Ataturk's reforms and the Turkish constitution. Ataturk's Reforms Results and Significance Evaluation of Atatürk's Reforms

PLAN

Introduction. 1. Socio-political situation in Turkey after the First World War.

2. The main stages of the military-political career of Mustafa Kemal (Ataturk).

2.1. Participation in political societies.

2.2. military career.

2.3. Leadership of the national liberation movement.

3. Ataturk is the President of Turkey.

3.1. Dictatorship of government.

3.2. Ankara is the new capital of Turkey.

3.3. ideology of chauvinism.

4. Ataturk's reforms.

4.1. The secular nature of the state

4.2. European standards of public life.

4.3. Consolidation of society on the ideas of nationalism.

4.4. Support for private initiative.

5. My opinion about Ataturk and his reforms.

Conclusion.

Literature.

ATATURK

The work of a student of group 311 of the Mariupol technical school

Anishchenko Sergey Alexandrovich

INTRODUCTION

"Ataturk" in Turkish means "father of the people", and this is not an exaggeration in this case. The man who bore this surname is deservedly called the father of modern Turkey.

One of the modern architectural monuments of Ankara is the mausoleum of Ataturk, built of yellowish limestone. The mausoleum stands on a hill in the center of the city. Extensive and "severely simple", it gives the impression of a majestic structure.

Ataturk (Mustafa Kemal) is everywhere in Turkey. His portraits hang in government offices and coffee houses in small towns. His statues stand in city squares and squares. You will meet his sayings in stadiums, in parks, in concert halls, on boulevards, along roads and in forests. People listen to his praises on radio and television. The surviving newsreels of his time are regularly shown. Mustafa Kemal's speeches are quoted by politicians, the military, professors, trade union and student leaders.

1. SOCIO-POLITICAL SITUATION IN TURKEY

AFTER WORLD WAR I

How did the reforms in Turkey begin, rightly associated with the name of the great Kemal Ataturk? Turkey survived the First World War, the occupation of part of the territory, the war of liberation against the invaders, the fall of the Young Turks and the final liberation from the Sultan's regime, the collapse of the empire. The Ottoman Empire was a state ravaged by war and internal contradictions. As a result of the war, Turkey lost almost all of Eastern Anatolia, Mesopotamia, Syria, and Palestine. Almost three million men were drafted into the army, which led to a sharp drop in agricultural production. The country was on the verge of collapse.

The victorious allies fell upon the Ottoman Empire like hungry predators. It seemed that the Ottoman Empire, which had long been known as the "Big Power of Europe", was dealt a mortal blow by the war. It seemed that each of the European countries wanted to snatch a piece of it for itself. The terms of the armistice were very harsh, and the allies entered into a secret agreement on the division of the territory of the Ottoman Empire. Great Britain, moreover, did not waste time and deployed its navy in the harbor of Istanbul. At the beginning of the First World War, Winston Churchill asked: "What will happen in this earthquake to the scandalous, crumbling, decrepit Turkey, which does not have a penny in its pocket?"

During these years, an understanding of the need to create a new Turkey began to take shape. Mustafa Kemal became the spokesman for these interests.

MAIN STAGES OF MILITARY-POLITICAL CAREER

MUSTAFA KEMALA (ATATURK)

Mustafa Kemal was born in Thessaloniki, Greece, in Macedonia. At that time, this territory was controlled by the Ottoman Empire. His father was a middle-ranking customs official, his mother was a peasant woman. After a difficult childhood, spent in poverty due to the early death of his father, the boy entered the state military school, then the higher military school, and in 1889, finally, the Ottoman military academy in Istanbul. There, in addition to military disciplines, Kemal independently studied the works of Rousseau, Voltaire, Hobbes, and other philosophers and thinkers.

2.1. Participation in political societies

At the age of 20, Mustafa Kemal was sent to the Higher Military School of the General Staff. During the training, Kemal and his comrades founded the secret society "Vatan". "Vatan" is a Turkish word of Arabic origin, which can be translated as "homeland", "place of birth" or "place of residence". Society was characterized by a revolutionary orientation.

Kemal, unable to reach an understanding with other members of society, left Vatan and joined the Committee of Union and Progress, which collaborated with the Young Turks movement (a Turkish bourgeois revolutionary movement that set the task of replacing the Sultan's autocracy with a constitutional system). Kemal was personally acquainted with many key figures in the Young Turk movement, but did not participate in the 1908 coup.

2.2. Military career

When World War I broke out, Kemal, who despised the Germans, was shocked that the Sultan had made the Ottoman Empire their ally. However, contrary to personal views, he skillfully led the troops entrusted to him on each of the fronts where he had to fight. So, at Gallipoli, from the beginning of April 1915, he held back the British forces for more than a crescent, earning the nickname "Savior of Istanbul." It was one of the rare Turkish victories in World War I. It was there that he declared to his subordinates: "I do not order you to attack, I order you to die!" It is important that this order was not only given, but also carried out.

In 1916, Kemal commanded the 2nd and 3rd armies, stopping the advance of Russian troops in the south of the Caucasus. In 1918, at the end of the war, he commanded the 7th Army near Aleppo, fighting the last battles with the British and well aware that the war was lost by Turkey.

2.3. Leadership of the national liberation movement

At the end of the First World War, there was a real danger of the disappearance of Turkey as a state. However, the Turkish people were able to revive their state from the ashes, turning away from the Sultan and making Mustafa Kemal their leader. The Kemalists turned a military defeat into a victory, restoring the independence of a demoralized, dismembered, devastated country.

The Allies expected to keep the Sultanate, and many in Turkey believed that the Sultanate would survive under a foreign regency. Kemal, on the other hand, wanted to create an independent state and put an end to imperial remnants. Sent in 1919 to Anatolia to put down the unrest that broke out there, he instead organized opposition and started a movement against numerous "foreign interests". He formed a Provisional Government in Anatolia, of which he was elected president, and organized a united resistance to the invading foreigners. The Sultan declared a "holy war" against the nationalists, insisting especially on the execution of Kemal.

When the Sultan signed the Treaty of Sevres in 1920 and gave the Ottoman Empire to the allies in exchange for maintaining his power over what was left, almost the entire people went over to Kemal's side. After Kemal's army moved towards Istanbul, the allies turned to Greece for help. After 18 months of heavy fighting, the Greeks were defeated in August 1922.

Mustafa Kemal and his associates were well aware of the true place of the country in the world and its true weight. Therefore, at the height of his military triumph, Mustafa Kemal refused to continue the war and limited himself to holding what he believed was Turkish national territory.

3. ATATURK - THE PRESIDENT OF TURKEY

3.1. Dictatorship of government

On November 1, 1922, the Grand National Assembly dissolved the Sultanate of Mehmed VI, and on October 29, 1923, Mustafa Kemal was elected president of the new Republic of Turkey. Proclaimed president, Kemal did not hesitate to become a real dictator, outlawing all rival political parties and faking his own re-election until his death. Kemal used his absolute power for reforms, hoping to turn the country into a civilized state.

The new Turkish state adopted in 1923 a new form of government with a president, parliament, constitution. The one-party system of Kemal's dictatorship lasted more than 20 years, and only after the death of Ataturk was replaced by a multi-party one.

3.2. Ankara is the new capital of Turkey

Mustafa Kemal changed the capital of the state. It was Ankara. Even during the struggle

For independence, Kemal chose this city for his headquarters, since it was connected by rail with Istanbul and at the same time lay beyond the reach of enemies. The first session of the national assembly took place in Ankara, and Kemal proclaimed it the capital. He did not trust Istanbul, where everything was reminiscent of the humiliations of the past and too many people were associated with the old regime.

In 1923, Ankara was a small trading center with a population of about 30 thousand souls. Its position as the center of the country was subsequently strengthened by the construction of railways in radial directions.

The Times newspaper in December 1923 wrote with mockery: “Even the most chauvinistic Turks recognize the inconvenience of life in the capital, where half a dozen flickering electric lights represent public lighting, where there is almost no running water in the houses, where a donkey or a horse tied to the bars of a small house that serves. The Foreign Office, where open sewers run in the middle of the street, where the modern fine arts are limited to the consumption of bad aniseed raki and the playing of a brass band, where Parliament sits in a house no larger than a cricket-room."

Then Ankara could not offer suitable accommodation for diplomatic representatives, their excellencies preferred to rent sleeping cars at the station, shortening their stay in the capital in order to leave for Istanbul as soon as possible.

Nevertheless, even then, Kemal, like many other dictators (Peter 1, Ho Chi Minh, Nazarbayev, Niyazov, etc.), due to his excessive ambition, wanted to perpetuate his name.

3.3. Ideology of chauvinism

When Mustafa Kemal uttered the famous words: "What a blessing to be a Turk!" - they fell on the fertile ground of Turkish national chauvinism and sounded like a challenge to the rest of the world. This saying of Ataturk is now repeated in Turkey an infinite number of times in every way, with or without reason.

During the time of Atatürk, the "solar language theory" was put forward, which stated that all the languages ​​​​of the world originated from Turkish (Turkic). The Sumerians, Hittites, Etruscans, even the Irish and Basques were declared Turks. One of the "historical" books of the time of Ataturk reported the following: "There was once a sea in Central Asia. It dried up and became a desert, forcing the Turks to begin nomadism... The eastern group of Turks founded the Chinese civilization...”

Another group of Turks allegedly conquered India. The third group migrated south to Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and along the North African coast to Spain. The Turks who settled in the area of ​​the Aegean and the Mediterranean, according to the same theory, founded the famous Cretan civilization. Ancient Greek civilization came from the Hittites, who, of course, were Turks. The Turks also penetrated deep into Europe and, having crossed the sea, settled the British Isles. "These migrants excelled the peoples of Europe in arts and knowledge, saved Europeans from cave life and put them on the path of mental development."

Such a stunning history of the world was studied in Turkish schools in the 50s. Its political meaning was defensive nationalism, but the chauvinistic overtones were also visible to the naked eye. Ataturk widely used national chauvinism as a means of strengthening his influence on the masses and strengthening his power.

4. REFORMS OF ATATURK

Unlike many other reformers, the Turkish president was convinced that it was pointless to simply modernize the façade. For Turkey to be able to stand in the post-war world, it was necessary to make fundamental changes in the entire structure of society and culture. One can argue how successful this task was for the Kemalists, but it was set and carried out under Atatürk with determination and energy.

The word “civilization” is endlessly repeated in his speeches and sounds like a spell: “We will follow the path of civilization and come to it ... Those who linger will be drowned by the roaring stream of civilization ... Civilization is such a strong fire that one, whoever ignores it will be burned and destroyed... We will be civilized, and we will be proud of it...”. There is no doubt that for the Kemalists "civilization" meant the unconditional and uncompromising introduction of the bourgeois social system, way of life and culture of Western Europe.

4.1. The secular nature of the state

Mustafa Kemal saw in the caliphate a connection with the past and Islam. Therefore, following the liquidation of the Sultanate, he also destroyed the Caliphate. The Kemalists openly opposed Islamic orthodoxy, clearing the way for the transformation of the country into a secular state. The ground for the reforms of the Kemalists was prepared both by the spread of the philosophical and social ideas of Europe, advanced for Turkey, and by the ever-wider violation of religious rites and prohibitions. Officers - Young Turks considered it a matter of honor to drink cognac and eat it with ham, which looked like a terrible sin in the eyes of Muslim zealots.

Even the first Ottoman reforms limited the power of the ulema and took away from them part of their influence in the field of law and education. But the theologians retained enormous power and authority. After the destruction of the Sultanate and the Caliphate, they remained the only institution of the old regime that resisted the Kemalists.

Kemal, by the power of the president of the republic, abolished the ancient position of Sheikh-ul-Islam - the first ulema in the state, the Sharia ministry, closed individual religious schools and colleges, and later banned Sharia courts. The new order was enshrined in the republican constitution.

All religious institutions became part of the state apparatus. The Department of Religious Institutions dealt with mosques, monasteries, the appointment and removal of imams, muezzins, preachers, and the supervision of muftis. Religion was made, as it were, a department of the bureaucratic machine, and ulema - civil servants. The Quran was translated into Turkish. The call to prayer began to sound in Turkish, although the attempt to abandon Arabic in prayers failed - after all, in the Koran, in the end, it was important not only the content, but also the mystical sound of incomprehensible Arabic words. The Kemalists declared Sunday, not Friday, a day off, the Hagia Sophia mosque in Istanbul turned into a museum. In the rapidly growing capital of Ankara, religious buildings were practically not built. Across the country, authorities looked askance at the emergence of new mosques and welcomed the closing of old ones.

The Turkish Ministry of Education took control of all religious schools. The madrasah that existed at the Suleiman Mosque in Istanbul, which trained the ulema of the highest rank, was transferred to the theological faculty of Istanbul University. In 1933, the Institute of Islamic Studies was opened on the basis of this faculty.

However, resistance to laicism - secular reforms - turned out to be stronger than expected. When the Kurdish uprising began in 1925, it was led by one of the dervish sheikhs, who called for the overthrow of the "godless republic" and the restoration of the caliphate.

Islam existed in Turkey on two levels:

Formal, dogmatic - the religion of the state, school and hierarchy;

Folk, adapted to everyday life, rituals, beliefs, traditions of the masses, which

found its expression in dervishness.

From the inside, the Muslim mosque is simple and even ascetic. It does not have an altar and a sanctuary, since Islam does not recognize the sacrament of communion and initiation into a spiritual dignity. Common prayers are a disciplining act of the community to express obedience to the one, immaterial and distant Allah. Since ancient times, orthodox faith, severe in its worship, abstract in doctrine, conformist in politics, has failed to meet the emotional and social needs of a large part of the population. It appealed to the cult of saints and to the dervishes who remained close to the people to replace or add to the formal religious ritual. Dervish monasteries held ecstatic gatherings with music, song and dance.

In the Middle Ages, dervishes often acted as leaders and inspirers of religious and social uprisings. At other times they infiltrated the apparatus of the government and exerted an enormous, though hidden, influence on the actions of ministers and sultans. Among the dervishes there was a fierce competition for influence on the masses and on the state apparatus. Due to their close connection with local variants of guilds and workshops, dervishes could influence artisans and merchants. When the reforms began in Turkey, it became clear that it was not the ulema theologians, but the dervishes, who offered the greatest resistance to laicism.

The struggle sometimes took violent forms. In 1930, Muslim fanatics killed a young army officer, Kubilay. They surrounded him, threw him to the ground and slowly sawed off his head with a rusty saw, shouting: “Allah is great!”, While the crowd supported their deed with cheers. Since then, Kubilay has been regarded as a “saint” of Kemalism.

The Kemalists dealt with their opponents without pity. Mustafa Kemal attacked the dervishes, closed their monasteries, dissolved orders, banned meetings, ceremonies and special clothes. The criminal code banned political associations based on religion. It was a blow to the very depths, although it did not fully reach the goal: many dervish orders were at that time deeply conspiratorial.

4.2. European standards of public life

Despite the poverty in the country, Kemal stubbornly pulled Turkey by the ears into civilization.

To this end, the Kemalists decided to introduce European clothing into everyday life. In one of the speeches, Mustafa Kemal explained his intentions in this way: “It was necessary to ban the fez that sat on the heads of our people as a symbol of ignorance, negligence, fanaticism, hatred of progress and civilization, and replace it with a hat - a headdress used by the entire civilized world. In this way, we demonstrate that the Turkish nation, in its thinking, as in other aspects, does not deviate in any way from civilized social life.” Or in another speech: “Friends! Civilized international dress is worthy and appropriate for our nation and we will all wear it. Boots or shoes, trousers, shirts and ties, jackets. Of course, everything ends with what we wear on our heads. This headgear is called a "hat".

A decree was issued that required officials to wear a costume "common to all civilized nations of the world." At first, ordinary citizens were allowed to dress however they wanted, but then fez was outlawed.

For a modern European, the forced change of one headgear by another may seem comical and annoying. For a Muslim, this was a matter of great importance. With the help of clothing, the Muslim Turk separated himself from the giaurs. The fez at that time was a common headdress for a Muslim city dweller. All other clothing could be European, but the symbol of Ottoman Islam, the fez, remained on the head.

The reaction to the actions of the Kemalists was curious. The rector of Al-Azhar University and the chief mufti of Egypt wrote at the time: “It is clear that a Muslim who wants to resemble a non-Muslim by accepting his clothes will end up accepting his beliefs and actions. Therefore, one who wears a hat out of a penchant for the religion of another and out of contempt for his own is an infidel .... Isn't it crazy to give up your national clothes in order to accept the clothes of Other Nations? Statements of this nature have not been published in Turkey, but shared by many.

The change of national dress showed in history the desire of the weak to resemble the strong, the backward - to the developed. Medieval Egyptian chronicles tell that after the great Mongol conquests of the 12th century, even the Muslim sultans and emirs of Egypt, who repelled the Mongol invasion, began to wear long hair, like Asian nomads.

When the Ottoman sultans began to carry out transformations in the first half of the 19th century, they first of all dressed the soldiers in European uniforms, that is, in the costumes of the victors. Then, instead of a turban, a headdress called the fez was introduced. He took root so much that a century later he became the emblem of Muslim orthodoxy.

A humorous newspaper was once published at the Faculty of Law of Ankara University. To the editorial question “Who is a Turkish citizen?” the students answered: “A Turkish citizen is a person who marries according to Swiss civil law, is convicted according to the Italian penal code, is judged according to the German procedural code, this person is governed on the basis of French administrative law and buried according to the canons of Islam.”

Even many decades after the introduction of new legal norms by the Kemalists, a certain artificiality is felt in their application to Turkish society. “And you, friends, no matter how you dress up, you’re not good at musicians!” - this is how the great fabulist Krylov would have said about such “reforms” back in the 19th century.

Swiss civil law, revised to suit the needs of Turkey, was adopted in 1926. Some legal reforms were carried out before, under the Tanzimat (transformations of the mid-19th century) and the Young Turks. However, in 1926, the secular authorities for the first time dared to invade the reserve of the Ulema - family and religious life. Instead of the "will of Allah", the decisions of the National Assembly were proclaimed the source of law.

The adoption of the Swiss civil code has changed a lot in family relations. By banning polygamy, the law granted women the right to divorce, introduced the divorce process, and abolished the legal inequality between a man and a woman. Of course, the new code had quite certain specific features. Take at least the fact that he gave a woman the right to demand a divorce from her husband if he hid that he was unemployed. However, the conditions of society, traditions established for centuries, restrained the application of new marriage and family norms in practice. For a girl who wants to get married, virginity was considered (and is considered) an indispensable condition. If the husband discovered that his wife was not a virgin, he sent her back to her parents, and for the rest of her life she bore shame, like her whole family. Sometimes she was killed without pity by her father or brother.

Mustafa Kemal strongly supported the emancipation of women. Women were admitted to commercial faculties during the First World War, and in the 1920s they also appeared in the classrooms of the Faculty of Humanities at Istanbul University. They were allowed to be on the decks of ferries that crossed the Bosporus, although they had not been allowed out of their cabins before, they were allowed to ride in the same sections of trams and railway cars as men.

In one of his speeches, Mustafa Kemal collapsed on the veil. “She causes great suffering to a woman during the heat,” he said. - Men! This is due to our selfishness. Let's not forget that women have the same moral concepts as we do. The president demanded that "mothers and sisters of a civilized people" behave in a proper manner. “The habit of covering the face of women makes our nation a laughingstock,” he believed. Mustafa Kemal decided to introduce the emancipation of women within the same limits as in Western Europe. Women gained the right to vote and be elected to municipalities and parliament.

In addition to civil, the country received new codes for all sectors of life. The criminal code was influenced by the laws of fascist Italy. Articles 141-142 were used to crack down on communists and all leftists. Kemal did not like communists. Thus, Nazim Hikmet, recognized by the whole world, spent many years in prison for his adherence to communist ideas.

Did not like Kemal and the Islamists. The Kemalists removed the article “The religion of the Turkish state is Islam” from the constitution. The republic became a secular state both by constitution and laws.

Mustafa Kemal, knocking the fez off the head of a Turk and introducing European codes, tried to instill in his compatriots a taste for exquisite entertainment. On the very first anniversary of the Republic, he gave a ball. Most of the assembled men were officers. But the president noticed that they did not dare to invite the ladies to the dance. Women refused them, were shy. The President stopped the orchestra and exclaimed: “Friends, I can’t imagine that there is at least one woman in the whole world who is able to refuse to dance with a Turkish officer! And now - go ahead, invite the ladies! And he set an example. In this episode, Kemal plays the role of the Turkish Peter I, who also forcibly introduced European customs.

The transformations also affected the Arabic alphabet, which is really convenient for Arabic, but not suitable for Turkish. The temporary introduction of the Latin alphabet for the Turkic languages ​​in the Soviet Union prompted Mustafa Kemal to do the same. The new alphabet was prepared in a few weeks. The President of the Republic appeared in a new role - a teacher. During one of the holidays, he addressed the audience: “My friends! Our rich harmonious language will be able to express itself with new Turkish letters. We must free ourselves from the obscure icons that have held our minds in an iron grip for centuries. We must quickly learn new Turkish letters. We must teach it to our countrymen, women and men, porters and boatmen. This should be considered a patriotic duty. Do not forget that it is shameful for a nation to be ten to twenty percent literate and eighty to ninety percent illiterate.”

The National Assembly passed a law introducing a new Turkish alphabet and banning the use of Arabic from January 1, 1929.

The introduction of the Latin alphabet not only facilitated the education of the population. It marked a new stage of break with the past, a blow to Muslim beliefs.

In accordance with the mystical teachings brought to Turkey from Iran in the Middle Ages and adopted by the Bektashi dervish order, the image of Allah is the face of a person, the sign of a person is his language, which is expressed by 28 letters of the Arabic alphabet. "They contain all the secrets of Allah, man and eternity." For an orthodox Muslim, the text of the Qur'an, including the language in which it is composed and the script in which it is printed, is considered eternal and indestructible.

The Turkish language in Ottoman times became heavy and artificial, borrowing not only words, but entire expressions, even grammar rules from Persian and Arabic. Over the years, he became more and more pompous and inelastic. During the period of the Young Turks, the press began to use a somewhat simplified Turkish language. This was required by political, military, propaganda goals.

After the introduction of the Latin alphabet, opportunities opened up for a deeper language reform. Mustafa Kemal founded the Linguistic Society. It set itself the task of reducing and gradually eliminating Arabic and grammatical borrowings, many of which have become entrenched in the Turkish cultural language.

This was followed by a bolder attack on the Persian and Arabic words themselves, accompanied by overlaps. Arabic and Persian were the classical languages ​​of the Turks and brought the same elements to Turkish as Greek and Latin to the European languages. Radicals from the linguistic society were opposed to Arabic and Persian words as such, even if they were a significant part of the language that the Turks spoke every day. The Society prepared and published a list of foreign words sentenced to eviction. In the meantime, researchers were collecting "purely Turkish" words from dialects, other Turkic languages, ancient texts to find replacements. When nothing suitable was found, new words were invented. Terms of European origin, equally alien to Turkish, were not persecuted, and were even imported to fill the void created by the abandonment of Arabic and Persian words.

Reform was needed, but not everyone agreed with extreme measures. An attempt to separate from the thousand-year cultural heritage caused impoverishment rather than purification of the language. In 1935, a new directive stopped for some time the expulsion of familiar words, and restored some of the Arabic and Persian borrowings.

Be that as it may, the Turkish language has changed significantly in less than two generations. For the modern Turk, documents and books of sixty years ago with numerous Persian and Arabic constructions bear the stamp of archaism and the Middle Ages. Turkish youth is separated from the relatively recent past by a high wall. The results of the reform are beneficial. In the new Turkey, the language of newspapers, books, government documents is approximately the same as the spoken language of cities.

In 1934, it was decided to abolish all the titles of the old regime and replace them with the titles "Mr" and "Madam". At the same time, on January 1, 1935, surnames were introduced. Mustafa Kemal received from the Grand National Assembly the surname Atatürk (father of the Turks), and his closest associate, the future president and leader of the People's Republican Party Ismet Pasha, the surname Inenu (after the name of the place where he won a major victory over the Greek invaders).

Although surnames in Turkey are a recent thing, and everyone could choose something worthy for themselves, the meaning of surnames is as varied and unexpected as in other languages. Most Turks have come up with quite suitable surnames for themselves. Ahmet the Grocer became Ahmet the Grocer, Ismail the Postman remained the Postman, the Basketman became the Basketman. Some chose such surnames as Polite, Smart, Handsome, Honest, Kind. Others picked up Deaf, Fat, Son of a man without five fingers. There is, for example, the One with a hundred horses, or the Admiral, or the Admiral's Son. Surnames like Crazy or Naked could come from a quarrel with a government official. Someone used the official list of recommended surnames, and this is how the Real Turk, the Big Turk, the Severe Turk appeared.

4.3. Consolidation of society on the ideas of nationalism

The last names indirectly pursued another goal. Mustafa Kemal was looking for historical arguments to restore to the Turks a sense of national pride, undermined in the previous two centuries by almost continuous defeat and internal collapse. First of all, the intelligentsia spoke about national dignity. Its instinctive nationalism was defensive in relation to Europe. One can imagine the feelings of a Turkish patriot of those days who read European literature and almost always found the word "Turk" used with a touch of disdain. True, the educated Turks forgot how they themselves or their ancestors despised their neighbors from the comforting position of the "highest" Muslim civilization and imperial power.

Even the Congress of Izmir in 1923 adopted the "Economic Vow" on the principles of national unity and the prevention of class struggle. It says that "the Turks love each other from the bottom of their hearts, without distinction of classes and beliefs." These were not just beautiful words, but the real task of overcoming the consequences of the civil war, the split of society, resolving interethnic and social contradictions. Mustafa Kemal faced the most difficult tasks: including the consolidation of society on the ideas of healthy nationalism. For many centuries, the Turkish Empire played a leading role in world politics. This left a peculiar imprint on the consciousness of the Turks, on their way of thinking. It was more difficult to overcome the imperial stereotype, when every Turk considered himself higher than the rest of the inhabitants of the state, than even to rebuild the country's economy. Moreover, the Turkish sultan was at the same time the caliph of the faithful, and the Turks considered their country the center of the Islamic world. During the years of the Young Turk revolution, the main doctrine was Ottomanism, i.e. the desire to turn all the inhabitants of the empire into a single nation. In fact, it was about the assimilation of the rest of the peoples of the state by the Turks. Having met stubborn resistance to this policy, the Young Turks switched to the concept of "pan-Turkism". In domestic policy, pan-Turkism was still aimed at the assimilation of peoples, and in foreign policy, the subordination of other Turkic peoples from the Bosphorus to Altai to the rule of the Turks. The idea of ​​pan-Turkism was combined with the great influence of the ideas of pan-Islamism, based on the unification of Muslims under the rule of the Turkish sultan-caliph. Mustafa Kemal singled out Turkism from Pan-Turkism. Already during the liberation war against the occupation forces of the Entente, Mustafa Kemal realized that victory was possible only through the consolidation of the Turkish nation, and not the entire population of the empire. The loss of the Arabic-speaking provinces, the resettlement of the Turks from Greece, turned Turkey into a more nationally homogeneous state. This created the conditions for unification on ethnic grounds.

Thus, the Kemalists raised the issue of abandoning imperial ambitions and recognizing the right of previously conquered peoples to independently decide their own destiny. The idea of ​​national unity played such a significant role that the new Turkish army was able to stop the advance of the superior Greek troops and defeat them.

Mustafa Kemal formulated the basic principles of the national idea - motherland, nation, republic, public rights. Along with them, a number of principles were adopted, which were included in the Constitution. republicanism meant loyalty to the republican form of government; revolutionism- loyalty to the principles of the struggle for independence, nationalism- the rise of the Turkish nation; laicism- protection of the principle of separation of religion from the state; nationality- non-recognition of classes and class struggle; exercise of popular sovereignty on the basis of democracy. To varying degrees, these principles were put into practice during the reign of Atatürk and in modern times.

4.4. Support for private initiative

In the 1920s, the Kemal government did a lot to support private initiative. But socio-economic reality has shown that this method in its pure form does not work in Turkey. The bourgeoisie rushed into trade, house-building, speculation, and was engaged in skimming foam, thinking of national interests and the development of industry as a last resort. The regime of officers and officials, which retained a certain contempt for the merchants, then watched with increasing displeasure as private entrepreneurs ignored calls to invest in the industry.

The “Economic Congress”, convened by the Kemalists in Izmir in February 1923, set the task of moving from manufactory and small-scale production to large factories and plants, creating industries for which the country had raw materials, and forming a state bank. In the twenties, the government sought to expand the use of agricultural machinery. To this end, a number of laws were adopted that provided for incentive measures for peasants using agricultural machinery. The government provided all possible assistance to cooperatives, reduced railroad rates for the transportation of fruits, figs, grain, etc.

A curious form of government encouragement of the local textile industry was carried out in accordance with a law passed in December 1925. Civil servants were required to wear clothes made from domestically produced fabrics, even if these fabrics cost 10 percent more than imported ones. The difference in price was covered by state institutions and municipalities.

However, when the global economic crisis broke out, which hit Turkey hard, Mustafa Kemal turned to the policy of state regulation of the economy. This practice is called etatism. The government extended state ownership to significant sectors of industry and transport, and, on the other hand, opened markets to foreign investors. Many countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America will then repeat this policy in dozens of variants.

In the 1930s, Turkey ranked third in the world in terms of industrial development.

However, the reforms of the Kemalists extended mainly to the cities. Only at the very edge they touched the village, where almost half of the Turks still live, and during the reign of Atatürk, the majority lived.

5. MY OPINION ON ATATURK AND HIS REFORM

Atatürk as a person and political figure makes a double impression. The positive aspects of his life and the reign of Turkey, which are best known throughout the world, are set forth in the preceding chapters.

However, there are many negative traits of Atatürk's character and failures in his presidential rule, which Turkey does not want to talk about and which are carefully hidden from the world community.

Atatürk is called a stern and brilliant soldier, but his demands “not to fight, but to die” speak more about ruthlessness and tyranny than about outstanding military qualities. The inability or unwillingness to find a common language with members of political societies and non-participation in the risky activities of these societies characterize Atatürk as an uncompromising, quarrelsome person, moreover, cunning and insidious, putting personal interests obviously above collective ones.

“Pulling Turkey by the ears into civilization”, including by banning the wearing of fez, introducing civil marriages (assuming the legality of killing a woman if it turns out that she did not marry a virgin) testifies more to adventurism than to thoughtful actions.

The cult of Ataturk in Turkey, although it is official and massive, can hardly be called unconditional. Even the Kemalists who swear allegiance to his ideas actually go their own way. The assertion of the Kemalists that every Turk loves Ataturk is just a myth.

Mustafa Kemal's reforms have many enemies - overt and covert. Attempts to abandon some of its transformations do not stop in our time.

Left politicians constantly recall the repressions that their predecessors were subjected to under Atatürk and consider Mustafa Kemal simply a strong bourgeois leader. The Islamic world does not want to recognize him, thereby not forgiving the liquidation of the Caliphate.

Mustafa Kemal had both virtues and human weaknesses. He had a sense of humor, loved women and fun, but retained the sober mind of a politician. He was respected in society, although his personal life was scandalous and promiscuous. Kemal is often compared to Peter I. Like the Russian emperor, Ataturk had a weakness for alcohol. He died on November 10, 1938 from cirrhosis of the liver at the age of 57. His early death was a tragedy for Turkey.

CONCLUSION

The reforms of the outstanding Turkish statesman Mustafa Kemal (Ataturk) allowed the country, half-destroyed by the war, under the burden of the Sultan and completely dependent on religious Islamic figures, to turn into a prosperous bourgeois state, guided by European norms and standards, having a fairly developed industry and agriculture, and being an unconditional leader among the countries of the Islamic world.

LITERATURE

1. Asylbek Bisenbaev. Ataturk. – Website http://sesna.hypermart.net.

2. Mustafa Kemal (Ataturk). – Internet site http://www.peoples.ru.

3. Ataturk. - Encyclopedia "Cyril and Methodius", v. 1, CD, 1998

Ataturk program.

In 1931, the Republican People's Party, which remained the only one, adopted a detailed program and charter at its congress. The party emblem was the "six arrows" - a detailed program for building a new Turkish society. Much later, the implementation of these transformations was called "Kemalism". At present, "Kemalism" is understood broadly - as the path of development of Turkey during the period of its transformation from a semi-colonial country with a feudal-clerical system into an independent bourgeois-national state.

Republicanism. This principle was interpreted by Kemal as the establishment of a form of government that best meets the needs of ensuring the sovereignty of the Turkish nation. He believed that these forms are most inherent in the inner nature of the Turkish nation. However, it is not necessary to forget that republican ideas were disseminated in a very narrow circle of the Turkish bourgeois intelligentsia. These layers themselves appeared very recently in the course of the Tanzimat reforms and were concentrated only in the city. Moreover, not even all of Kemal's closest associates supported these ideas.

Nationalism. Ataturk, for the first time in the history of Turkish social thought, clearly contrasted healthy Turkish nationalism (“Turkism”) with the “pan-Islamism” of the “new Ottomans” and the “pan-Turkism” of the Young Turks. In the multinational Ottoman state until the beginning of the twentieth century. the ideology of the ruling elite was "pan-Islamism". Sultan Abdul-Hamid P (1876 - 1909) tried to use his spiritual authority as the "Caliph of the Faithful" for foreign policy purposes. Pan-Islamism denied the national and ethnic characteristics of other Muslim peoples and sought to create a supposedly single "Muslim nation", of course, under the auspices of Turkey.

The heyday of "pan-Turkism" fell on the beginning of the twentieth century. and was associated with the activities of the Young Turk organization "Unity and Progress". The Pan-Turkists called for the creation of an empire of the Turks, including, in addition to Asia Minor, the Balkans, Crimea, the Caucasus, the Volga region, Siberia, Turkestan, Azerbaijan, Khorasan. All these utopian ideas were based on the idea that all Turkic languages ​​are related and are only dialects of a single Turkic language.

Populism. Turkey in the early 20th century class contradictions were not as developed and sharp as in the developed capitalist countries. This allowed Ataturk to talk about the possibility of building a society of "national harmony" in Turkey. Moreover, by the word "people" Atatürk understood the entirety of the Turkish population, but without the aristocracy and sultan's dignitaries. There can be no serious contradictions between the other strata of Turkish society: workers, artisans, merchants, intelligentsia, peasants. All of them are interested in the flourishing of Turkey.

On the basis of this assertion, democratic rights and freedoms were severely curtailed. All parties except the People's Republican were banned. The Kemalists viewed liberalism in economics and politics as anarchy and argued that it was unsuitable for countries where there was development and upsurge.

Statism. Etatism (from the French word "eta" - the state) in fact, involves the regulation of the national economy, in which the public sector plays a dominant role. In essence, it was a defensive system that arose in the fight against the economic aggression of European capital. To make progress in the development of industry in the early twentieth century. within the private sector it was impossible - the national capital was too weak and could not withstand foreign competition.

Based on these ideas, the Kemalists created national banks, increased government investment, and introduced protective customs tariffs. Ethical politics did not exclude the presence of a mixed economy. However, private initiative was under the control of the state.

The implementation of the policy of "etatism" required significant economic technical means, which Turkey did not possess at that time. Therefore, in the conditions of a boycott by the major imperialist powers, it was decided to use economic assistance from the groans of medium and small countries. However, this assistance was often ineffective.

Under these conditions, the only country that provided assistance to the Turkish economy was Soviet Russia. The Soviet government was the first in the world to recognize the government of the VNST and established friendly relations with Turkey (spring 1921). In addition, the Soviet Republic donated to Turkey 10 million rubles in gold, as well as a large amount of ammunition, weapons, etc. The second major financial assistance from the USSR was provided in 1932. The USSR provided Turkey with a loan of 8 million gold dollars. The loan was not only not accompanied by any political conditions, but also did not require repayment in foreign currency.

Laicism.(from the Greek laikos - secular, worldly). According to Ataturk, he was supposed to ensure national sovereignty, deprive the monarchists and foreign imperialists of support in the face of reactionary theologians. The caliphate served as a serious support for all the opponents of the republic, and therefore the actions of the new republican government in this respect were unusually numerous and consistent. As a result of all these events, the church was separated from the state. True, it is necessary to realize that all these events were not aimed at combating religion. It was about putting it at the service of the new ruling strata and depriving the West of its main ally.

Revolutionary. It meant loyalty to the ideas of the Kemalist revolution.

Kemal Atatürk's reforms may today look limited, incomplete, not entirely democratic. But if we remember what old Turkey was and how little its face changed during the years of the Young Turks, then the transformations carried out under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal can be safely called revolutionary / Gasratyan. Essays on the history of Turkey. M., 1983, p. 187 /.

Undoubtedly, the main direction of Turkey's domestic policy has become program "Etatism". Statism was a consequence of the backwardness of Turkey. Its industry began to develop very late. Private Turkish capital, despite all the benefits, did not go into it. The vast majority of existing capital revolved in the areas of trade, financial activity and usury.

The Soviet Union provided great assistance in creating its own industrial base. In 1932, the USSR provided Turkey with a loan of 8 million US dollars on very favorable terms. Along with this, the Soviet government provided Turkey with significant amounts of industrial equipment, as well as qualified engineering personnel for its installation. Relevant drawings and project documentation were also provided. In the USSR, the training of Turkish technical personnel was organized.

Statism contributed to the creation of new relatively large enterprises and even new industries. In particular, on the basis of a Soviet loan and with the help of Soviet engineers, two large textile mills were built. Turkish production began to supply the market with many goods that until that time were imported only from abroad - sugar, cotton fabrics, building materials, paper, etc. New railways were built at the expense of the state. During these years, old railways, coal mines, and ports were purchased from foreign concession holders.

“By the end of the struggle for independence, Turkey belonged to the economically underdeveloped countries. Its economy was agrarian, semi-colonial. The Kemalists took a number of measures aimed at ensuring the economic independence of the country, which was facilitated by the measures to abolish the capitulation regime. The government bought almost all industrial enterprises and railways from foreigners, nationalized the Régi tobacco monopoly, and created a central bank.

Etatism - a form of state capitalism - contributed to the restriction of the activities of foreign capital, led to the strengthening of the positions of the Turkish national bourgeoisie. Despite the government's protectionist policy, private capital did not make large investments in the industrial sector of the economy during these years. Measures to attract foreign investment into the country did not bring the expected results either. As a result, an important point of the economic strategy "on the implementation of a rapid transition from manual industry to large-scale factory equipped with machines" was not fulfilled. Despite the abolition of "ashar" (tithe) in 1925, it was not possible to achieve a rise in agriculture, where pre-capitalist forms of landownership and exploitation of peasants still persisted.

Unfolded in the late 20's. The global economic crisis had a heavy impact on the Turkish economy. Under these conditions, the government finally decided to take the initiative into its own hands. If in the 20s it focused on the organization of bank credit and the redemption of enterprises and railways, then from the beginning of the 30s. it moved to industrial and infrastructure construction at the expense of budget financing or under state control. It was then that the Kemalist concept of “etatism” or state regulation of the economic life of the country was formulated in its final form” / Modern history of Asian and African countries, M., 2001, p. 207-208/.

The emerging economic upsurge strengthened the position of the national bourgeoisie and the strata associated with it. In an effort to suppress the clerical-feudal elements and the comprador bourgeoisie, the Kemalists embarked on a radical reformation of public life. In October 1923, the capital was transferred from Istanbul - a stronghold of the opposition - to Ankara.

A number of reforms were aimed at separating state affairs from religious ones. In March 1924, the caliphate was liquidated and all members of the Ottoman dynasty, ruling in Turkey for six centuries, were expelled from the country. The Ministry of Religious Affairs and Waqfs was abolished, the clergy were deprived of their wealth. All madrasahs were closed, and control over educational institutions was now concentrated in the Ministry of Education. Judicial proceedings were withdrawn from the introduction of the clergy. Following these reforms, a new administrative division was introduced into vilayets (provinces), directly subordinate to the center.

Reforms of 1923 - 1924 formed the basis of the first republican constitution. It was adopted on April 20, 1924, and formalized the rule of the national bourgeoisie and the groups of landowners associated with it. The liquidation of the feudal-theocratic monarchy, the sultanate and the caliphate was undoubtedly a progressive step. But the constitution, at the same time, did not have a democratic character. It endowed working people with only formal rights, and the rights proclaimed in it were not provided for the majority of the population by the real conditions of their existence. The constitution declared all citizens to be Turks. Thus, the existence of national minorities in the country was legally denied and their assimilation was sanctioned.

Beginning in 1925, a one-party CHP system was established in the country. The party leadership is merging with the state leadership very quickly, which gave the ruling elite the mechanisms of an authoritarian management system. In the minds of the Kemalists, the ideas of European democracy were firmly connected with the traditional, based on the centuries-old Ottoman experience, understanding of the predominant role of the state machine. In 1925 - 1928 New European-style criminal and civil codes were adopted. The latter forbade polygamy. A woman received equal rights with a man in matters of marriage and divorce. The European calendar and the European chronology, European clothes were introduced. The new Latin alphabet replaced the Arabic one.

The reforms under the leadership of Kemal Atatürk, along with the policy of "statism", undoubtedly revived the economic and social life of the country. In the course of the reforms, the ideology of Kemalism, one of the currents of Turkish bourgeois nationalism, finally took shape. This doctrine was reflected in the CHP programs adopted in 1927 and 1931. The main principles of Kemalism were “republicanism”, nationalism”, “etatism”, laicism”, “the unity of the Turkish people”, “revolutionary” / ibid., p. . 208-209/.

During this period, the Kemalists continued to carry out some progressive reforms. Secular education expanded. Istanbul University was reorganized. New higher educational institutions were opened in Ankara. Kemal started and led the fight for cleansing Turkish language from Arabic and Persian words and for the simplification of grammar. In April 1928, President Mustafa Kemal Ataturk created the Alphabet Commission. The renewed Turkey became a secular state, and the president tried to get rid of traces of Arab influence, among which was the Arabic script. According to the commission's estimates, the translation of the entire country into the Latin alphabet should have taken at least five years, but Atatürk decided to carry out the reform in three months. After the production of the first version of the adapted Latin alphabet, a large-scale campaign was launched to introduce it. Ataturk took a direct part in it, personally demonstrating the new alphabet in Istanbul's Sarayburun Park. In three months, all schools were transferred to the new alphabet, more than a million employees passed the exam in Latin. On November 3, 1928, the new alphabet was approved by state law.

In these years, the leadership of the republic in general did a lot in the field culture, education and national self-awareness. Before the Kemalist revolution, the Turks did not have a generally accepted self-name, there was no single language and surnames / Eremeev, 1980, p. 139/.

In Western European countries they were called "Ottomans". The Turks themselves almost never used the concept of "Turk" before. In Turkish there is no distinction between the ethnonyms "Turk" and "Turk". Only representatives of the rural strata of the population called themselves this ancient self-name. In the mouths of the Ottoman ruling class, the word "Turk" (Turk) was synonymous with "muzhik", "plebeian" and meant something rude and uncouth. The ruling elites of the Ottoman Empire themselves - city dwellers, bureaucracy, military - used either the term "Ottomans" or the term "Muslims" in relation to themselves, replacing their ethnic name with a religious one / ibid., p. 140/.

For some time, among the Kemalists, the issue of introducing a new ethnonym for the Turks - "Anatolian" was debated. This proposal was justified by the need to eliminate the confusion between the words "Turk" and "Turk", which led to the depersonalization of the Turks among the rest of the Turkic peoples. Only after the Kemalist revolution was the formation of the Turkish nation completed, and the ethnonym "Turks" became the common self-name of the Turkish people. The words "Ottomans" and "Muslims" gradually fell out of use.

A lot of problems turned out to be related to language problems. The Turkish language also did not immediately receive citizenship rights in the new Turkey. In the Ottoman Empire, the Turks had three languages ​​in circulation. Probably the most leading, especially among the ruling elite, was the Arabic language. In the language of the Koran, services were conducted in mosques, sermons were read. It was widely used in Muslim legal proceedings based on Sharia norms. The Arabic language almost completely dominated in numerous offices, the army, and in schools that were administered by the clergy. Finally, Arabic remained the only language of Islamic science.

There was also the "Ottoman" language - the official and literary language. The common people used the vernacular more. The influence of the Persian language was also very great, which had a significant influence in literature and poetry. The folk language itself (“Turkche”) was not homogeneous and was divided into a mass of dialects, which differed greatly from each other. The most honorable and popular was the Istanbul dialect - it was adopted among the aristocracy and writers.

The first serious attempts to revive the Turkic as the Turkish national language were made by Turkish nationalists at the turn of the 20th century - the "new Ottomans", and then the Young Turks. The struggle for a national language received a great impetus during the reign of the Young Turks. By this time, the national identity of the Turks had become more prominent. The growth of the national self-consciousness of the Turks was also facilitated by the fact that after the Young Turk revolution much was done in the field of education. The number of secular primary schools increased, secondary education expanded, the first women's schools were established, and new faculties were opened at Istanbul University. The first textbooks in Turkish appeared.

However, the real turning point in the "language policy" came after the Kemalist revolution. The Kemalists generally sought to develop the Turkish national culture proper and attached great importance to this. Considerable successes were achieved by them in the field of public education. Instead of the feudal-religious education system, a new secular education system began to be actively introduced. Women's education has also been greatly developed.

In general, the problem of literacy in Turkey in the early twentieth century. was unusually sharp and many Kemalist reforms often ran into problems of a broad population illiteracy. The legacy of the Ottoman Empire in this area was as follows. In 1927 (before the reforms of Kemal Ataturk) in Turkey there were 8% of literate people. By 1935, after numerous reforms and transformations, this percentage had risen only to 15. Even in today's Turkey, 30% of children do not attend school, and the number of literate people is 52% / Eremeev, 1980, p. 145/.

The low level of literacy among the Turkish population was to some extent explained by the fact that the Arabic script common in the country was very difficult to learn and write. Almost all of its letters have four different styles. Depending on where the letter is located - at the beginning, in the middle of a word or at its end. A separate letter is also read differently. Many Arabic letters differ only in the number of dots located in them. Letters are written from right to left, and numbers are written from left to right. No capital letters. Finally, the system of the Arabic alphabet itself, adapted to the Semitic languages, does not at all fit the Turkic and Persian languages, and does not take into account their phonetic features.

Turkish Alphabet Reform Law on Transition to a new script (Latin) was adopted in 1928 and from 1929 began to be put into practice. The orthography of the new Latinized Turkish writing was based on a simple principle - words are written as they are pronounced.

Along with this, gradual but steady work began to replace the Ottoman language with Turkish in all areas of state activity, social life and culture. Moreover, the Turkish language itself was subjected to a "cleansing" of numerous Arabic and Persian words. According to linguists in the 20s - 30s. 20th century Arabic and Persian inclusions accounted for up to half of the vocabulary. Instead of them, ancient Turkic words were introduced, or new words were artificially created on the basis of Turkic roots. This movement and work was led by Kemal Atatürk himself. On his initiative, the Turkish Linguistic Society was created, which became the center for the study and improvement of the language. As a result, in fact, a new Turkish language emerged, which differs sharply from the previous one. The new language was intensively introduced into public education. It began to write completely new textbooks for higher and secondary education. Only it was now broadcasting, and newspapers were published / Gasratyan et al. 1983, p. 276/.

At the same time, previously unknown problems began to arise. The older generation did not always understand this language and it arose, while the youth with difficulty analyzes the works of the classics. Even the aquatic family often found that different generations spoke different languages. To overcome this linguistic barrier, special dictionaries were published - "Ottoman-Turkish", in which old words are explained by new ones. With the help of such dictionaries, older people read newspapers.

Despite all the efforts of linguists and politicians, even today, after such a significant "cleansing", Arabicisms make up to 30% of all words in the modern Turkish language.

Another area where the Kemalists carried out many transformations was onomastics. As a result Turks have surnames. The law on their introduction was adopted in 1934. Before this reform, the Turks had only names. Moreover, most of the names came along with Islam and were of Arabic origin - Ali, Hassan, Hussein, Ibrahim, Mustafa, Mohammed, etc. In addition to introducing them in a European way, the authorities recommended that the population use their own Turkic names more, instead of Arabic ones. By a special decree, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey assigned Mustafa Kemal Pasha the surname Atatürk (Father of the Turks), thereby recognizing his outstanding services to the Turkish people.

Significantly changed in these years position of a woman. The Turkish women themselves refused the veil. The number of female students has increased significantly. There were women lawyers, women doctors, women judges. In 1930, women were granted the right to vote in municipalities, and in 1934 - in parliament. Of course, the Turkish woman has not received true equality. Inequalities persisted in matters of family law, inheritance, wages, and so on. But compared to the old Turkey, the difference was impressive / Miller, 1948, p. 200, 201/.

In 1934, the Turkish parliament passed a law on the introduction of surnames. Before the Turks had only names. At the same time, all the old titles and forms of address were canceled: pasha, bey, effendi, etc. Kemal received the surname Atatürk ("Father of the Turks") from the parliament.

The government's policy towards the worker was quite tough. to the working class. During the years of the republican regime, the number of industrial workers increased significantly. So, by 1939, thanks to static measures in the field of industry, there were about 90,000 of them. During these years, Turkish authorities and courts began to impose harsh penalties for belonging to the Communist Party and even for reading May Day leaflets. Instead of the dispersed class trade unions, the so-called "Kemalist trade unions" were created, placed under the strict control of the Republican People's Party and the police.

Fearing the labor movement, the authorities in 1937 adopted a law on labor. It was the first regulation of working conditions in Turkey's history. According to it, the workers were guaranteed an eight-hour working day, a weekly day off. Women's and children's labor in underground works was forbidden.

Concerning peasantry, then, preaching its "above class", the Kemalist party concentrated all its efforts on suppressing the slightest manifestations of the agrarian movement of the Turkish peasants. The upper strata—the landlords, rural shopkeepers, and kulaks—became the backbone of the ILP in the countryside. The rest of the peasantry still remained crushed by taxes and the bondage of usurers.

In areas with a foreign population, where Kurds, Laz, Circassians, etc. lived, the chauvinistic policy of the government manifested itself. The authorities did not recognize any rights for other peoples and generally denied the existence of a national question in the country.

Reforms in the field of Islam. For more than eight centuries of dominance in the land of Turkey, Islam has put down the deepest roots. Many reasons contributed to this. In the Ottoman Empire, the sultans always united secular and spiritual power in their hands - the emirate and the imamate, as prescribed by the canons of orthodox Islam. After the Turks conquered Egypt in 1517, where the last dynasty of Arab caliphs ruled, the Ottoman padishah also declared himself a caliph - he began to be considered the spiritual head of Muslims around the world.

In the Ottoman Empire, Islam was more than just a religion. He permeated absolutely the whole life of his adherents. It covered everyday life, state-political ideology, administrative, judicial, military and fiscal spheres of activity. Muslims shared not only religious institutions and customs. Sharia regulated all the actions of a Muslim, not only from the legal, but also from the moral and ethical side. Kadiy - a Muslim judge - judged and analyzed the offenses of the faithful only based on the norms of Sharia / Eremeev, 1980, p. 154/.

Although Islam in principle does not accept the idea of ​​the existence of intermediaries between God and man, in Turkey, as in other Muslim countries, a special group of clerics has developed. Over time, she began to play an important role in the socio-political and state life, performing the functions of interpreters and executors of Islamic laws. sheikh ul islam- the highest Muslim theologian, who had the right to interpret both religious canons and legal provisions of Sharia. In fact, he was the supreme prosecutor of the country. Without his special decree - fatwas - not a single sultan's law or innovation was considered valid. In addition, he was in charge of education and was the chief inspector of all educational institutions.

Sheikh-ul-Islam was directly subordinate to muft and - theologians and prosecutors in the field and to ad and (Muslim judges). Sheikh-ul-Islam and other ulema enjoyed the most important prerogative in the country - the inviolability of their own lives. In a despotic Ottoman society, where not a single person (the highest bureaucracy, the military and the viziers) had any guarantees of his life and property, these were the only persons who were guaranteed life. Even the Sultan himself and numerous members of his family did not have such a right.

However, in Islam in general and in Turkish society in particular, a spiritual estate clearly limited from other social groups was not formed. In the Muslim religious community, all the lower religious positions were, as it were, "on a voluntary basis." Muslim priest - imam, i.e. the main clergyman such as priest, priest, curate, etc. - was not a paid employee of the church. This position was elective and he was chosen from among his ranks by a community organization. If the imam was a poor person, the community assigned him a certain content. Among other things, the imam accepted offerings from parishioners in the event of the birth of a child, marriage, at a funeral, etc. Theoretically, the imam could come from any social environment and his wealth or lack of them did not play a role. The main thing that was required of him was a good knowledge of Islamic dogmas, the ability to read the Koran and know Muslim traditions. His main duty was to lead the general prayer meeting of the members of the community.

There was no strict hierarchy of the clergy in Islam, as can be observed in the Christian religions. In addition to Sheikh-ul-Islam, qadis and muftis, there was a fairly large group of ordinary clergy, but they were not included in the hierarchical system of Muslim ulema. These included a mullah (a clergyman who received a religious education), a khoja (teaching children the basics of Islam).

The close intertwining of religion and statehood, which was characteristic of traditional Turkey, made it difficult for the Kemalists to secularize the process of separating the church from the state and from the school. The secularization of the church in Christian countries took place in completely different conditions. In the West, religion has long established its own organization and hierarchy, which have existed in parallel with the state administrative organization and hierarchy. Here it was easy to carry out the separation of church and state. Actually, this has already happened a long time ago, and the church and the state had their own institutions and niches for activity.

In the Muslim East, the reformers faced more serious problems - in fact, they needed to create completely new administrative apparatus, jurisprudence, and a secular system of public education, free from Islamic principles.

In this regard, the Kemalists went much further than the Young Turks. The new leaders of republican Turkey decided to put an end to the dominance of clerics in the country. They saw in Islam and Islamic dogmas, in the clergy always hostile to everything new and advanced, the main obstacle to progress and mastering the modern achievements of civilization. Indeed, the rejection of the achievements of modern science and technology was hampered by the fanatical dislike of Muslim ulema for any "philosophies of giaurs." Everything that came from the "infidels" was instantly declared heresy and met with fierce resistance itself / ibid., p. 156/.

The Kemalist reforms finally separated Islam from state affairs. All levels of public education were also completely freed from the influence of Islam. They proclaimed laicism one of the cornerstones of their domestic politics.

In 1919 - 1922, when the war for independence was going on in Turkey, there were two governments in the country - the Sultan in Istanbul and the Kemalist in Ankara. The Sultan and his entourage, among whom were many representatives of the higher clergy, met with hostility the liberation struggle of the Turkish people. They accused the Kemalists of "godlessness", called them "Bolsheviks", which in their understanding was the worst insult. Many imams and mullahs of Istanbul mosques branded the Kemalists in their sermons as communists - subversives of faith in Allah. It was during these years among the ignorant sections of the Turkish population that a new synonym arose for Kemal and his supporters were considered by many to be communists ...

When Greek troops landed in Izmir, the Sultan's government, confident in their victory, provided them with all possible support. In April 1920, Sheikh-ul-Islam sentenced Mustafa Kemal in absentia to death in a series of fatwas. At the same time, sheikh-kl-islam called the soldiers of the national liberation army "robbers", calling on all segments of the population to wage a holy war against them - ghazavat. This propaganda undoubtedly had an effect on some of the most backward sections of the population. It was at this time in the spring and summer of 1920 that several uprisings against the Ankara government took place in some parts of Anatolia. All of them were successfully suppressed by Ankara.

All these actions of the clergy, especially the higher ones, who directly took the path of betraying national interests, further strengthened the Kemalists to wrest the country from under their power. Back in 1919, Mustafa Kemal for the first time declared that from now on "the sultanate and the caliphate belong to history." But at the same time, he considered unacceptable haste in resolving these difficult issues related to religion. Realizing how firmly rooted in the people of Muslim traditions, and seeing the influence of the clergy on the masses, he and his associates did not force reforms on secularization. Characteristically, the opening of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey was accompanied by Muslim rites. All the deputies first performed namaz in the mosque. Then, already at the opening ceremony, surahs from the Koran were read and sacrificial lambs were slaughtered.

Even after liquidating the sultanate in 1922, the Kemalists did not touch the Caliphate for more than a year. Instead of the last Ottoman sultan, Mehmed U1 Vahiddeddin, who fled his country on an English cruiser, the Majlis elected Abdul Mejid, an Ottoman prince, as caliph. But already in 1923 Turkey was proclaimed a republic. All these actions of the clerical reaction provoked a decisive response from the Kemalists. In March 1924, the Majlis abolished the caliphate, and the caliph himself was expelled from the country. In Turkey, a department for religious affairs was established, subordinate to the prime minister and in charge of appointing muftis and city imams. At the same time, a law on a unified secular system of public education was adopted. Spiritual education was eliminated / Eremeev, 1980, p. 157-158/.

These transformations angered the clerics. In February 1925, in the backward regions of eastern Anatolia, where the influence of the clergy was especially great, an uprising began under the leadership of Sheikh Said. The slogans of the uprising were "salvation of Islam and Sharia" and "restoration of the Caliphate." In this movement, the Kurdish tribes played the main role, and its deepest cause was a protest against national and social oppression. However, the movement was led by tribal leaders and mullahs. It took on the character of a reactionary rebellion against progressive reforms. England secretly helped the rebels.

After the suppression of the uprising, the Kemalists carried out a new series of reforms. Dervish orders were closed. It was forbidden to visit the tyurbe (the tombs of Muslim saints, because all this turned into centers of future rebellions. It was strictly forbidden to use spiritual titles - caliph, sheikh, dervish, murid (follower of the sheikh), seid (descendant of Muhammad), chelebi (head dervish order), etc.

This was followed by the introduction of European headdresses, the European calendar. One of the main ones was the abolition of Sharia and its replacement with secular codes. However, the Turkish constitution, adopted by the Kemalists in 1924, still contained Article 2, which declared Islam to be the state religion of the Republic of Turkey. Only in 1928 was this article withdrawn. In this regard, the religious formula for taking the oath by the president and parliament was replaced by a civil one. Thus, the last point was put in the decisive actions of the Kemalists to secularize Islam.

In 1928, a special commission was set up to streamline Muslim rituals. She suggested the following - to pray in mosques not in Arabic, but in Turkish. Since 1932, these measures have been implemented. The muezzin's call now began not with the Arabic words "Allah is great", but with the Turkish words "God is great."

It was not without reason that the Kemalists took up arms against the Arabic. Speculation on the knowledge of the Arabic language and the Koran gave the clergy, in the eyes of the predominantly illiterate common people, the authority of "scholarship" and even some kind of "holiness". The new Turkish intelligentsia understood this well. To replace the Arabic language in worship with Turkish meant to knock out of the hands of the clergy their main weapon - monopoly knowledge of the Arabic language and the Koran.

What is meant by laicism? Is it a rejection of religion altogether? No. The Kemalists did not oppose religion. They considered the relationship between God and man to be a personal matter for everyone. Mosques were not closed during this time. All major religious holidays continued to be official holidays. The Kemalists fought religion only where it interfered with progress. The lycism of the Kemalists never went to the complete denial of religion, and in this respect it is not at all identical with atheism. The goal of laicism is to put Islam and the Muslim clergy under the control of the government, to wrest the Turkish people from the influence of obscurantists.

And although the Kemalists themselves were never atheists and did not proclaim themselves as such, their reforms led to the fact that atheistic ideas began to spread among some urban strata and young people. Kemal Atatürk himself did not go to the mosque, did not pray, never fasted. The authority of the "Father of the Turks" strongly influenced the outlook of the younger generation, who saw him as a national hero.

After the death of Kemal Atatürk in 1938, other tendencies prevailed in the leadership of the CHP. At the end of the 40s. a generally open departure from the principles of Kemalism began. Laicism did not escape revision. The leaders of the CHP began to make serious concessions to the clerics. One of the reasons for such a policy was that since 1946, a multi-party system was introduced in the country instead of a one-party system. It has become a very common phenomenon that many parties in the struggle for votes and power began to use Islam. During these years, the CHP government allowed the pilgrimage to Mecca, the theological faculty was opened at Ankara University, it became possible to visit the places of saints, and courses on the study of the Koran multiplied.

In the 50s - 60s. 20th century Democratic Party government was in power with Menderes(won the 1950 elections). In these years, the reaction has intensified even more. Prayers were allowed to be read in Arabic. Islam lessons in elementary schools became compulsory with an examination for promotion to the next grade. During these years, Turkish pan-Islamists became more active. Turkey joined the aggressive military bloc Baghdad Pact (later CENTO), hiding behind the slogan of protecting Islam from the communists. Pan-Islamists demanded to return to the Arabic alphabet, the old vocabulary, the veil, the turban, to restore Sharia and allow polygamy and declare Islam the state religion. Feeling that the new government was supporting the clerics, extremely reactionary Islamic organizations began to raise their heads - sects, dervish orders. Fanatics desecrated and destroyed the monuments of Kemal Ataturk, and one of the adherents of the Tijani sect smashed his monument with an ax in the center of Ankara / ibid, p. 165/.

In the second half of the 1950s, after a sharp deterioration in the economic situation, the leaders of the Democratic Party began to rely even more on religion as the last hope to stay in power.

May 27, 1960 In Turkey, a coup d'état was carried out - the army overthrew the government of the Democratic Party, headed by Menderes. Along with other economic and political reasons, the dissatisfaction of the Kemalist-minded officers with a change in the course of laicism also played a role. In the eyes of the officers and part of the intelligentsia, the last period of the country's history was a regression and a movement backwards, a movement away from the foundations of European civilization. The statement of the interim government stated that from now on religion would cease to be a tool in the hands of reactionary politicians. However, it was not possible to restore laicism in its former forms and volumes.

In 1965, the Justice Party (PS) won an impressive victory in the elections. She was the direct heiress of the DP case, which was banned. The PS declared itself the defender of Islam and collected a huge number of votes. In 1970, the "Party of National Order" was founded in Turkey, which generally declared Islam and the Koran to be its ideological platforms.

An even larger and more significant event in the political life of Turkey was the emergence of the nurju sect during the years of the Democratic Party. It was founded by the Kurdish pan-Islamist Saidi Nursi. Nurcu opposes Kemalism, and launched a violent activity. Ataturk himself is declared a sect by Satan. The program of the sect - all innovations in Turkey, including the constitution, must be destroyed. The constitution must be the Quran. Supporters of the sect oppose women's equality, for polygamy. The only and true nation is Islam. The ultimate goal of the sect is the creation of a world Islamic state, the constitution of which will be the Koran. Only in this way, in their opinion, can the world victory of Bolshevism be prevented ... The sect has become an extremely dangerous phenomenon in the internal life of Turkey / ibid., p. 168-169/.

The whole essence of Kemal Ataturk's reforms was aimed at bringing Turkey closer to European standards of life, overcoming and eradicating feudal backwardness, and democratizing society. After 1923, the process of establishing the Republic of Turkey began. So, by decree of March 3, 1924, the caliphate was liquidated. Over the decade from 1924 to 1934, extensive reforms were carried out in the field of state structure, legal relations, culture and life, and other spheres of life. In 1923, the government's People's Republican Party was created, and in 1924, a republican constitution was adopted, documenting the foundations of the new republic. Within the framework of the Constitution, Muslim theological schools (madrasas) and religious courts, which operated on the basis of Sharia, were abolished. The orders of dervishes and their cloisters were closed as part of the fight against vagrancy. In addition, the European calendar and chronology are pleasant. As a result of the ongoing constitutional reforms, a new civil and labor code was adopted, polygamy was abolished, the transition from the Arabic alphabet to Latin was made, women were granted the right to vote in elections, first to municipalities, and then to parliament. In the economic sphere, measures were taken to free the Turkish economy from foreign capital - almost all banks were canceled and bought out, national banks were founded. In the industrial sector, too, almost for the first time, since the end of the 19th century, active reforms were carried out: a number of railways, ports, and industrial enterprises were built. In 1932, Turkey received a long-term loan and technical assistance from the USSR for the construction of textile mills in Kayseri and Nazilli. However, the industrial development of Turkey did not lead to the creation of heavy industry, the agrarian question was not resolved, which led to the narrowness of the domestic market and hindered the growth of national industry. The reforms of the Kemalists evoked fierce resistance from feudal-clerical and comprador elements. The reforms carried out by Ataturk's government, which were radical for Turkey, aroused resistance from many sectors of society. Already in 1926-1927, anti-government protests began, which were suppressed. There are a number of contradictions in the reforms of Ataturk and the general situation of the Turkish Republic. For example, while encouraging the development of agriculture, the Kemalists refused to carry out a radical agrarian reform, and the working class, despite the rapid development of the industrial sector, still had practically no rights. Ataturk died in 1938. Instead, Ismet İnönü was elected president of the republic and chairman of the CHP, who attracted a number of figures who had previously been in opposition to Ataturk to leadership positions. However, this could not stop the reforms initiated by Ataturk and quite successful. The new Constitution of the Republic of Turkey, adopted in 1961, the third in a row, documented the continuation of the vector of Europeanization of Turkey and the creation of a secular state with democratic principles from a Muslim agrarian power. Today, Turkey continues the path started by the father of the nation Kemal Ataturk, being a full member of the European family.

CONCLUSION

The modern history of Turkey dates back to the 19th century, when the influence of the Ottoman Empire weakened and it began to disintegrate. Fearing the division of the country and the loss of independence, Mustafa Kemal stood at the head of the nation and in 1923 became the first president of the Turkish Republic. On October 29 of the same year, Turkey was proclaimed a republic, and a year later, a new Constitution of the country was adopted. The history of Turkey in the 20th century is associated with the reign and personality of Mustafa Kemal, as a result of whose reforms religion was separated from the state, and many religious customs were abolished. European trends have become relevant. As a result, a state was created with oriental piquancy and rationalism of the west. Since that time, the state has tried in every possible way to reduce the influence of religion on the life of the people - secularism is still the basis of Turkey's domestic and foreign policy and, as a result, a guarantee of its further development. The transformation of Turkey into a secular state, overcoming economic backwardness, and the current high place occupied by Turkey in modern world politics, became possible precisely thanks to the activities of Ataturk. Having abolished all the laws and customs of the "sultan's time", Atatürk turned a closed and backward European state, which after the death of the great Sultan Suleiman Kanuni turned into a weak resemblance of a former powerful structure, into a developed European country. He owns the elimination of the sultanate and Sharia, the introduction of secular education, the reform of clothing, the adoption of European-style codes, the separation of church and state, a total educational reform, granting women the right to vote in elections (Turkey was the first among Muslim countries to do this). It was this huge set of reforms that made Turkey the modern state we are seeing today. Ataturk is very loved and revered by the inhabitants of the Turks. Perhaps only Suleiman the Magnificent can boast of such respect for the nation. Having a portrait of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk is considered good form for a minister, a cafe, and a gift shop. The reforms carried out after the coming to power of Ataturk and his other Kemalist associates made possible the functioning of Turkey in the form in which we observe it now, the country thanks to them has become the largest geopolitical player on the world map.

LIST OF USED LITERATURE

1. Aliyev G. Z. Turkey during the reign of the Young Turks. - M.: Nauka, 1972. - 388 p.

2. Eremeev D. E., Meyer M. S. History of Turkey in the Middle Ages and Modern Times. M., 1992. - 248 p., ill.

3. History of Turkey XX century / N.G. Kireev. - Moscow: IV RAN: Kraft+, 2007. - 608 p.

4. Lord Kinross. Rise and fall of the Ottoman Empire - M.: Kron-press, 1999. - 696 p.

5. Ottomans: Great Dynasties of the World Biographies. Coats of arms. genealogical trees. - M .: "ARIA-AiF", 2012. - 96s

6. Stone N. Brief history of Turkey. – M.: AST. - 2014. - 250 p., ill. ("Pages of History")

7. 3. Shirokorad A.B. Turkey. Five centuries of confrontation. – M.: Veche, 209. – 400 p.

“How happy is the one who says: “I am a Turk!”

Ataturk

Turkish officer (by education), founder and first President of the Republic of Turkey.

At birth, he received the name Mustafa; nicknamed Kemal ("Perfection") received in military school for his mathematical abilities. With the introduction of surnames in Turkey - in a European way - in 1934 he took the surname Ataturk, meaning "Father of the Turks"

Between 1904 and 1908 created several secret societies to fight corruption in the government and the army.

Mustafa Kemal Ataturk on the basis of personal dictatorship, he abolished the sultanate and the caliphate, pursued a policy of modernization and reform of Turkey according to the Western model.

“... after another battle with deputies who did not understand anything about military affairs, he bitterly noted: “Democracy is a good thing, but only to certain limits! And how all these people cannot understand that I myself know how to do it! And they must do what I demand of them!” And although "all these people" continually accused him of dictatorial habits, one can understand him. Endowed with talents more than all of his surroundings put together, he now and then became a hostage of ignorant people.

Ushakov A.G., The Phenomenon of Ataturk. Turkish ruler, creator and dictator, M., Tsentrpoligraf, 2002, p. 197.

In 1928, the Latin alphabet was introduced in Turkey, to which several new characters were added to better express the Turkish language.

The ideology of Kemalism, enshrined in the Turkish constitution of 1937 and includes 6 items:

nationality;
- republicanism;
- nationalism;
- secularism (Islam is not the state religion of Turkey);
- state control in the economy;
- reformism.

After revealing another conspiracy Mustafa Kemal Ataturk said:. “All my deeds were inspired by only one passion: to make Turkey independent and strong. To do this, I drove all enemies from its territory, concluded an honorable peace and destroy everything that prevents the Turkish people from moving towards the future. Don't talk to me about the Sultan and Caliph! Do not repeat the nonsense that I did away with them because of some personal hatred for them! I've done away with them to bring you back to yourselves! I conquered the army! I conquered the country! I have conquered the power! The people who were executed that night wanted to stop me. They wanted to separate me from what is the meaning of my whole life: from the Turkish people! I have smitten them and will do the same every time I am hindered, trying to stand between the people and me! Let everyone know about it. Turkey is me! Trying to kill me is trying to kill Turkey! Thanks to me, she breathes, and thanks to her, I live! Blood spilled. It is inevitable... Of course, you will say that revolutions are always bathed in blood, but a revolution that is not watered with blood is not permanent. I want my creation to follow me! Every great movement must take root in the depths of the people's soul: this is the natural source of all strength and greatness. Everything else is ashes and dust! I know many nations ... I have seen them on the battlefields, in the face of death, when the character of a person appears in all its nakedness. And I swear to you that the spiritual strength of the Turkish people is second to none in the world. I lead my people by the hand until the moment they themselves choose their guide and leader of their own free will. Only then will my mission be completed and I can leave... But not before!”

Ushakov A.G., The Phenomenon of Ataturk. Turkish ruler, creator and dictator, M., Tsentrpoligraf, 2002, p. 308.

“At the end of the 19th century, a liberal political movement took shape in Turkey - "Young Turks". Their immediate goal is the struggle against feudal absolutism. The Young Turks put forward the ideology of Ottomanism. It is based on Western values: the categories of fatherland, citizenship, equality. It was based on the doctrine of the merging of the peoples of the empire into a kind of integral community. These ideas, as well as reforms, meet with resistance and misunderstanding. However, something in the Turkish world is changing. The isolationist reaction of Abdul-Hamid could not affect military education, and in 1908 the young officers, who had absorbed the ideas of the Young Turks, made a revolution. Abdul-Hamid is overthrown, a constitutional monarchy is established in the country. Turkey is entering the next modernization cycle. The reforms of the Young Turks led to some step forward, but also did not affect the foundations of medieval society.

In the First World War, Turkey fights on the side of Germany (we note, also a country that is modernizing and therefore opposing itself to the leaders of the Western world) and is defeated. Revolution Kemal Ataturk 1918-1923 marks a milestone. Kemal realized that half-measures in the matter of Westernization that do not affect the foundations of Islamic society are not only insufficient, but disastrous for Turkey.

Concentrating dictatorial power in his hands, he does the most important thing at once. Between 1923 and 1928, the emancipation of women is carried out by law, Islam is separated from the state, the Arabic alphabet is replaced by the Latin one. All types of religious education were banned, dervish orders and monasteries were liquidated, the wearing of turban and fez was forbidden, and women stopped wearing the veil. There is a persistent formation of national culture and national identity. The Turks are explained that they are not Muslims, but Turks.

Practically Ataturk implemented a holistic program of modernization and Westernization of Turkish society. Reforms are implemented with all the might of the state and rely on the most powerful charisma Ataturk. The forms of resistance to the radical reform of society are manifold.

Everywhere there is a secret teaching of Arabic and the Koran. People are afraid to accept a new culture coming from the West.”

Yakovenko I.G., Knowledge of Russia: civilizational analysis, M., “Russian Political Encyclopedia”, 2012, p. 529-530.

In the 20th century, the cult of Ataturk's personality was formed in Turkey and is now being maintained, and, in particular, it is forbidden for anyone to bear this surname ...

In 1923 he was elected president of Turkey Mustafa Kemal. The main direction, the goal of the reforms is modernization of the country.

Exactly muslim mentality, who always resisted alien ideas, assuming that they already had all the best, was the main brake on change. M. Kemal understood this well, and therefore decided to start reforms with religion.

March 3, 1924 the Majlis decided to liquidation of the Caliphate. The structure that unites Muslims around the world has collapsed. Caliph Abdul Mejid II and all members of the family of the former Sultan had to leave the country. Dervish orders and monasteries were dissolved, the Ministry of Religious Affairs and Waqfs was liquidated. In April, religious court rulings were abolished. The madrasas are closed. All schools came under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education.

That's how he showed himself first principle of reform- laicism, i.e. secularism, department religions from the state.

The country has established tough dictatorship headed by President M. Kemal. He relied on his enormous prestige in society, on the army supporting him, and on the army he created in 1923. People's Republican Party. Centralization was strengthened. The country is divided into districts-vilayets.

In February 1925 in Turkey The Kurdish uprising began. Despite the official slogan - the demand to restore the caliphate - the main reason for the Kurds to oppose the reforms of M. Kemal was his policy of turning all national minorities into Turks. This showed the second the principle of reforms is nationalism.

Ismet Pasha was again appointed prime minister. A law on "protection of order" was passed, giving the government emergency powers. As a result, by April 1925, the Kurdish uprising was crushed.

The suppression of the speeches of the Kurds was accompanied by a tightening of the domestic political regime: all opposition newspapers were closed, the Progressive Republican Party was banned, mass arrests and trials were carried out. True, some positive consequences should also be noted: the tax in kind (ashar - “tithe”) was eliminated, and the tobacco concession that caused indignation in Turkey was abolished. This was the beginning of the radical reforms of M. Kemal.

Already in 1925, mandatory for all European clothes and hats. December 25, 1925 in Turkey was European calendar introduced and chronology, the day off was Sunday (not Friday, as in all Muslim countries). Later, in 1934, a law came into force in Turkey "On the introduction of surnames", as is customary in Europe. Mustafa Kemal himself received the surname Atatürk (father of the Turks), his faithful companion Ismet Pasha - the surname Inenu (in memory of previous merits).

All this time in Turkey laws were revised according to European models. On February 17, 1926, the Majlis approved the Civil Code. It fixed the rights of the person and property similarly to the legislation of European countries. Sharia courts were abolished, legal proceedings were introduced according to the European model, which entailed the training and formation of legally trained specialists. In 1927 a criminal code was adopted.

A special section in the Civil Code is dedicated to women's rights. In Turkey, polygamy was prohibited, civil marriages were introduced, the divorce process was regulated, Muslim women received the right to marry a non-Christian, and it was allowed to change religion. Formally, the code proclaimed the equality of men and women, but it took time to introduce these norms into the life of society.

In 1927, women received the right to work in state institutions, in 1930 - to participate in local elections, and since 1934 - in elections to the Majlis (19 women deputies were elected to the first Majlis).

On November 7, 1928, the Majlis adopted Law on the new alphabet. Now the implementation has begun. There were campaigns to eradicate illiteracy. The whole country studied the new alphabet, spelling rules.

Brief period of "liberalization" came at the very end of the 1920s. In March 1929, the law "On the Protection of Order" was repealed, and the activities of opposition parties were allowed. In August 1930, serious opposition reappeared in the political arena in the person of the Liberal Republican Party. Mass demonstrations were organized in support of Ali Fethi Bey. The government of M. Kemal gave a "reverse move". At the end of 1930 all opposition parties were banned.

In 1931 was accepted new program of the Republican People's Party. She is known as program "6 arrows": 1) republic; 2) nationalism; 3) nationality; 4) etatism; 5) laicism; 6) revolutionism - loyalty to the ideals of the Kemalist revolution. The program reflected the main principles of the reforms and tasks for the future. It consolidated the structure of the political regime.

One of the cardinal principles of the reforms was etatism. In economic life, this meant the leading role of the state.

In 1929, the 5-year period ended, during which, according to the Lausanne Treaty, Turkey had to maintain low customs duties. In the same year, the Law on Customs Tariffs was passed, which enabled Turkey to introduce protectionist tariffs to protect its young industry, which was very important in the conditions of the beginning of the global economic crisis.

Changes in the agricultural sector were more modest. In addition to the abolition of the tax in kind in the early 1920s. landless peasants were allotted land from the state fund (at the expense of lands expropriated from the Greeks, Armenians and Kurds). .

AT 1936 passed a comprehensive law about labor." He established an 8-hour working day, limited overtime work, regulated working conditions, in particular, prohibited hard work for women and adolescents. Social benefits were also introduced: payment in case of illness and maternity leave, etc. True, the activities of the workers themselves in support of their interests were strictly prohibited. For example, it was impossible to strike. But the workers, too, were protected from lockouts.

36. Historical origins of the Middle East conflict

Palestine has a long history associated with three great civilizations. There are holy places of Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Jewish states existed in biblical times, until in 721 BC. e. Assyria did not destroy Israel. In 526 BC. e. Babylon captured Judah. The dispersion of Jews all over the world began. Subsequently, the state of Judea was restored and existed until the 1st century BC. already AD, until it was destroyed by Rome.

Since then, attempts to re-establish the Jewish state have been made repeatedly, the last of them failed with the suppression of the Bar Kochba uprising in 135 AD. e. The Jews settled around the world, but, thanks to their adherence to their religion and traditions, they preserved the community.

In the 7th century n. e. The Arabs, inspired by the new religion, went beyond the borders of Arabia and settled in the territories of the Middle East and North Africa. They reached the depths of Central Asia, but failed to maintain the unity of their empire. From the 14th century The largest Islamic state becomes the Ottoman Empire, which subjugated the territory of Palestine.

The idea of ​​the return of the Jews to their historical homeland was revived at the end of the 18th century: it is known that Napoleon during his Egyptian campaign intended to recreate the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Then, I) XIX century., These ideas were put forward by the governments of France and England, attempts were made to resettle the Jews in Turkish Palestine.

At the very end of the XIX century. arises Zionism is a political movement, whose main goal is the return of the Jews and founding a state in Palestine. His spiritual father Theodor Herzl is the author of the book The State of the Jews published in 1896. In 1897, under his leadership, the 1st Zionist Congress took place in Basel, since then they have been held regularly. On the eve of the First World War, the influx of Jews to Palestine increased - there were then about 85 thousand of them.

Since November 1914, the Ottoman Empire has been involved in the war on the side of Germany. Since most of the Jews living in Palestine had foreign citizenship (that is, the citizenship of those European countries from which they came), the Turks on December 17, 1914 raised the question: Jews should either leave Palestine or accept Turkish citizenship. Those who accepted citizenship were sent to work in the special battalions "Amalia"; and those who refused were arrested and deported. During the war, the number of Jews in Palestine dropped to 56,000.

The British launched an offensive against the Turks only in March 1917, they managed to reach Palestine by the summer of 1917. November 2, 1917 UK Foreign Secretary A. Balfour sent letter to Lord L.W. Rothschild who belonged to the London branch of well-known financiers and was considered the patron of many Jewish organizations. In it, he directly spoke of his intention to create a Jewish national home in Palestine and invited the Zionist Committee to take part in this. This letter came to be featured later as Balfour Declaration.

Immediately after the end of the war began mass immigration of Jews to Palestine: they bought land, took contracts for construction work, created kibbutzim. In February 1919, the General Arab Congress decided: to prohibit the sale of land to Jews and to suspend further immigration; Zionist demands for the creation of a future Jewish state in Palestine were also rejected.

The British military administration in Palestine was pro-Arab and sought to change the position of the British government. In the spring of 1920, there were clashes between Arabs and Jews in Palestine - the British authorities suppressed the "riots".

In April 1920 England received an official League of Nations mandate to govern Palestine. Herbert Samuel (a Jew by nationality) was appointed High Commissioner of Palestine, he remained in this post until 1925.

After 1933, the flight of Jews began from Germany and intensified immigration them to Palestine. This led to Arab uprising. It started in April 1936 when the newly established Muslim Supreme Council called for a general strike. His demands to the authorities of the English Mandate boiled down to the following: to prohibit the entry of Jews into Palestine, as well as the sale of land to them, to create a government responsible to the so-called Council of People's Representatives.

During the riots, violent acts against Jews took place - hundreds of them were killed, many houses were burned.

On July 30, 1937, the Cabinet of Ministers in England, following the conclusions of the Peel Commission, made the following decision: to divide Palestine into two parts - Arab and Jewish - for the entire transition period, up to the declaration of independence. Outside the territory allocated to the Jewish community, Jewish immigrants are prohibited from acquiring land and settling.

This decision did not suit both sides: in August 1937 it was rejected by the Zionist Congress, in September 1937 - by the Pan-Arab Conference in Syria.

May 17, 1939 published the official position of the government in "White Paper": England abandoned the Balfour Declaration, the sale of land to Jews was prohibited, Jewish immigration was limited to 75 thousand people for 5 years; within 10 years to be proclaimed a single independent state in Palestine.

This decision caused outrage in the Jewish community: protests began. The Jewish Agency creates new settlements without the consent of the British; illegal immigration to Palestine is on the rise. 3 months later World War II broke out.