Problem situation in economics example. Problem situation model
In modern pedagogical literature, the concept of problem-based learning is inextricably linked with a special - modular - organization of the presentation of educational material; there is even the term "problem-modular educational technology". Thus, two terms - "problematic" and "modularity" - are not mutually exclusive, but, on the contrary, complementary - "problematic" describes the essence of the educational material, and "modularity" means the form of presentation of the material. In the future, we will use the terms "problem-based learning", "problem-based learning" and "modular learning" as synonyms; if the facets of meaning inherent in these terms are important, then they will be clear from the context.
Despite the fact that the problem-modular educational technology is not new - it originated in the middle of the 20th century in the United States, is widespread in Western Europe, England, Japan - little attention is paid to the modular technology of teaching economics in the Russian-language pedagogical literature. One of the most striking works in this direction is the monograph of Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences Sokolkov E.A. "Modular educational technology in teaching the humanities".
In the age of highly developed information technologies and an abundance of information, the problem of compression, compact presentation of information for mobile use is relevant. In this regard, in the works of the most prominent neurophysiologists of the 19th–20th centuries, A.S. Batuev, V. Mountcastle, J. Centagozaia, J. Edelman developed a theory of the modular organization of the work of the cerebral cortex, according to which, due to the need to compress information, “setting and solving any personally significant problem can be divided into some “systematized, structured components” - modules”, each of which in turn consists of similar components and is included in a module of a higher order. In other words, the work of the cerebral cortex is arranged according to the principle: every problem consists of sub-problems (each of which is a problem) and is part of a more general, broader problem.
The described results of neurophysiological studies in the works of Anokhin P.K., Bertalanfi L., Sudakov K.V. and others received a philosophical generalization - a general theory of functional systems was created, according to which "a functional system can be represented as a set of modules or considered as a separate module in the structure of a more general system."
The epistemological (epistemological) significance of the general theory of functional systems is as follows: any cognitive activity of a person, including educational, is a systemic activity, the structure of which consists of similar structural components and, in turn, is included in a more general, broader activity. (higher order system). It should be noted that one of the manifestations of such an organization of cognitive activity is the fact of the hierarchy of concepts - each concept is both specific and generic for some other concepts. In addition, in the light of the general theory of functional systems, it is argued that any cognitive activity is associated with some key problem, generated by it and grouped around this problem.
This theoretical and cognitive result of the general theory of functional systems allows us to speak about the method of nodal (aggregated) problems of organization (systematization) of knowledge and cognitive activity, and, in particular, the method of enlarged problems of organizing educational activities. This fact became the basis for the following statement by Academician Sokolkov E.A.: "The basis of the modular learning technology is the principle of problem-based learning."
For modular technology, the most significant is the fact that the "methodological principles of the humanities" are the principles of integrity, "inseparable unity, predictive nature, inseparable connection with practice, economic orientation."
The connection, synthesis of this provision with the method of integrated problems of organizing educational activities is the thesis that “the most important means of implementing a problematic presentation is the disclosure of theory and practice,” including in teaching economics in high school.
So, the theory of the modular organization of the work of the cerebral cortex is the physiological basis for building a modular educational technology for teaching economics in high school; the general theory of functional systems is the philosophical foundation; position on the integrity of the humanities, their inseparable connection with practice - the methodological basis; the formation of didactic units by grouping around enlarged (nodal) problems - a methodological basis.
The task of our schools is the formation of a harmoniously developed personality. The most important indicator of a comprehensively and harmoniously developed personality is the presence of a high level of mental abilities. If training leads to the development of creative abilities, then it can be combined with developmental training, that is, such training in which the teacher, based on knowledge of the patterns of development of thinking, with special pedagogical means, conducts purposeful work on the formation of the mental abilities and cognitive needs of his students in the process of studying the goal foundations of sciences. Such training is problematic.
Most modern publications on learning theory are associated with the idea of enhancing the learning process and learning activities of students. Activation means the effective use of those techniques and teaching methods that are known from traditional didactics. The authors talk about activation through problem-based learning, while understanding the creation of problem situations and the setting of cognitive tasks.
Teaching students ready-made methods of mental activity is the way to achieve ordinary activity, and not creative.
The purpose of activation through problem-based learning is to understand the level of assimilation of concepts and to teach not individual mental operations in a random, spontaneously developing order, but a system of mental actions for solving non-stereotypical tasks. This activity lies in the fact that the student, analyzing, comparing, synthesizing, generalizing, concretizing the actual material, himself received new information from it. In other words, it is the expansion of deepening knowledge with the help of previously acquired knowledge or a new application of previous knowledge. Neither a teacher nor a book can give a new application of previous knowledge; it is sought and found by the student placed in the appropriate situation. This is the search method of teaching.
Mental search is a complex process, it usually begins with a problematic situation, a problem. But not every search is associated with a problem? If the teacher gives the task to the students, indicating how to complete it, then even an independent search will not be a solution to the problem.
Genuine activation of students is characterized by independent search not in general, but by searching through problem solving. If the search is aimed at solving a theoretical, technical, practical educational problem or forms and methods of artistic display, it turns into a problematic teaching.
We see the main difference between problem-based and traditional learning in two points: they differ in the purpose and principles of the organization of the pedagogical process.
The purpose of the problem type of education is not only the assimilation of the results of scientific knowledge, the system of knowledge, but also the very way of the process of obtaining these results, the formation of the student's cognitive initiative and the development of his creative abilities.
The purpose of the traditional type of education is the assimilation of the results of scientific knowledge, equipping students with knowledge of the basics of science, instilling in them the appropriate skills and abilities.
At the heart of the organization of explanatory and illustrative teaching by the teacher is the principle of transferring the ready-made conclusions of science to students. The organization of the goal of the problem-based learning process is based on the principle of the student's search educational and cognitive activity, that is, the principle of discovering the conclusions of science, methods of action, inventing new objects or methods of applying knowledge to practice.
In problem-based learning, the teacher’s activity consists in the fact that, if necessary, he brought an explanation of the content of the most complex concepts, systematically creates problem situations, informs students of factors and organizes (problem situations) their educational and cognitive activity, so that based on the analysis of facts, students independently draw conclusions and generalizations, form certain concepts, laws with the help of a teacher.
As a result, students develop the skills of mental operations and actions, the skills of transferring knowledge, develop attention, will, and creative imagination.
Problem teaching is the activity of a teacher in creating a system of problem situations, presenting educational material with its explanation and managing the activities of students aimed at acquiring new knowledge both in the traditional way and by independently setting educational problems and solving them.
Problem teaching is the educational and cognitive activity of students in mastering knowledge and methods of activity by perceiving the teacher's explanation in a problem situation, independently analyzing problem situations, formulating problems and solving them by means of putting forward proposals, hypotheses, their justification and evidence, as well as by checking the correctness solutions.
A problem situation is an intellectual predicament of a person that occurs when he does not know how to explain the phenomenon that has arisen, a fact, the process of reality cannot achieve the goal in a way known to him, this action prompts a person to look for a new way of explanation or way of action. A problem situation is a pattern of productive, creative cognitive activity.
It causes the beginning of thinking in the process of setting and solving problems.
Psychological science has established a certain sequence of stages of productive human cognitive activity in a problem situation:
Problem situation problem finding ways to solve it solving the problem.
The full cycle of mental actions from the emergence of a problem situation to the solution of a problem has several stages:
the emergence of a problematic situation,
understanding the essence of the difficulty and posing the problem,
finding a way to solve by guessing or making assumptions and substantiating a hypothesis,
confirmation of the hypothesis
verifying the correctness of problem solving.
General features of problem-based learning:
assimilation by students of the system of knowledge and methods of mental practical activity;
development of cognitive independence and creative abilities of students;
formation of dialectical-materialistic thinking of schoolchildren (as a basis).
In addition, problem-based learning has special features:
fostering the skills of creative assimilation of knowledge (the use of individual logical techniques and methods of creative activity);
fostering the skills of creative application of knowledge (application of acquired knowledge in a new situation) and the ability to solve educational problems;
the formation and accumulation of experience in creative activity (mastering the methods of scientific research, solving practical problems and artistic reflection of reality).
The mental activity of students is stimulated by asking questions. The teacher's question should be so complex as to cause difficulty for students, and at the same time feasible for finding an answer on their own. A problematic task, unlike ordinary educational tasks, is not just a description of a certain situation, including a description of the data that make up the condition of the problem and an indication of the unknown that should be disclosed on the basis of these conditions. Studies have shown that it is possible to single out the most characteristic types of problem situations for pedagogical practice, common to all subjects.
The first type: a problem situation arises if the students do not know how to solve the problem, I cannot answer the problematic question, give an explanation for a new fact in an educational or life situation.
The second type: problem situations arise when students encounter the need to use previously acquired knowledge in new practical conditions.
The third type: a problem situation easily arises if there is a contradiction between the theoretically possible way of solving the problem and the practical impracticability of the chosen method.
The fourth type: a problem situation arises when there are contradictions between the practically achieved result of completing a learning task and the students' lack of knowledge for theoretical justification.
The most important stage of problem-based learning is to encourage students to analyze the facts and phenomena of reality. There are several ways to get through this stage.
The first way is to encourage students to a theoretical explanation of phenomena, facts, external inconsistencies between them. This causes the search activity of students and leads to the active assimilation of new knowledge.
The second way is the use of educational and life situations that arise when students perform practical tasks at school, at home or at work, in the course of observing nature, and the like. A problematic situation arises when students try to independently achieve their practical goal.
The third method is the arrangement of educational problem tasks to explain phenomena or find ways of practical solutions. An example is any research work of students in the educational and experimental area, in the workshop, and so on.
The fourth way is to encourage students to analyze the facts and phenomena of reality, striking the contradictions between life ideas and scientific concepts about these facts.
The fifth way is to put forward an assumption (hypotheses), formulate conclusions and test them experimentally.
The sixth way is to encourage students to compare, contrast and contrast facts, phenomena, rules, as a result of which a problem situation arises.
The seventh way is to encourage students to preliminary generalize new facts. Students are given the task to consider some facts, phenomena contained in new material for them, compare them with known ones and make an independent generalization.
The eighth way is to familiarize students with facts that seem to be inexplicable and are given in the history of science to formulate a scientific problem.
The ninth way is the organization of intersubject communications. Often the material of the subject does not provide the creation of a problem situation (when processing skills, repeating what has been learned, etc.). In this case, you should use the facts and data of sciences that are related to the material being studied.
The tenth way is varied tasks, reformulation of the question.
The plan of the student's speech at the defense of the qualification work
It must be remembered that no matter how excellent and high-quality the qualifying work is, without its qualified and successful presentation it is impossible to get high marks. Evaluation largely depends on how the work will be presented and protected.
In his presentation, the student must state:
Relevance and justification of the chosen topic,
Object and subject of research,
research hypothesis,
Purpose and objectives of the study,
WRC research base and research methods,
The results obtained, confirming and demonstrating them visually (presentation),
General conclusion on the research work.
The message should focus on the following points:
Identification of promising and fruitful directions in the further study of the topic,
Presentation of independently made conclusions reflecting the content, significance and practical effectiveness of the work,
Further prospects for the development of the subject of this study, confirming them with visual diagrams, tables, figures, graphs.
APPENDIX A
Sample questions for bachelors for the state exam "Theory and practice of social work"
1. The social work management system in Russia as a combination of various organizational forms.
2. Social technology: concept, types, types.
3. Relationship between theory and practice in social work.
4. Experiment as a research method and its application in social work: conducting an experiment, a plan for conducting, errors in the experiment.
5. Conflict management in social work organizations.
6. Methodology of social work (object, subject, principles and methods).
7. Social work as one of the types of social technologies.
8. Features of the structural and functional construction of social services.
9. Management functions in organizations and institutions of the social sphere.
10. Organizational structures of management. Their advantages and disadvantages in relation to organizations of the social sphere.
11. Concepts, types, features of management functions, their relationship with the organizational structure. Methods for implementing functions.
12. Deviant behavior and social work with persons of deviant behavior.
13. The essence of social therapy and its varieties.
14. Concepts, types, classification of social services in Russia.
15. Professiogram of a specialist in social work.
16. Personal potential of a social work specialist.
17. Professionally important qualities of a social work specialist.
19. Social adaptation of the individual as the central problem of modern social work.
20. Reforming the system of social work in Russia.
21. Social work in the structure of social sciences.
22. Technology of regulation of processes of social adaptation.
23. Moral and humanistic nature of social work.
24. Social policy: essence, stages of development, theoretical models.
25. Formation of the system of social services for the population in modern Russia.
26. Psychological research methods in social work: psychoanalytic methods, methods of humanistic psychology, methods of measurement (testing) and its application in social work.
27. Diagnostics and analysis of conflicts.
28. Regulatory framework of social work.
29. Methods of socio-economic assistance and categories of the population eligible for it.
30. An integrated and systematic approach to social work.
31. The use of quantitative sociological methods in social work: the problem of reliability and representation of the study, the calculation of the sample population, types of surveys and the construction of the questionnaire.
32. Conflicts in the social and labor sphere. Strike: stages and forms of settlement.
33. Technologies of social work with the elderly.
34. Technologies of group problem solving.
35. Theory and technology of social work with disabled people.
36. Family as the central object of social work.
37. Specificity of technologies of medical and social work.
38. Techniques of counseling in social work.
39. Use of qualitative methods in social work: in-depth interview method and focus group method.
40. Technologies of social and preventive work at the place of residence and at work.
41. Theory and technology of social work with women.
42. Methods of peer review and expert interviews and their use in social work.
43. Theory and technology of social work with migrants.
44. Theory and technology of social work with military personnel and their families.
45. Theory and technology of social work with youth.
46. Theory and technology of social work with women.
47. Mediation and its role in social work.
48. Management styles in a social organization.
49. Theory and technology of social work with convicts and former convicts.
50. Targeted model of social work: the essence and features of use in modern Russia.
51. Paternalistic model: the essence and features of use in modern Russia.
52. Foreign models of social work.
53. Socio-psychological technologies of social work.
54. Social technologies of social work.
APPENDIX B
Problem Situation #1. The Comprehensive Center for Social Services of the City of N received a call from a certain citizen that a family lives in her house, in which the child is starving and poorly dressed. A social worker of the Center responded to the incoming call. During the social raid, there was no food at all in the house.
The mother did not exchange the old passport. The teenager also does not have a passport.
It was decided to take the family on patronage.
Reason and circumstances for registration: the child is starving; the mother has a mental illness and is registered in a dispensary. The mother does not work anywhere.
Incomplete family, 1 child, who is now 14 years old.
Plan of work with the family for 2008:
1. Assistance with products; 2. Assistance in the exchange of the mother's old passport, in obtaining a passport for a teenager; 3. Request to the dispensary whether the mother is registered; 4. Consultation on the mother's registration with the Employment Center; 5. Issuance of MDK (municipal discount card) for the purchase of food.
Difficulty in solving this problem is that the woman has a mental illness, and the staff of the Center did not know what kind of illness and how to behave in this situation. In response to a request to the dispensary about what kind of mental illness the client has, the answer was received that they do not have the right to disclose medical confidentiality, since the patient's diagnosis is part of medical confidentiality.
Basic laws based on which this problematic situation was solved:
1. Federal Law "On the Basic Guarantees of the Rights of the Child in the Russian Federation" dated July 24, 1998 No. 124 (as amended on December 21, 2004);
2. Federal Law "On the basics of social services for the population in the Russian Federation" dated December 10, 1995 No. 195;
3. Federal Law "On the fundamentals of the system for the prevention of neglect and juvenile delinquency" dated June 24, 1999 No. 120 (as amended on December 29, 2004);
4. GOST R 52143-2003 Social services for the population. The main types of social services.
5. Law of the Novosibirsk Region of December 5, 1995 N 29-OZ "On Social Assistance to the Population in the Territory of the Novosibirsk Region" (as amended and supplemented on February 9, 2005)
APPENDIX C
Sample questions for graduate students for the state exam "Social work in the region"
1. Region as a political, legal and socio-economic system. Conditions and factors for the emergence of regional systems.
2. Subjects of the region's social policy.
3. Goals and objectives of the regional social policy.
4. Forms and mechanisms for the implementation of regional social policy.
5. Features of the socio-economic development of the Siberian Federal District.
6. Social infrastructure of the Siberian Federal District.
7. Financial provision of social policy in the region.
8. The specifics of the socio-economic problems of indigenous and small peoples of the North, Siberia and the Far East.
9. Priority areas of social policy in the Novosibirsk region.
10. Regional target programs as a system of measures to solve social policy problems.
11. Characteristics of city and regional targeted programs regulating the areas of social work with families and children (on the example of Novosibirsk and NSO).
12. Characteristics of the activities of public organizations in the field of social work in the Siberian region.
13. Services of social rehabilitation of the population in the Siberian region.
14. Characteristics of the main subjects of social work with unemployed citizens in the Siberian region.
15. Social work with orphans and children left without parental care in the NSO and the city of Novosibirsk.
16. Social guarantees for youth and young families in the region.
17. Characteristics of labor-surplus and labor-deficit regions of the Russian Federation.
18. Features of the regional labor market in the Siberian Federal District.
19. Features of the regional labor market in the federal districts of the Russian Federation.
20. Family in the Siberian region and the Novosibirsk region: main statistical indicators (statistics of marriages and divorces, abortions and fertility, family structure).
21. Socio-demographic characteristics of the Siberian region.
22. Conditions and procedure for conferring the honorary title of labor veteran of the Novosibirsk region and measures of their social support.
23. Organizational bases for the protection of children's rights in the region.
24. Youth Parliament of the Novosibirsk region as a subject and object of youth policy in the region.
25. Social support for certain categories of citizens living in the Novosibirsk region.
26. City in the system of the region: characteristics of megacities, large and small cities.
27. Characteristics of migration processes in the federal districts of the Russian Federation.
28. Characteristics of the municipal social policy.
29. Subjects of social policy in the Novosibirsk region and the city of Novosibirsk.
30. The system of social protection of the population of Novosibirsk.
31. Features of regionalization in Russia.
32. Theory of regional studies.
33. The social status of the ethnic groups of the Siberian region.
34. History of volunteering in Russia. Features of the formation of the volunteer movement in the region.
35. Characteristics of the main groups of volunteer movements and forms of volunteering in the region.
36. Characteristics of the city target program "On municipal support of national-cultural autonomies and organizations in the city of Novosibirsk" for 2004-2006 dated 17.09.2003 No. 300.
37. Characteristics of the city target program "Formation of an accessible living environment for the disabled and other low-mobility groups of the population in Novosibirsk for 2004-2006" dated 12/11/2003.
38. Characteristics of the regional target program "Creation of mechanisms for providing housing for young families in the Novosibirsk region for 2004-2011" dated 27.05.2004.
39. Characteristics of the regional target program "Older generation" for 2004-2008 from 02.10.2003.
40. Characteristics of the regional target program "Prevention and control of diseases of a social nature for 2004-2006" dated 02.10.2003.
41. Characteristics of the law of the Novosibirsk region "On measures of social support for certain categories of citizens living in the Novosibirsk region" dated December 23, 2004 No. 253-OSD.
42. Characteristics of the program of socio-economic development of the Novosibirsk region for the medium term (2004-2008) dated 07.07.2004 No. 215-OSD.
APPENDIX D
Stages of preparation and defense of the qualification work of a graduate student
Preparatory stage
FORMING SOLUTIONS
To analyze a problem situation, it is necessary first of all to clearly formulate the essence of the problem and describe the situation in which it takes place.
1) determining the existence of a problem, i.e. establishing whether there is a real problem or if it is imaginary;
2) determination of the novelty of the problem situation;
3) establishing the causes of the problem situation;
4) determining the relationship with other problems;
5) determination of the degree of completeness and reliability of information about the problem situation;
6) determination of the possibility of solvability of the problem.
A wide range of heuristic and formal methods is used to analyze the problem situation. Induction and deduction, classification, grouping, systematization, generalization and other methods of information processing and analysis provide the necessary completeness and depth of the study of the problem situation. As sources of information about the problem situation, administrative (decrees, orders, instructions, etc.), reporting and statistical documentation, observation results, scientific research and experiments, expert opinions are used.
Let us consider in more detail the content of the analysis of the problem situation.
Determining the existence of a problem involves checking the truth or falsity of the problem statement and its ownership. Practice shows that there are frequent cases when far-fetched problems or problems that do not fall within the competence of this governing body are raised.
It is necessary to check the existence of a problem according to the criterion of economic efficiency for a given system (industries, departments, associations, enterprises). Checking by this criterion allows you to clearly determine the ownership of the problem, i.e. "own" or "foreign" is a problem.
Determining the novelty of the problem situation is necessary to identify possible precedents or analogies. If precedents or analogues are established, then it is possible to analyze the applicability of past solutions to the present problem situation. The presence of past experience, as a rule, greatly facilitates the work of decision makers. In the case of a fundamentally new problem situation, it is necessary to solve the decision-making problem anew, without using a priori information. However, once solved, this task sets a precedent that can be used in the future.
Information about precedents is mainly stored in the memory of managers and to a small extent reflected in the literature.
In administrative documents, as a rule, the problem situation is not described in detail; even if a problem is formulated, the situation associated with it is not fixed, since it is assumed that the conditions under which the problem occurs are known. In addition, the administrative documents do not substantiate why it is necessary to do this and not in another way, i.e. in these documents there is no analysis of alternative ways to solve the problem. Therefore, administrative documents are a very poor source of information about the precedents of problem situations and related decision-making tasks.
In this regard, it would be advisable to create a library of precedents for decision-making problems.
However, the implementation of this proposal is associated with great difficulties, including psychological ones. The fact is that the concept of "problem" is often interpreted as a shortcoming, an omission. A clear description of the problem situation unambiguously determines the targeting of the “culprit” of this omission. In addition, a complete description of the decision-making task, on the one hand, makes it possible to identify errors and insufficient competence of the decision maker, and on the other hand, it does not allow hiding one's own goals and motives for the leader's behavior. These circumstances lead to the reluctance of individual managers to record the decision-making process in documents.
The formation of the causes of a problem situation allows a deeper understanding of the patterns of functioning of the control object, revealing the most significant factors influencing the achievement of goals. This is facilitated by the definition of the relationship of this problem with other problems. There is a perception that problems arise suddenly, unexpectedly. This view is incorrect and is explained by the fact that often the problem detection function is not performed in the management process. This function must be constantly carried out by management in any organizational system. To implement the function of identifying problems, it is necessary to organize a systematic collection of information about the state of the system and the external environment and analyze the degree of achievement of goals.
Of great importance is the prediction of the emergence of problems in the future. Anticipating problems eliminates the unexpectedness of their occurrence and therefore increases the time available to prepare solutions.
In many cases, the analysis of a problematic situation makes it possible to identify a whole set of interrelated problems. At the same time, it becomes necessary to classify these problems into major and secondary, general and particular, urgent and non-urgent.
When analyzing a problem situation, it is necessary to establish possible relationships between the problem under consideration and other known problems. The definition of such relationships allows you to more clearly and deeply identify the cause-and-effect relationship of the problem under analysis and contributes to the development of a comprehensive solution.
Of great importance in the analysis is the determination of the degree of completeness and reliability of information about the problem situation. To carry out such an analysis, it is necessary to describe the problem situation in a certain system, the essence of which is the structure of information and the logical sequence of its attachment.
Even the philosopher of Ancient Rome Quintilian argued that any arbitrarily complex situation can be fully described, guided by the following seven questions: what, where, when, who, why, for what purpose, under what conditions. These questions determine the structure of the presentation of information and allow you to detail the description of the problem situation.
The main elements of the description of the problem situation should be:
The essence of the problem;
The emergence and development of a problem situation;
The main factors and conditions of the situation;
Relevance and urgency of solving the problem;
The degree of completeness and reliability of information.
In the case of complete and reliable information, it is not difficult to directly formulate the essence of the problem and the complex of conditions that characterize it. This information serves as the initial basis for the subsequent formulation of goals, constraints and alternative solutions.
If there is uncertainty in the information, then two possible alternatives must be considered. The first alternative is to carry out a set of measures to obtain the missing information. The second alternative is to give up trying to obtain additional information and make a decision in the face of uncertainty. The choice of one or another alternative is determined by the possibility of obtaining additional information, the time and resources available for decision-making. It may turn out that the reduction of uncertainty requires such an investment of time and resources that it does not pay off at all by increasing the efficiency of the solution.
Obtaining the necessary information is considered in the scientific literature as an experiment.
In the event that the second alternative is chosen, the problem situation is described incompletely and, possibly, unreliably. Therefore, there is a need to further define the problem situation by forming hypothetical situations. This work is the subject of the second procedure of the decision-making process.
The formation of many hypothetical situations is a creative process that requires special knowledge, wide erudition and extensive experience in the area under consideration. Therefore, highly qualified experts should be involved to formulate possible alternative situations.
Are there any methods to generate alternative situations? Unfortunately, there are no such general methods. There are only a few recommendations, the content of which is as follows. Alternative hypothetical situations (hypotheses, versions) must be independent and form a complete group, i.e. include all possible variants of events/situations are described meaningfully and may include quantitative characteristics. An important characteristic of reliability is the probability of a situation. The sum of the probabilities of independent situations forming a complete group is equal to one. If there are difficulties in determining the complete group, then the situation “all other unknown situations” is formed, to which a certain probability is attributed. In the future, this situation can be clarified and disclosed in the form of a number of specific situations.
The formation of a set of alternative hypothetical situations provides a decrease in the initial uncertainty, since the complete list of situations becomes clear, the occurrence of which is considered as random, but with certain probabilities.
An important component of the analysis of the problem situation is to determine the degree of solvability of the problem. Even at the first step of the solution generation stage, it is necessary to at least approximately estimate the possibility of solving the problem, since it makes no sense to develop a solution for an obviously unsolvable problem.
High-quality analysis of the problem situation contributes to more efficient work of decision makers and experts in the formation of decision options and the choice of the optimal one, which leads to a decrease in the likelihood of erroneous actions in the decision-making process.
1. The description of the problem situation should be complete, accurate, concise and analytical.
2. Give a description of the conditions: place, time and nature of the problem (answers to questions: where? when? what?).
3. Describe a set of conditions and analyze the causes of the emergence and development of a problem situation (under what conditions? why?).
4. Determine the ownership of the problem (who?).
5. Assess the relevance, urgency and novelty of the problem (for what purpose? When do you need to decide? Has it happened before?).
6. Determine the relationship with other problems (what does it affect?).
7. Assess the degree of completeness and reliability of information about the problem situation (how complete and accurate are the data?).
8. Assess the possibility of solving the problem, taking into account the existing conditions (can it be solved?).
9. Give a brief and concise formulation of the problem situation.
The most important task facing the teachers of a professional school is the choice of such teaching technologies that would ensure the process of formation of general and professional competence in students. In the modern world, a person must show such personality traits as productivity and originality of thinking, ingenuity, the ability to see the problem, show the speed of mental reaction, the ability to self-improve in professional activities, readiness for competition. These abilities are essentially basic for a modern specialist. And it is worth noting that they cannot be fully formed by reproductive methods alone. In traditional teaching, the teacher communicates ready-made knowledge to students: explains, shows new objects of educational material, gives examples, achieves understanding, checks the degree of assimilation. The activity of the teacher is explanatory and illustrative. Students perceive knowledge, memorize, reproduce, not always understanding their necessity. At the same time, it should be noted that reproductive activity is inevitable for any type of education, but at the same time it does not sufficiently ensure the development of personality traits, which were mentioned above. One of the ways to successfully achieve the set goals is the use of problem-based learning technology.
Problem-based learning technology is one of the leading pedagogical technologies for the following reasons:
It allows you to organize independent activities of students in the assimilation of new knowledge;
The effectiveness of problem-based learning is manifested in the formation of creative, critical thinking;
Helps to strengthen the relationship between theory and practice;
Stimulates the cognitive activity of students, forms interest in educational material.
The essence of problem-based learning is to create problem situations and solve them in the process of joint activities of students and the teacher.
Let us dwell on the main concept of problem-based learning: a problem situation.
A problem situation is the conditions that arise when students do not have enough knowledge or known methods of action to comprehend something or perform some necessary operations, i.e. they have an intellectual difficulty. The problem situation on the basis of the analysis is transformed into a problem task. The problematic task involves the formulation of questions: “How to resolve the contradiction that has arisen? How to explain it?" A series of problem questions transforms the problem task into a solution search model, where various ways, methods and means of solution are considered. So, the problem method involves the following steps: problem situation → problem task → solution search model → solution.
Consider the main ways to create problem situations:
1. A problematic situation arises when there is a contradiction between facts or phenomena and the lack of knowledge among students for their theoretical justification.
2. The use of learning situations that arise when students perform practical tasks. A problem situation arises when students try to independently achieve the goal, but they do not know how to solve the problem.
3. Statement of educational problems to explain phenomena or search for practical solutions. For example, this is any research work during educational practice, since knowledge is used in new conditions.
4. Putting forward a hypothesis; formulation of conclusions, their experimental verification.
5. Creating a situation of choice. At the same time, facts are compared, contrasted, conclusions are formulated.
6. Familiarization of students with historical facts. Thus, they are faced with problem situations that take place in the process of formation of the theory they study.
7. Organization of intersubject communications. Often the material of the subject does not provide the creation of a problem situation (when developing skills, repeating educational material, etc.). In this case, facts related to the subject being studied should be used.
I will give examples of creating problem situations in the lessons of economic and accounting disciplines.
1. An example of such a situation can be a fragment of a lesson on the topic "Organizational and legal forms of enterprises." Students are asked the question:
“Is it possible to create an enterprise if there is not enough capital to create it?”
In this case, two options are possible: take partners into business and use their money, or contact the bank with a request for a loan. During the discussion, students come to a certain conclusion: if there is a risk of non-repayment of the loan, then the entrepreneur can create an enterprise with the help of partners.
2. When studying the topic “Determining the net income of an enterprise”, students are invited to independently determine the amount of income, while they still do not know how to solve the problem. Thus, a problematic situation is created, but with the help of an instructional map, which shows the items of income and expenses, students are able to solve the problem.
3. During the practical training in the subject "Financial Accounting", students are offered various production situations for keeping records at the enterprise based on their theoretical knowledge: filling out primary documentation, accounting registers, working in the "1C Accounting" program. Thus, the possibility of applying knowledge in new conditions is used, which stimulates the cognitive activity of students.
4. In the course of studying the topic “Financial stability of an enterprise”, a hypothesis is put forward about the dependence of financial stability on the availability of equity capital. When performing practical tasks, this hypothesis is confirmed, and students independently draw a conclusion.
5. In the lessons on the subject "Economics of the organization" students are faced with the need to analyze the facts, their comparison. This also creates a problematic situation. For example, when studying the following topics: “Analysis of the profitability of an economic entity”, “Analysis of the state of own and borrowed capital”, etc.
6. When studying the topic "Inflation and its types", a problematic situation is created when students become familiar with historical facts. Examples of types of inflation in different states in different periods of time and various methods of dealing with this phenomenon are given.
8. When solving problems in the lessons of financial accounting on the topics "Accounting for wages", "Accounting for settlements with buyers and customers", "Accounting for tax settlements", etc., the concepts obtained in the lessons on the subject "Taxes and taxation" are used. Thus, a problem situation is created on the basis of interdisciplinary connections.
The structure looks like this:
1. Introductory-motivational stage.
2. Updating the basic knowledge of students.
3. Assimilation of new knowledge and methods of action.
4. Formation of skills and abilities.
During the introductory-motivational stage, the teacher sets up students for productive activities throughout the lesson.
The concept of actualization differs significantly from the usual reproductive repetition. Its purpose is to activate the work of memory and prepare the basic knowledge for the successful assimilation of new knowledge. Actualization should also arouse interest in the problem under consideration, create an emotional mood, determine the readiness of students to perceive new material. Types of activities of students at this stage: oral or written presentation of previously acquired knowledge; independent work; test survey; problem solving. At the update stage, a problem situation is most often created.
Assimilation of new knowledge and ways of action. Already in the name of this structural element its content is reflected, it is here that new knowledge is assimilated, the essence of new concepts and methods of mental activity of students are revealed. The teacher's activity at this stage should be aimed at creating a problem situation (if it did not arise at the actualization stage), formulating an educational problem, and managing students' activities.
Formation of skills and abilities. Deep and lasting assimilation of knowledge occurs only in the process of applying them in practice, so this is the most important stage of the lesson. Here there is a development of knowledge, the formation of skills and abilities, as well as mental and practical actions. The third stage usually includes verification of the correctness of the solution of the educational problem.
Since an indicator of the problematic nature of a lesson is the presence of stages of search activity in its structure, it is natural that they represent the internal structure of a problematic lesson:
1) The emergence of a problem situation and the formulation of the problem.
2) Making assumptions and substantiating the hypothesis.
3) Proof of the hypothesis
4) Checking the correctness of the solution to the problem. It is the presence of this internal structure that distinguishes a problematic lesson from a traditional one.
Thus, the structure of the problem lesson is a combination of internal and external learning processes and creates the opportunity to manage students' independent activities.
When using problem-based learning technology, the optimal combination of teaching methods and forms of organizing the educational process is of great importance. Of all the variety of teaching methods, I consider the following classification to be the most acceptable:
1. The method of problematic presentation of educational material, which is possible in two forms:
A) monologue presentation - the teacher explains the essence of new concepts, facts, doing this using a problem situation. The form of organization of the educational process is a lecture. For example, a lecture on the topic "Calculation of piecework wages" begins with the question "How could you fairly distribute wages in your team?"
B) the method of dialogical presentation - the teacher formulates the problem, but finds a solution with the students, they must actively participate in the discussion, put forward their own hypotheses and draw conclusions on their own. The main forms are conversation, story.
2. The partial search method is as follows, the teacher selects a system of problem questions that should cause intellectual difficulties for students. In addition, you need to come up with leading questions that will help draw conclusions. Forms of organization - seminars, practical work.
3. Independent research activities are organized by the teacher, for this purpose, students are offered theoretical or practical tasks with a high level of problematicity. Tasks are performed by them independently, but the teacher's control is not excluded. Forms of organization can be very diverse: excursion and collection of facts, preparation of a report, term paper.
Thus, problem-based learning provides a stronger assimilation of knowledge (what is obtained independently is better absorbed and remembered for a long time); develops analytical thinking (conditions are analyzed, possible solutions are assessed), logical thinking (requires proof of the correctness of the chosen solution, argumentation)
Bibliography
1. Basova N.V. Pedagogy and practical psychology. Rostov-on-Don - 1999
2. Brushlinsky A. V. Psychology of thinking and problem-based learning. - M., 1983.
3. Ilnitskaya I. A. Problem situations and ways of creating them in the lesson. - M., 1985.
4. Kudryavtsev T. V. Problem-based learning: source, essence, prospects. - M.: Knowledge 1991.
5. Lerner I. Ya. Problem learning. - M., 1974.
6. Leptina I., Semenova N. The use of effective learning technologies // Teacher. 2003. No. 1.
7. Nikitina N. N., Zheleznyakova O. M., Petukhov M. A. Fundamentals of professional and pedagogical activity: Proc. allowance for students. medium institutions. prof. education. - M.: Mastery, 2002.
Competence and competitiveness, creativity and mobility, the desire for self-improvement today determine the psychological and material well-being of a specialist, his confidence in the future. Under these conditions, a college graduate needs to firmly master the basics of the upcoming work activity, which will ensure further career, professional and personal growth. Therefore, in recent years, the emphasis in determining the goals of vocational training has shifted from the assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities by students to the formation of professional competence of graduates, which becomes the basis for the formation of a strategy for vocational education, the choice of approaches, methods and means of training. First of all, this circumstance is manifested in a change in approaches to understanding the quality of training of specialists, which is determined today by how productively a graduate uses the received theoretical knowledge. In this case, it is no longer possible to rely on explanatory-illustrative and reproductive teaching methods.
At the first stage, we got acquainted with a wide range of innovative learning technologies, identifying the most suitable for effective study of our subject, and studied in depth the technology of problem-based learning. At the second stage, the lessons of teachers working on this technology were attended. At the third stage, we designed and implemented the technology of problem-based learning of economics in the college.
It is well known that the study of the same scientific content material can be carried out in different ways in terms of the methods, means and organizational forms used. The use of this technology makes it possible to contribute to the development of analytical abilities and to cultivate a keen interest in independent search for information.
So, systematically applying progressive methods of enhancing cognitive activity, allowing students to be included in the process of creative assimilation of knowledge, it is possible to contribute to the development of students' creative abilities. On the contrary, if the presentation of the material is limited by traditional methods without creating problematic situations, the potential developmental opportunities of classes are not used to the full extent. The practical implementation of the idea of the relationship between learning and scientific research has given rise to a kind of didactic system, which is called problem-based learning, since its main elements are a learning problem and a problematic task.
The analysis shows that the use of problem-based learning technology requires their special organization, affects the choice of teaching methods and techniques, and also affects the structure and, to a certain extent, the content of the educational material presented. Therefore, there is every reason to interpret problem-based learning as a modern didactic system with a special technology.
Creative assimilation of knowledge and methods of activity by students involves:
Independent transfer of knowledge and skills to a new situation;
vision of the structure of the object to be studied;
vision of a new function of a familiar object;
the ability to see an alternative solution, an alternative approach to its search;
the ability to combine previously known methods of solving in a new way;
the ability to create an original way of solving with known others, etc.
It should also be emphasized that problematicness is an integral feature of the pedagogical process. However, not every activity is problematic. It all depends on the volume of methods and organizational forms inherent in problem-based learning that is used in the lesson.
Problem situation – a difficulty perceived by the subject, the ways to overcome which require the search for new knowledge, new ways of action. The problem situation is the source of thinking. But it does not follow from this that every psychological difficulty necessarily stimulates thinking. So, if a person who has not studied economics is asked: “Is it necessary to increase the tax burden on economic agents during the economic crisis?” - the process of thinking will not arise, because the subject does not have the necessary initial data for this. For a problem situation to become a source of thinking, it must be accepted by the subject for a solution. And this is possible if the subject has sufficient initial knowledge that corresponds to the subject content of the situation.
In addition, a problem situation may arise:
when students are faced with the need to use previously acquired knowledge in new practical conditions;
when there are contradictions between a theoretically possible solution and its practical impracticability;
due to the contradiction between the practically accessible result and the lack of knowledge for theoretical justification;
· if the student does not know how to solve the problem, cannot give an explanation for a new fact in the learning and life situation, i.e., he realizes the insufficiency of previous knowledge for such an explanation. In this case, the problem situation develops into a learning problem.
Our experience shows that the most effective are those problem situations that are identified, described and prepared for analysis by the students themselves as part of their work experience.
An educational problem is a problem situation accepted by the subject for solution on the basis of the means available to him (knowledge, skills, search experience). A learning problem is usually expressed in the form of a question. Signs of a learning problem: the presence of a problem situation, a certain willingness of the subject to find a solution, the possibility of an ambiguous solution.
A problem task is a learning problem that can be solved under given conditions or parameters. An example of a problematic task can be the following task: determine how the inflation rate in the Russian economy will change if the Central Bank of the Russian Federation increases the amount of money supply in the country corresponding to an increase in the GDP of the Russian Federation. (Of course, such a task will be problematic if the answer is not yet known to the students). Any educational problem and problematic task is an artificial didactic construction, since they are specially built for educational purposes.
The formulation of a problem situation, the creation of conditions for its transition into an educational problem, the design of a problem task - this is only the initial moment in problem-based learning. Further, under the guidance of the teacher, students must independently perform the following creative mental operations:
put forward possible options for solving cognitive activity, express hypotheses;
theoretically or practically test hypotheses;
formulate a cognitive conclusion.
Research conducted by students, in some cases, go beyond the classroom and acquire scientific and practical value. These are, for example, term papers based on the study of the economic performance of enterprises in the Taimyr Dolgano-Nenetsky municipal district, work in a creative group, didactic games "Labor market", "International trade", "Supply planning" (Protection of educational and research work of students), “Project defense”, etc. Knowledge of the essence of problem-based learning by college teachers, despite the existing different approaches to such learning and its many facets, is dictated not only by increasing the information content of the learning process in general, but also by preparing each specialist for the creative implementation of their responsibilities and a science-based approach to solving the problems that life brings.
Based on the foregoing, the teacher, relying on the advantages of problem-based learning as a system or individual methods and techniques of this system, will eventually develop a clear idea of the logic of research search, its stages, and the need to build the largest number of hypotheses in solving any problem. The main line of problem-based learning in college should be a focus on the looseness of thinking of students, a departure from excessive standardization in approaches to solving various problems, which, unfortunately, education still sometimes suffers from. Naturally, this looseness should by no means slide down to the level of denial for the sake of denial, demagogic discussion. It should serve, first of all, the awakening of the inexhaustible creative potential of the individual, whose activity is based on creation. The effectiveness of problem-based learning largely depends on the skill of the teacher, as well as on the readiness for problem-based learning of the students themselves. A prerequisite for the success of problem-based learning is the degree of formation of basic logical techniques among students: analysis, synthesis, comparison, generalization, abstraction. However, when preparing students for a working profession, there are difficulties in applying the technology of problem-based learning. This is due to the specifics of the content of the studied material and the general tasks of professional training, which most often do not require high intellectual and analytical abilities. In addition, NPO students have a low level of preparedness and a low degree of formation of logical techniques. There is a drawback in the NGO standard - the absence of hours for self-study. The limitation of independence leads to the fact that students are able to solve only ready-made, assigned tasks by someone and are not capable of independent analysis of real conditions, identifying problems, and creative approach to their actions. An analysis of work experience convinces us that our thoughts and views sometimes become the thoughts and beliefs of students, and even the manner of presentation, generalization, evidence and argumentation is sometimes used by them as a standard. However, education should stimulate and guide the mental activity of students, make them not just witnesses, accomplices in the discussion and search. It is impossible to do this without introducing elements of problematicity.
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