol-Tatar yoke
1. The ruin of Russian lands and cities influenced the formation of the features of the Russian centralized state: the strengthening of the personal power of the Grand Duke and the powerlessness of the feudal lords.
2. Huge population decline
3. Deportation of the population into slavery - undermining the economy and culture.
4. The growth and strengthening of the Russian Orthodox Church, which learned the support and protection of the Horde khans.
The struggle of Russia against the aggression of the Swedish and German knights
Russia's western neighbors intended to take advantage of its defeat. As early as the beginning of the 13th century. German crusader knights appeared in the Baltic States, members of various spiritual and chivalric orders. Under the pretext of introducing the local tribes to Christianity, they began their enslavement. The Baltic tribes before the arrival of the knights paid tribute to the Russian princes. Therefore, these princes led at the beginning of the XIII century. waged numerous wars with the conquerors.
The Mongol invasion allowed the Crusaders to firmly gain a foothold in the Baltic. Here a state of knights arose - the Teutonic Order, the eastern part of which was called the Livonian Order. At the call of the Pope, the Order launched an offensive against Russia. The rulers of Sweden acted in alliance with the Order.
In 1240, a large detachment of Swedes on ships entered the Neva River, the banks of which were the possessions of Novgorod. The city was then ruled by the 20-year-old son of the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yaroslav (brother of Yuri who died in the City) Alexander. With a small squad of Novgorodians, he quickly covered the distance from Novgorod to the mouth of the Neva Izhora tributary, where the Swedes set up their camp. On the morning of July 15, 1240, the Russians attacked the enemy and defeated him. This victory in a small battle had a huge resonance in Russia. In the face of terrible defeats, it was a ray of hope. Prince Alexander received the nickname "Nevsky".
The following year, the knights of the Teutonic Order launched an offensive against Russian lands: they occupied Pskov and built the fortress of Koporye. Alexander Nevsky with a retinue from the Vladimir-Suzdal principality and the Novgorodians took Koporye and liberated Pskov. Then he entered the territory of the Order.
On April 5, 1242, on the ice of Lake Peipus, the Russian army inflicted a crushing defeat on the crusaders. This battle went down in history as the Battle of the Ice and brought Alexander Nevsky the glory of an outstanding commander of the Middle Ages.
The victories of the Russian troops prevented attempts to impose Catholicism on Russia. The Teutonic and Livonian Orders abandoned aggressive plans in relation to the Russian lands.
Questions for self-control
1. List the reasons for the successful conquests of the Mongol-Tatar army.
2. What are the reasons for Russia falling under the Horde yoke.
3. How was the yoke expressed?
4. What are the consequences of the yoke for Russia?
5. Why was Russia able to withstand the onslaught from the West?
6. Make a historical portrait of Alexander Nevsky as a ruler, commander.
THE INVASION OF THE MONGOLO-TATARS INTO RUSSIA, 1237-1240
In 1237, the 75,000-strong army of Batu Khan invaded Russian borders. The hordes of the Mongol-Tatars, the well-armed army of the Khan's empire, the largest in medieval history, came to conquer Russia: to wipe out the rebellious Russian cities and villages from the face of the earth, to impose tribute on the population and to establish the power of their governors, the Baskaks, on the entire expanse of Russian land.
The attack of the Mongol-Tatars on Russia was sudden, but not only this determined the success of the invasion. For a number of objective reasons, power was on the side of the conquerors, the fate of Russia was a foregone conclusion, as was the success of the Mongol-Tatar invasion.
Russia by the beginning of the 13th century is a country torn into small principalities, without a single ruler and army. Behind the Mongol-Tatars, on the contrary, stood a strong and united power, approaching the peak of its power. Only a century and a half later, in 1380, in different political and economic conditions, Russia was able to put up a strong army against the Golden Horde, led by a single commander - the Grand Duke of Moscow Dmitry Ivanovich and move from a shameful and unsuccessful defense to active military operations and achieve a devastating victory on the Kulikovo field.
About any unity of the Russian land in 1237-1240. there was no question, the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars showed the weakness of Russia, the invasion of the enemy and the power of the Golden Horde, which had been established for two and a half centuries, the Golden Horde yoke became retribution for internecine enmity and the violation of all-Russian interests by the Russian princes, who were too carried away by the satisfaction of their political ambitions.
The Mongol-Tatar invasion of Russia was swift and merciless. In December 1237, the Batu army burned Ryazan, and on January 1, 1238, Kolomna fell under the onslaught of the enemy. During January - May 1238, the Mongol-Tatar invasion incinerated the Vladimir, Pereyaslav, Yuryev, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Uglitsky and Kozelsky principalities. In 1239, it was destroyed by Mur, a year later, residents of cities and villages of the Chernigov Principality faced the misfortune of the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars, in September - December 1240, the ancient capital city of Russia - Kyiv was conquered.
After the defeat of North-Eastern and Southern Russia, the countries of Eastern Europe were subjected to the Mongol-Tatar invasion: Batu's army won a number of major victories in Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, but, having lost significant forces on Russian soil, returned to the Volga region, which became the epicenter of the powerful Golden Horde.
With the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars to Russia, the Golden Horde period of Russian history began: the era of the dominion of the eastern despotism, the oppression and ruin of the Russian people, the period of the decline of the Russian economy and culture.
The beginning of the Mongol conquests of the Russian principalities
In the XIII century. the peoples of Russia had to endure a hard struggle with Tatar-Mongol conquerors who ruled in the Russian lands until the 15th century. (the last century in a milder form). Directly or indirectly, the Mongol invasion contributed to the fall of the political institutions of the Kyiv period and the growth of absolutism.
In the XII century. there was no centralized state in Mongolia; the union of the tribes was achieved at the end of the 12th century. Temuchin, the leader of one of the clans. At a general meeting (“kurultai”) of representatives of all clans in 1206 d. he was proclaimed a great khan with the name Genghis(“Infinite Power”).
As soon as the empire was created, it began its expansion. The organization of the Mongolian army was based on the decimal principle - 10, 100, 1000, etc. The imperial guard was created, which controlled the entire army. Before the advent of firearms Mongolian cavalry took up in the steppe wars. She is was better organized and trained than any nomadic army of the past. The reason for success was not only the perfection of the military organization of the Mongols, but also the unpreparedness of rivals.
At the beginning of the 13th century, having conquered part of Siberia, the Mongols in 1215 set about conquering China. They managed to capture the entire northern part of it. From China, the Mongols took out the latest military equipment and specialists for that time. In addition, they received cadres of competent and experienced officials from among the Chinese. In 1219, the troops of Genghis Khan invaded Central Asia. Following Central Asia captured Northern Iran, after which the troops of Genghis Khan made a predatory campaign in Transcaucasia. From the south they came to the Polovtsian steppes and defeated the Polovtsians.
The request of the Polovtsy to help them against a dangerous enemy was accepted by the Russian princes. The battle between the Russian-Polovtsian and Mongol troops took place on May 31, 1223 on the Kalka River in the Azov region. Not all Russian princes, who promised to participate in the battle, put up their troops. The battle ended with the defeat of the Russian-Polovtsian troops, many princes and combatants died.
In 1227, Genghis Khan died. Ogedei, his third son, was elected Great Khan. In 1235, the Kurultai met in the Mongolian capital of Karakorum, where it was decided to begin the conquest of the western lands. This intention posed a terrible threat to the Russian lands. Ogedei's nephew, Batu (Batu), became the head of the new campaign.
In 1236, the troops of Batu began a campaign against the Russian lands. Having defeated the Volga Bulgaria, they set off to conquer the Ryazan principality. The Ryazan princes, their squads and townspeople had to fight the invaders alone. The city was burned and plundered. After the capture of Ryazan, the Mongol troops moved to Kolomna. Many Russian soldiers died in the battle near Kolomna, and the battle itself ended in defeat for them. On February 3, 1238, the Mongols approached Vladimir. Having besieged the city, the invaders sent a detachment to Suzdal, who took it and burned it. The Mongols stopped only in front of Novgorod, turning south due to mudslides.
In 1240 the Mongol offensive resumed. Chernigov and Kyiv were captured and destroyed. From here, the Mongol troops moved into Galicia-Volyn Rus. Having captured Vladimir-Volynsky, Galich in 1241, Batu invaded Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Moravia, and then in 1242 reached Croatia and Dalmatia. However, the Mongol troops entered Western Europe significantly weakened by the powerful resistance they met in Russia. This largely explains the fact that if the Mongols managed to establish their yoke in Russia, then Western Europe experienced only an invasion, and then on a smaller scale. This is the historical role of the heroic resistance of the Russian people to the invasion of the Mongols.
The result of the grandiose campaign of Batu was the conquest of a vast territory - the southern Russian steppes and forests of Northern Russia, the Lower Danube region (Bulgaria and Moldova). The Mongol Empire now included the entire Eurasian continent from the Pacific Ocean to the Balkans.
After the death of Ögedei in 1241, the majority supported the candidacy of Ögedei's son Gayuk. Batu became the head of the strongest regional khanate. He established his capital at Sarai (north of Astrakhan). His power extended to Kazakhstan, Khorezm, Western Siberia, the Volga, the North Caucasus, Russia. Gradually, the western part of this ulus became known as Golden Horde.
The first armed clash between the Russian squad and the Mongol-Tatar army took place 14 years before the invasion of Batu. In 1223, the Mongol-Tatar army under the command of Subudai-Bagatur went on a campaign against the Polovtsy in the immediate vicinity of the Russian lands. At the request of the Polovtsy, some Russian princes provided military assistance to the Polovtsy.
On May 31, 1223, a battle took place between the Russian-Polovtsian detachments and the Mongol-Tatars on the Kalka River near the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov. As a result of this battle, the Russian-Polovtsian militia suffered a crushing defeat from the Mongol-Tatars. The Russian-Polovtsian army suffered heavy losses. Six Russian princes were killed, including Mstislav Udaloy, the Polovtsian Khan Kotyan and more than 10 thousand militias.
The main reasons for the defeat of the Russian-half army were:
The unwillingness of the Russian princes to act as a united front against the Mongol-Tatars (most of the Russian princes refused to respond to the request of their neighbors and send troops);
Underestimation of the Mongol-Tatars (the Russian militia was poorly armed and did not properly tune in to the battle);
Inconsistency of actions during the battle (Russian troops were not a single army, but disparate squads of different princes acting in their own way; some squads left the battle and watched from the side).
Having won a victory at Kalka, the army of Subudai-Bagatur did not develop success and left for the steppes.
4. After 13 years, in 1236, the Mongol-Tatar army led by Batu Khan (Batu Khan), the grandson of Genghis Khan and the son of Jochi, invaded the Volga steppes and Volga Bulgaria (the territory of modern Tataria). Having defeated the Polovtsy and the Volga Bulgars, the Mongol-Tatars decided to invade Russia.
The conquest of Russian lands was carried out during two campaigns:
The campaign of 1237 - 1238, as a result of which the Ryazan and Vladimir-Suzdal principalities were conquered - the north-east of Russia;
The campaign of 1239 - 1240, as a result of which the Chernigov and Kiev principalities, other principalities of the south of Russia were conquered. The Russian principalities offered heroic resistance. Among the most important battles of the war with the Mongol-Tatars are:
The defense of Ryazan (1237) - the very first large city attacked by the Mongol-Tatars - almost all the inhabitants participated and died during the defense of the city;
Defense of Vladimir (1238);
Defense of Kozelsk (1238) - the Mongol-Tatars stormed Kozelsk for 7 weeks, for which they called it the "evil city";
Battle on the City River (1238) - the heroic resistance of the Russian militia prevented the further advance of the Mongol-Tatars to the north - to Novgorod;
The defense of Kyiv - the city fought for about a month.
December 6, 1240 Kyiv fell. This event is considered the final defeat of the Russian principalities in the struggle against the Mongol-Tatars.
The main reasons for the defeat of the Russian principalities in the war against the Mongol-Tatars are:
Feudal fragmentation;
The absence of a single centralized state and a single army;
Enmity between princes;
The transition to the side of the Mongols of individual princes;
The technical backwardness of the Russian squads and the military and organizational superiority of the Mongol-Tatars.
Consequences of the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars for the Old Russian state.
The invasion of nomads was accompanied by massive destruction of Russian cities, the inhabitants were ruthlessly destroyed or taken into captivity. This led to a noticeable decline in Russian cities - the population decreased, the life of the townspeople became poorer, many crafts were lost.
The Mongol-Tatar invasion dealt a heavy blow to the basis of urban culture - handicraft production, since the destruction of cities was accompanied by mass withdrawals of artisans to Mongolia and the Golden Horde. Together with the artisan population, Russian cities lost their centuries-old production experience: craftsmen took their professional secrets with them. The quality of construction subsequently also greatly decreased. No less heavy damage was inflicted by the conquerors on the Russian countryside, the rural monasteries of Russia. The peasants were robbed by everyone: the Horde officials, and numerous Khan's ambassadors, and simply regional gangs. The damage inflicted by the Mongol-Tatars on the peasant economy was terrible. In the war, dwellings and outbuildings were destroyed. Working cattle was captured and driven to the Horde. Horde robbers often raked the entire crop out of the barns. Russian peasants - prisoners were an important item of "export" from the Golden Horde to the East. Ruin, constant threat, shameful slavery - this is what the conquerors brought to the Russian countryside. The damage inflicted on the national economy of Russia by the Mongolo-Tatar conquerors was not limited to devastating robberies during raids. After the establishment of the yoke, huge values left the country in the form of "ani" and "requests". The constant leakage of silver and other metals had dire consequences for the economy. Silver was not enough for trade, there was even a "silver hunger". The Mongol-Tatar conquest led to a significant deterioration in the international position of the Russian principalities. Ancient trade and cultural ties with neighboring states were forcibly severed. So, for example, the Lithuanian feudal lords used the weakening of Russia for predatory raids. The German feudal lords intensified their offensive against the Russian lands. Russia lost its way to the Baltic Sea. In addition, the ancient ties between the Russian principalities and Byzantium were broken, and trade fell into decline. The invasion dealt a strong devastating blow to the culture of the Russian principalities. In the fire of the Mongol-Tatar invasions, numerous monuments, icon paintings and architecture were destroyed. And also there was a decline in Russian chronicle writing, which reached its dawn by the beginning of the Batu invasion.
The Mongol-Tatar conquest artificially delayed the spread of commodity-money relations, "conserved" the subsistence economy. While the Western European states, which were not attacked, were gradually moving from feudalism to capitalism, Russia, torn to pieces by the conquerors, preserved the feudal economy. It is even difficult to imagine how dearly the campaigns of the Mongol khans would have cost humanity and how much more misfortune, murder and destruction they could have caused if the heroic resistance of the Russian people and other peoples of our country, having exhausted and weakened the enemy, did not stop the invasion on the borders of Central Europe.
The positive moment was that all Russian clergy with church people were spared from paying heavy Tatar tribute. It should be noted that the Tatars were completely tolerant of all religions, and the Russian Orthodox Church not only did not tolerate any oppression from the khans, but, on the contrary, the Russian metropolitans received special letters (“labels”) from the khans, which ensured the rights and privileges of the clergy and inviolability church properties. The Church became the force that preserved and nurtured not only the religious, but also the national unity of the Russian “peasantry”.
Finally, Tatar rule separated Eastern Russia from Western Europe for a long time, and after the formation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the eastern branch of the Russian people was separated from its western branch for several centuries, which created a wall of mutual alienation between them. Eastern Russia, which was under the rule of the Tatars, itself turned into “Tataria” in the minds of ignorant Europeans ...
What are the consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, the yoke?
Firstly, this is the backwardness of Russia from the countries of Europe. Europe continued to develop, but Russia had to restore everything destroyed by the Mongols.
The second is the decline of the economy. A lot of people were lost. Many crafts disappeared (the Mongols took artisans into slavery). Also, farmers moved to more northern regions of the country, safer from the Mongols. All this hindered economic development.
The third is the slowness of the cultural development of the Russian lands. For some time after the invasion, no churches were built in Russia at all.
Fourth, the termination of contacts, including trade, with the countries of Western Europe. Now the foreign policy of Russia was focused on the Golden Horde. The Horde appointed princes, collected tribute from the Russian people, and, in case of disobedience of the principalities, carried out punitive campaigns.
The fifth consequence is highly controversial. Some scientists say that the invasion and the yoke preserved the political fragmentation in Russia, others argue that the yoke gave impetus to the unification of Russians.
Reasons for the success of the Mongol-Tatars
What are the successes of the Mongol-Tatars at the beginning of the conquest of Russia? Why did the nomads, who were significantly inferior to the conquered peoples of Asia and Europe in economic and cultural development, subjugate them to their power for almost three centuries?
One of the reasons is the feudal fragmentation in Russia and the weak interstate ties between the countries of Asia and Europe, which did not allow uniting their forces to repulse the aggression of the conquerors.
The next reason is the numerical superiority of the conquerors. Batu moved 120-140 thousand of his soldiers to Russia. All Russia (even if it united) could put up only about 100 thousand soldiers.
And one more circumstance - the military. The small number of cavalry detachments, the absence of a professional army, the defensive tactics of the Russian troops, the tactics of exhausting the enemy. However, the wooden fortresses of the Russians could not withstand the continuous assault of the Mongol-Tatar troops. High-quality intelligence before the start of hostilities. Russian betrayal. In addition, the Mongol commanders did not personally participate in the battles, but led the battle from their headquarters, which, as a rule, was in a high place. The Russian princes, up to Vasily II, themselves directly participated in the battles. Therefore, very often, in the event of even the heroic death of a prince-commander, his warriors, deprived of professional leadership, found themselves in a very difficult position.
Batu's attack on Russia in 1237 came as a complete surprise to the Russians. The Mongol-Tatar hordes undertook it in the winter, attacking the Ryazan principality. The Ryazans, on the other hand, are accustomed only to the summer and autumn raids of enemies (mainly Polovtsians). Therefore, no one expected a winter attack. What did the steppes pursue with their winter blow? The fact is that the rivers, which were a natural barrier for enemy cavalry in the summer, were covered with ice in winter and had already lost their protective functions. In addition, in Russia, stocks of food and fodder for livestock were prepared for the winter. Thus, the conquerors were already provided with fodder for their cavalry before the attack.
These were the main strategic and tactical reasons for the victories of the Mongol-Tatars at the very beginning of their conquests.
Horde yoke in Russia. Liberation
The Horde yoke in Russia lasted 240 years - from 1242 to the middle of the 15th century. Once under the rule of the Mongols, the Russian princes were forced to admit that they were vassals of the rulers of the Golden Horde. Their powers were to be approved by special letters - labels. In addition to princes, metropolitans appointed in Russia were also to receive labels. Tribute, or "exit" was also imposed on Russian lands. At first, it was collected in the form of natural requisitions, and then the calculations were made in silver.
Military service was also imposed on the Russian principalities: they were obliged to field a certain number of soldiers to participate in the campaigns of the Mongol army. To oversee the Russian lands in the cities there were khan governors - Baskaks. However, their presence on Russian lands caused such discontent that gradually by the end of the 13th century, the Baskaks had to stop their activities, and the collection of tribute was entrusted to the Russian princes. In order to accurately determine the amount of tribute, the Mongols even conducted several censuses of the taxable population in Russia. The first of these took place in 1257.
After the establishment of dependence on the Mongol Empire, the policy of the Russian princes also changed. Some of them, such as Daniil Galitsky, tried to provide armed resistance to the Horde. However, such attempts more often ended in the defeat of the Russian squads.
Thus, the Golden Horde did not establish its direct rule in Russia and did not encroach on the traditional, already established system of government of the Russian lands. The princes in Russia were only vassals of the Golden Horde khans. The low level of socio-economic and social development of the Horde state did not allow the invaders to master the country and create their own governing bodies in Russia.
To strengthen their power in Russia, the Horde khans periodically carried out invasions and raids in order to achieve an internal weakening of Russia and hinder the economic development of its territories. The Horde yoke was easier to maintain, deepening the political fragmentation of the country, inciting strife, setting the Russian princes against each other. And so far the Golden Horde khans have been able to do this.
The outcome of the struggle against the Horde was decided by the Battle of Kulikovo, which became not only a stage in the struggle against the Mongol-Tatar conquerors, but also the beginning of the formation of the Russian centralized state. It took place on September 8, 1380 on the Kulikovo field, located on the right bank of the Don at the confluence of the Nepryadva River.
The choice of the Kulikovo field for battle showed the firm determination of Dmitry Ivanovich to defend Russia at any cost. Having crossed the Don, he cut off his retreat and, as it were, challenged Mamai to a mortal battle. At the same time, the location of the Kulikovo field gave the Russian troops certain military advantages. The main one was that the flanks of the Russian army were covered by the rivers - Don and Nepryadva, which deprived the Tatar cavalry of the opportunity to use the traditional tactics - enveloping the enemy from the flanks. The dense oak forest, located on the left flank, was used by Dmitry Ivanovich to place reserves - an ambush regiment.
The speed and secrecy with which the Russian troops approached the battlefield allowed Dmitry Ivanovich to frustrate Mamai's plans to join the Lithuanian troops and the squad of the Ryazan prince Oleg, who temporarily became his ally. The Russian prince managed to force the Tatars to fight without allies.
The Tatars began the battle, attacking the Russian regiments with all their might. For several hours there was a fierce battle. Russian soldiers steadfastly withstood the blows of enemy hordes. However, in the end, those managed to break through the Russian system, and Mamai already considered himself the winner. But at this critical moment, the Russian ambush regiment located in the oak forest was brought into battle. The unexpected appearance of fresh Russian forces decided the outcome of the battle. The Tatars trembled and took to flight. For almost thirty miles, Russian soldiers pursued the fleeing enemy. Contemporaries called the Battle of Kulikovo the "Mamaev Battle", and after that Dmitry Ivanovich was called Donskoy. The events of this time are described in an outstanding monument of ancient Russian literature - "The Legend of the Mamaev Battle".
The historical significance of the victory of the Russian troops was enormous. The defeat of Mamai meant the collapse of the plans for the division of Russia. The battle on the Kulikovo field showed the possibility of victory over the Tatars and became the beginning of the liberation of Russia from the Mongol-Tatar yoke.
Standing on the Ugra River 1480 The overthrow of the Horde yoke
In the middle of the 15th century, the Golden Horde broke up into a number of khanates. Nevertheless, Khan Akhmat made an attempt to restore Tatar domination in Russia. He used Lithuania's concerns about the growing independence of Russia and agreed on military assistance with King Casimir IV. Counting on it, in the summer of 1480, Khan Akhmat set out on a "great campaign" against Moscow. But when the Tatars approached the Oka River, it turned out that the crossings over it were occupied by Moscow regiments. Akhmat did not dare to accept the battle and moved along the Oka to join the troops of Casimir IV. Approaching the right bank of the Ugra River, he saw the "great Moscow army" and again did not dare to accept the battle. The troops of Casimir IV did not come to the aid of Akhmat, as they were busy repelling the attack of Ivan III's ally, the Crimean Khan Mengli Giray.
On November 11, 1480, Akhmat began a hasty retreat from the Ugra. In the lower reaches of the Volga, the returning army was attacked by the combined forces of the Nogai Tatars and the Siberian Khan Ibak. During the battle, Akhmat was killed.
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