The situation of autonomous existence. Principles of survival in conditions of forced autonomous existence

Forced autonomy (forest survival)

A person may find himself face to face with nature for the following reasons: a transport accident; escape; search for something (treasure); travel; picking mushrooms, berries; tourism.

All possible situations are divided into two groups:

• 1) situations in which you need to stay put.
• 2) situations in which you need to move.

Survival in the forest.

There are many cases when people, having gone into the forest and not having sufficient experience and knowledge of local conditions, easily lost their way and, having lost their bearings, found themselves in distress.

How should a person get lost in the forest behave? Having lost orientation, he must immediately stop moving and try to restore it with the help of a compass or using various natural features. If this is difficult, then temporary parking should be arranged in a dry place, which is not easy to do, especially in moss forests, where the ground is covered with a continuous carpet of sphagnum, which eagerly absorbs water (500 parts of water to one part of dry matter). A canopy, a hut, a dugout can serve as a temporary shelter.

In warm weather, you can limit yourself to building a simple canopy. Two 1.5-m stakes as thick as an arm with forks at the end are driven into the ground at a distance of 2-2.5 m from each other. A thick pole is laid on the forks - a load-bearing beam. Four to five poles are leaned against it at an angle of 45-60 ° and fixed with a rope or flexible branches. Three or four poles are tied to them (parallel to the ground) - rafters, on which, starting from the bottom, figuratively (so that each subsequent layer covers the underlying one to about half), spruce branches, branches with dense foliage or bark are laid. Litter is made from spruce branches or dry moss. The canopy is dug in with a shallow groove so that water does not flow under it in case of rain.

A gable hut is more convenient for housing. It is built according to the same principle, but the poles are laid on both sides of the bearing beam. The front of the hut serves as an entrance, and the back is covered with one or two poles and braided with spruce branches. Before starting construction, it is necessary to prepare materials - branches, beams, spruce branches, bark. To obtain pieces of bark of the desired size, deep vertical cuts are made on the larch trunk (to wood) at a distance of 0.5-0.6 m from each other. Then, from above and below, these strips are cut with large teeth 10-12 cm in diameter and the bark is carefully peeled off with an ax or knife. In winter, you can build a snow trench for shelter. It is opened in the snow at the foot of a large tree. The bottom of the trench is lined with several layers of spruce branches, and the top is covered with poles, tarps, parachute fabric.

Being in the taiga, it is difficult to move among the rubble and windbreaks, through thick forests overgrown with shrubs. The apparent similarity of the environment (trees, terrain folds, etc.) can completely disorient a person, and he will move in a circle, unaware of his mistake. But, knowing various signs, you can navigate to the cardinal points even without a compass. So, the bark of birch and pine on the north side is darker than on the south, and tree trunks, stones, ledges of rocks are densely covered with moss and lichens. Resin drops on the trunks of coniferous trees stand out from the north side less abundantly than from the south. All these signs are clearly expressed in a single tree in a clearing or edge.

To maintain the intended direction, a well-marked landmark is usually chosen every 100-150 m of the route. This is especially important if the path is blocked by a blockage or thick bushes, which force you to deviate from the direct direction. Trying to go ahead is always fraught with injury.

The transition in the taiga in winter is extremely difficult, when the snow cover is very deep and it is almost impossible to overcome snow-covered areas without snowshoe skis. With a certain skill, such skis are made in the form of a frame of two branches 2-2.5 cm thick and 140-150 cm long. The front end of the ski, steamed in water, is bent up, and the frame (the width in the center should not be less than 30 cm) braided with thin flexible branches. In the front of the ski, four transverse and two longitudinal strips make support for the foot according to the size of the shoe.

In winter, you can move along the beds of frozen rivers, while observing the necessary precautions. Thus, it must be remembered that the current usually breaks the ice from below, and it becomes especially thin under snowdrifts near steep banks. In the riverbeds with sandbars, streaks often form, which, when frozen, turn into a kind of dam. Most often they are hidden under deep snow and are difficult to spot. Therefore, it is better to bypass all obstacles on river ice, and in places where rivers bend, one must stay away from the steep bank, where the current is faster and the ice is thinner. Often, after the river freezes, the water level drops so quickly that “pockets” form under the thin ice, representing a great danger. On the ice, which seems not strong enough, and there is no other way, they crawl. In spring, the ice is thinnest in areas overgrown with sedge and near flooded bushes.

Small taiga rivers are quite passable for light inflatable boats and rafts. In the center of the raft, you can build a small shelter (hut) from rain and wind and prepare a place for a fire by pouring layers of sand or pebbles. To control the raft, two or three long poles are cut down. An anchor can be a heavy stone with a strong rope.

The most insidious obstacles in the taiga are swamps and bogs. A characteristic feature of the swampy area is its poor habitation, the absence of roads, the presence of difficult-to-pass, and sometimes completely impassable areas. Marshes are rarely equally passable throughout and at different times of the year. Their surface is very deceptive. The swampy bogs are the most difficult to pass, the distinguishing features of which are the whitishness of the surface layer.

It is easy to get around small wetlands by stepping on hummocks or rhizomes of shrubs, or to wade, having previously felt the bottom with the sixth. After making sure that it is impossible to pass or bypass dangerous areas, you can sketch a few branches, lay several poles crosswise or tie a mat of reeds, grass, straw, and cross this prepared "bridge" to solid ground.

Lakes overgrown with peat cover are a great danger to humans. They often have deep shady ponds, covered with floating plants and grass from above, and these "windows" are almost indistinguishable from the outside. You can fall into them suddenly if you neglect the precautions. Therefore, when passing through an unfamiliar swamp, you should step slowly, carefully, without making sudden movements, always have a pole with you and feel the ground ahead.

Having fallen into a swamp, you do not need to panic, make sudden movements. It is necessary to carefully, leaning on a pole lying across, take a horizontal position, then try to get the reeds, grass with your hands and, pulling yourself up, crawl away from the dangerous place. If several people move through the swamp, you need to stay close to each other in order to be able to help a comrade at any moment.

You can check the thickness of the peat layer, its density and hardness of the soil using a metal pin with a diameter of 20 mm with notches every 10 cm. To overcome vast swampy spaces, bogshoes and other devices can be made from improvised means.

Cooking and lighting a fire.

Fire is necessary for heating, drying clothes, signaling, cooking, purifying water by boiling it. Survival time will increase or decrease depending on your ability to make fire.

With matches, you can make a fire in any conditions and in any weather. If action is expected in remote areas,

stock up on a sufficient number of matches, which should always be kept with you in a waterproof bag. It is necessary to learn how to keep the flame of a match as long as possible in strong winds.

Fuel, tinder, and locating a fire.

A small fire is easier to build and control than a large one. A few small fires lit around you in cold weather will provide more heat than a large fire.

Determine and clearly define the location of the fire to avoid a large forest fire. The first step when you need to build a fire on wet soil or snow is to build a platform out of logs or rocks. Protect the fire from the wind with a shield (windbreaker) or a reflector that will direct the heat in the desired direction.

Use dried trees and branches as fuel. In wet weather, you will find dry fuel under the trunks of fallen trees. In areas with sparse vegetation, dry grasses, animal fats, and sometimes even coal, shale tar or peat, which may be on the soil surface, can be used as fuel. If there is wreckage of an aircraft involved in an accident nearby, use a mixture of gasoline and oil (petroleum) as fuel. Some plants can also be used, but in no case are poisonous.

To make a fire, use something that quickly ignites, for example, small blocks of dry wood, fir cones, tree bark, twigs, palm leaves, dried spruce needles, grasses, lichens, ferns, spongy threads of a giant puffball (mushroom), which also edible. Before trying to light a fire, prepare shavings from dry wood. One of the most convenient and best materials for making a fire is the rot of dead trees or logs. Rot can be found even in wet weather by scraping the wet top layer of such wood with a knife, a sharp stick, or even with your hands. Paper and gasoline come in handy as tinder. Even in the rain, the resin from fir cones or dry stumps will quickly catch fire. Dry birch bark also contains resinous substances that quickly catch fire. Lay these materials in the form of a wigwam (hut) or stack of logs.

Maintain the fire properly. Use freshly cut logs or the end of a thick, rotten log to keep the fire burning slowly. Protect the red lights from the wind. Cover them with ashes and a layer of soil on top. Thus, it will be easier for you to maintain the fire than to start it again.

In northern ice or areas where other fuels are not available, animal fat should be used.

Lighting a fire without matches.

Before you try to start a fire without matches, prepare some dry flammable materials. Then shelter them from wind and moisture. Good substances can be rot, patches of clothing, rope or twine, dry palm leaves, wood shavings and sawdust, bird feathers, woolly villi of plants, and others. To stock up on them for the future, put some in a waterproof bag.

"Sun and lens". A camera lens, a convex lens from binoculars or a telescope, and finally a mirror can be used to focus the sun's rays on flammable substances.

• * Flint and steel (steel plate) *. In the absence of matches, this is the best way to quickly light dry tinder. The flint can be the corresponding side of a waterproof matchbox or a hard piece of stone. Hold the flint as close to the tinder as possible and strike it against a steel knife blade or some small piece of steel. Hit so that the sparks hit the center of the tinder. When it starts to smoke, lightly blow on the flame. You can add some fuel to the tinder, or you can transfer the tinder to the fuel. If you can't strike a spark with the first stone, try another.
• *Rubbing wood against wood*. Given that friction is difficult to produce fire, use it as a last resort.
• 1) * Bow and drill *. Make a resilient bow by pulling it with a cord, rope or belt. Use it to spin a dry, soft shaft through a small hole made in a dry, hard block of wood. As a result, you will get a powdery black dust, in which a spark will appear with further friction. Lift up the block and sprinkle this powder on the flammable substance (tinder).
• 2) * Making a fire with a belt *. To do this, use a thick strip of dry rattan (palm wood) about 1 to 4 inches thick and 2 steps long, and dry wood. Set it on the ground, split at one end, and insert another shaft to keep the first split. Insert a small ball of tinder into the split and grab it with a belt, with which you begin to rub back and forth, while supporting the shaft with your legs.
• 3) *Getting fire with a "saw"*. It consists of two pieces of dry wood, which diligently rub one against the other. This method is used mainly in the jungle. For friction, use a dissected piece of bamboo or other dry wood and the shell of a coconut flower as a wooden base. A good tinder is the brown fluff that covers the bee palm and the dry stuff you find at the base of the coconut leaves.
• 4) * Ammunition and gunpowder *. Prepare a pile of dry wood and other flammable material. Put at its base gunpowder poured out of several cartridges. Sprinkle some gunpowder on the two stones you have chosen. Hit them together close to the base

tinder. The sparks ignite gunpowder and tinder.

Fire for cooking.

A small fire and something like a stove is all that is required for cooking. Arrange the logs for the fire crosswise to create an even layer of embers. Build a simple contraption out of two logs, stones, or a narrow ditch in which to place cooking utensils on the fire. A large tin can can serve as a mobile stove, especially in northern conditions.

The best temperature for cooking will provide an even layer of coals.

For baking, fire should be lit in a hole.

Underground fires, often practiced by the Indians, require one or more vents to be drilled upwind. Vents play the same role as the exhaust pipe in the stove. This cooking method has great survival safety benefits as it greatly reduces the possibility of detecting smoke and fire. In addition, it neutralizes the negative effect of strong winds.

In addition to a fire for cooking, you can use:

Various primus stoves (disadvantage - explosiveness and strong smell

gasoline);

• - butane burners (very light and clean);
• - various folding stoves, working on wood, dry grass,

dry fuel (very economically consume fuel);

Various dry fuel fired tiles (non-explosive,

odorless and very clean; disadvantage - they work on one type of fuel).

When choosing fire accessories, it is necessary to take into account the specific route and terrain conditions.

WATER SUPPLY

It is known that the human body is almost 65% water. Water is part of the tissues, without it the normal functioning of the body, the implementation of the metabolic process, the maintenance of heat balance, the removal of metabolic products, etc. is impossible. Dehydration of the body by only a few percent leads to disruption of its vital functions. Lack of water during the day (especially in hot areas) already has a negative effect on the morale of a person, reduces his combat effectiveness, strong-willed qualities, and causes rapid fatigue.

The loss of a large amount of water by the body is dangerous to human life. In hot areas, without water, a person can die in 5-7 days, and without food, in the presence of water, a person can live for a long time. Even in cold zones, a person needs about 1.5-2.5 liters of water per day to maintain normal performance.

If the amount of water that a person loses reaches 10% of body weight per day, a significant decrease in working capacity occurs, and if it increases to 25%, then this usually leads to death. However, even with a large loss of water, all disturbed processes in the body are quickly restored if the body is replenished with water to the norm.

Knowing the signs indicating a lack of water in the human body, it is possible to approximately determine the percentage of dehydration relative to body weight.

Signs indicating a lack of water in the human body:

• 1-5% - Thirst, feeling unwell, slowing down movements, drowsiness, redness in some places of the skin, fever, nausea, indigestion.
• 6-10% - Shortness of breath, headache, tingling in the legs and arms, lack of salivation, loss of the ability to move and impaired speech logic.

11-20% - Delirium, muscle spasms, swelling of the tongue, dullness of hearing and vision, cooling of the body.

At an ambient air temperature of +30°C, even 20-25% dehydration is easier to tolerate than dehydration of 10-15%, but at a higher air temperature.

It is allowed to establish a norm of about 2.5 liters of water per day. In hot weather and with great physical exertion, the need for water increases significantly and reaches up to 4 liters per day. But not all areas of the world have natural water sources (rivers, lakes, ponds) and not all of these sources can be used. You need to know how and where to find groundwater.

In conditions of autonomous existence, especially in areas with a hot climate, with limited or no water supplies, water supply becomes a problem of paramount importance. It is necessary to find a source of water, purify, if necessary, water from organic and inorganic impurities or desalinate it, if it contains a large amount of salts, ensure its storage.

Natural sources can be conditionally divided into several groups: open reservoirs (rivers, lakes, streams); ground water bodies (springs, springs, accumulations of water in underground reservoirs); biological water sources (water-bearing plants); atmospheric water (rain, snow, dew, desalinated ice).

In areas with a temperate and cold climate, finding water sources is not difficult. The abundance of open reservoirs and snow cover make it possible to meet the body's needs for water in a timely manner, to create the necessary reserves of water for drinking and cooking. Only in some cases it is necessary to use natural signs to access the source of water (paths laid by animals, usually leading to water, moist soil of lowlands). It is much more difficult to provide oneself with water in the desert, where water sources are often hidden from view and it is impossible to detect them without knowledge of special signs and features of the relief. They can be indicated by the nature of the vegetation, indicator plants, artificial signs ("obo"), etc.

• *Rainwater*. To collect rainwater, dig a hole and line it with large leaves so that the collected water does not soak into the ground.
• *Dew*. When it rains, tie a cloth around a tree. Water flowing along the trunk will linger and drip into a container placed below.

Water from the springs and springs of mountain and forest rivers and streams can be drunk raw, but before you quench your thirst with water from standing or low-flowing reservoirs, it is cleaned of impurities and disinfected.

The creation of a supply of water during transitions is advisable only in conditions where water sources are located at a great distance from each other. It is possible to store in any containers. But since in a hot tropical climate, water quickly changes its taste during storage, blooms, it is boiled during a halt.

With limited water supplies, especially in hot climates where the body loses a lot of fluid through sweat, it is very important to reduce sweating. This can be achieved by protecting yourself from direct solar radiation with the help of a simple sunshade, limiting physical activity during the hot part of the day, moisturizing clothes, etc.

Thus, measures for water supply and water consumption in the conditions of autonomous existence can be reduced to several basic

provisions:

• - the search for water, especially in desert conditions, should be one of the top priorities;
• - if there is a water source, drink water without restriction.

Water can accumulate in cracks, which can be quite deep. Keys and springs in the highlands can be found in those places where dry ravines cut through layers of porous sandstone. In rocks like granite, the search for water is usually unsuccessful; here it can only be found in the faults and cracks of the rocks.

In highland areas, water can be obtained as follows. On a sunny day, on a large stone heated by the sun, which has a pronounced hollow on the surface, put 15-20 handfuls of snow at a distance of about 10 cm from each other; put the dishes under the mouth of the hollow. In a few minutes, up to 1 liter of drinking water can be collected from one large stone.

Dark spots showing up on the slopes or bright, lush vegetation sometimes indicate the presence of groundwater in this place.

To get water, dig a hole at the bottom edge of a grassy surface and wait until water seeps through. In valleys with loose soil, water is much easier to find than in mountainous areas. In some cases - at the bottom of the valley or at the base of the steepest slopes. There are streams and other sources of water.

You should not be embarrassed that the bed of the discovered stream is dry, without water. With the right skills, you can find water here. No time should be wasted digging a well where there is no sign of water. A well must be dug at the base of the steep slopes of the valley and at the cliffs of the terraces, mainly where juicy, bright grass grows. The presence of lush grass indicates that there is water at a shallow depth.

In valleys with clay soil, there are sometimes sandy layers in which there may be springs. To find water in these places, you need to find the wettest area on the cut of clay cliffs and dig a hole here.

Meanwhile, water in the desert can be obtained directly from the sand, using the so-called solar capacitors. The fact is that the sand is never completely dry. Its capillary forces firmly hold a small amount of moisture, which, paradoxically, does not evaporate into the scorched, sun-dried desert air. The basis of the design of the solar condenser is a thin film of transparent hydrophobic (water-repellent) plastic. It covers a hole with a diameter of about 1 m, dug in the ground to a depth of 50-60 cm. The edges of the film are sprinkled with sand or earth to create greater tightness. The sun's rays, penetrating through the transparent membrane, absorb moisture from the soil, which, evaporating, condenses on the inner surface of the film. The film is given a conical shape by placing a small weight in its center so that drops of condensate flow into the water collector. You can extract water from it without violating the structure, using a special tube. One condenser can produce up to 1.5 liters of water per day. To increase its productivity, the pit is half filled with freshly picked plants, camel thorn shoots, etc.

Another way to get water can be recommended. Since all plants, including desert plants, constantly evaporate at least a small amount of water, it can be caught with an ordinary polyethylene bag. A bag measuring 1x0.5 m is put on a bush, a tree branch and tied at the base. The water evaporated by the plant settles in the form of droplets on the inner surface of the polyethylene, which accumulate at the bottom of the bag. In an hour, depending on the size of the plant, you can collect up to 50-80 ml of water. It is important that this method practically does not require any physical effort and can be applied in any desert - sandy, saline, rocky, where there is at least some kind of vegetation.

Knowing the basics of survival is a must for every person. Survival should be understood as active expedient actions aimed at preserving life, health and working capacity in conditions of autonomous existence.

These actions consist in overcoming psychological stress, showing ingenuity, resourcefulness, effective use of equipment and improvised means to protect against the adverse effects of environmental factors and meet the body's needs for food and water.

The capabilities of the human body, like all living things, are limited and are within very narrow limits. Where is the threshold beyond which changes in the functions of organs and systems become irreversible? What time limit can people who find themselves in certain extreme conditions have? How best to protect a person from the adverse effects of numerous and diverse environmental factors?

Experience shows that people are able to endure the most severe natural conditions for a long time. However, a person who is not accustomed to these conditions, who has fallen into them for the first time, turns out to be much less adapted to life in the wild than its permanent inhabitants. Therefore, the harsher the conditions of the external environment, the shorter the period of autonomous existence, the more strictly the rules of conduct must be followed, the higher the price that each mistake is paid for.

The natural environment and its physical and geographical conditions are of great importance for human viability. Actively influencing the human body, it increases or shortens the period of autonomous existence, promotes or hinders the success of survival. The Arctic and the tropics, mountains and deserts, taiga and the ocean - each of these natural zones is characterized by its own peculiarities of climate, topography, flora and fauna. They determine the specifics of human life: the mode of behavior, methods of obtaining water and food, the features of the construction of shelters, the nature of diseases and measures to prevent them, the ability to move around the area, etc.

The favorable outcome of autonomous existence largely depends on the psycho-physiological qualities of a person: will, determination, composure, ingenuity, physical fitness, endurance. The basis of success in the fight against the forces of nature is the ability of a person to survive. But this requires certain theoretical and practical knowledge.

The basis of human survival is his conviction that he can and must preserve health and life in the most severe conditions, that he will be able to use everything that the environment gives to his advantage.

Forced autonomous survival of a person can occur in the following cases:

¦ loss of orientation;

¦ deprivation of the vehicle;

¦ loss of a person who knows the area;

¦ natural disaster. The reasons for these cases may be:

¦ natural disasters, adverse weather conditions;

¦ transport emergency (shipwreck, plane crash);

¦ inability to navigate the terrain;

¦ inattention;

¦ overconfidence.

In any case, a person must know the factors of survival in the wild.

Survival factors are the reasons of an objective and subjective nature that determine the outcome of an autonomous existence (Fig. 1.1).

Rice. 1.1. Survival Factors

Practice has shown that out of the total number of people who find themselves in an extreme situation, up to 75% experience a feeling of depression, up to 25% - a neurotic reaction. Self-control retain no more than 10%. Gradually, over time, people either adapt or worsen.

Which reactions of a person who has fallen into extreme conditions - negative or positive - will prevail depends on the following factors.

The physical condition of a person that is, the absence or presence of chronic diseases, allergic reactions, injuries, injuries, bleeding. The age and sex of the person are important, since the elderly and preschool children, as well as pregnant women, endure the most difficult autonomous survival.

The psychological state of a person. Favorable psychological factors include the ability to make decisions independently, independence and resistance to stress, a sense of humor and the ability to improvise. It is important to be able to cope with pain, loneliness, apathy and powerlessness, overcome hunger, cold and thirst, as well as cope with other survival stressors.

Learning to act in autonomous conditions is a fundamental factor in survival. Much depends on the degree of professional training. A great success for a group that has fallen into autonomous conditions are crew members, professional military, doctors, and rescuers. The chances of survival for such a group increase significantly. However, this situation can create certain problems. The most prepared members of the group immediately become formal leaders, but depending on the specifics of their profession, they are trained to act, having the necessary equipment in their hands, to work in a team of professionals just like themselves. In an emergency situation, there is usually no equipment and special equipment, a professional can be alone, the lives of dozens of people who are in disarray and not ready to act in extreme situations depend on the decisions he makes. Under such conditions, a specialist should be not just a rescuer, a doctor, but also the best specialist in this field, have experience in acting in such situations, and have management skills in a crisis.

We list the main skills and abilities that a person who finds himself in a situation of autonomous survival in nature should possess:

1) the ability to calculate the required minimum amount of food and water;

2) possession of methods for the extraction and purification of drinking water in nature;

3) the ability to navigate the terrain with the help of a map, compass, GPS-navigators, other devices and without them;

4) first aid skills;

5) skills in hunting wild animals, fishing, tracking prey;

6) the ability to make a fire with the help of improvised means;

7) knowledge of the technology of building temporary shelters;

8) the ability to signal one's location with the help of intercom radio stations, tables, visual and gestural code signals.

Survival means is understood as a minimum of survival items that ensure a comfortable stay of a person in the wild under any weather conditions. This is a wearable emergency supply (NAP) with essentials.

Equipment

1) V matches with a sulfur head, previously dipped in wax, - 3 pcs.;

2) cherkash (a sulfur strip applied to the side of a matchbox), in half - 1 pc.;

3) sewing needle - 1 piece;

4) fishing hook - 2 pcs.;

5) fishing line and kapron thread - 5 m each;

6) potassium permanganate, activated carbon tablets - 3 cans;

7) painkiller tablets - 1 currency.

The case of NAZ is in a plastic bag with edges filled with melted wax, which is tied with an elastic band.

Application

¦ Matches and cherkash are means of making fire.

¦ Sewing needle with nylon thread - for repairing clothes, shelters, bags, backpacks, extracting splinters and removing ticks.

¦ Fish hook and fishing line - means of fishing.

¦ Activated carbon tablets and potassium permanganate for the prevention of food poisoning and water disinfection.

Wearable emergency supply in the maximum configuration

1) analgin, acetylsalicylic acid, nitroglycerin, validol, activated charcoal, corvalol, sodium sulfacyl, ammonia solution;

2) hypothermic package, tourniquet, sterile, non-sterile and elastic bandages, bactericidal adhesive plaster, hemostatic wipes, miramistin, adhesive plaster, cotton wool.

¦ Dehydrated dry food and vitamins.

¦ Water supply.

¦ Kettle.

¦ Toiletries.

¦ Petrol and gas lighters, waterproof matches.

¦ 2 flashlights with extra batteries and bulbs.

¦ Strong long rope.

¦ The ax is small.

¦ Tent or raincoat-tent.

¦ Raincoats, canvas suit, socks, hats, gloves, high boots (preferably rubber).

¦ Candles, dry fuel.

¦ Needles, threads.

¦ Fishing rods and fishing line.

Overwhelming Factors of Human Survival in the Wild

Hunger

It is especially important to know the typical symptoms of prolonged fasting. In the initial period, which usually lasts 2-4 days, there is a strong feeling of hunger. Appetite increases sharply. In some cases, burning, pressure and even pain in the epigastric region, nausea may be felt. Dizziness, headaches, stomach cramps are possible. The sense of smell is noticeably heightened. Drinking plenty of water increases salivation. Man constantly thinks about food. In the first four days, a person's body weight decreases by an average of one kilogram daily, in areas with a hot climate - sometimes up to one and a half kilograms. Then the daily weight loss decreases.

In the future, the feeling of hunger weakens. Appetite disappears, sometimes a person even experiences some cheerfulness. The tongue is often covered with a whitish coating; when inhaled, a faint smell of acetone may be felt in the mouth. Salivation does not increase even at the sight of food. There may be poor sleep, prolonged headaches, increased irritability. With prolonged fasting, a person falls into apathy, lethargy, drowsiness.

And yet, hunger as a cause of human death in the practice of emergency situations is extremely rare. This is not due to the fact that people who are in trouble do not starve. Hunger was, is and always will be the eternal companion of an emergency. Hunger is terrible because it enhances the effect of other factors that affect a person. It undermines the strength of a person from the inside, after which a host of other ailments, no less dangerous than hunger, fall on him, which complete the job.

A hungry person freezes several times faster than a full one. He gets sick more often and suffers from illnesses more severely. With prolonged fasting, reactions slow down, intellectual activity weakens. Performance drops sharply.

Therefore, in the absence of food supplies, if it is impossible to provide for oneself through hunting, fishing, collecting wild edible plants, one should adhere to passive survival tactics, that is, expect help in the immediate vicinity of the accident site. In order to save energy resources without extreme need, you should not leave the shelter, you need to lie more, sleep, any vigorous activity - work inside the camp, transition, etc. - should be minimized, only the most necessary work should be done. Duties, and the duties of the duty officer include arranging firewood, maintaining a fire, repairing a shelter, observing the area, extracting water, should be carried out alternately, breaking day and night time into short 1-2-hour shifts. It is permissible to release from duty only the wounded, sick and young children. All other members of the emergency team must be involved in keeping watch without fail. With a large number of people, two attendants can be assigned at the same time. Such an order, first of all, is necessary to prevent outbreaks of apathy, despondency, pessimistic moods that may arise as a result of prolonged fasting.

Of course, if there is even the slightest possibility of providing oneself with food on the spot, every possible effort should be made to this.

Heat. Thirst

The concept of "heat" in relation to an emergency is the sum of several components: ambient temperature, solar radiation intensity, soil surface temperature, air humidity, presence or absence of wind, that is, it depends on the climatic conditions of the place where the accident occurred.

In addition, there are many special cases when a person, for one reason or another, may feel that he is hot. To do this, it is absolutely not necessary to climb into the inferno of the Central Asian deserts. It is possible to languish from the heat in the Arctic, for example, if the quantity or quality of clothes put on by a person does not correspond to the work he is currently doing. Situations are typical when a person, for fear of freezing, puts on all the clothes at his disposal, after which he begins to bravely brandish an ax, preparing firewood for a fire. Such unnecessary zeal at the moment leads to overheating of the body, increased sweating, and wetting of the layers of clothing adjacent to the body. As a result, a person, having finished work, quickly freezes. In such a case, heat is an ally of frost, as it deprives clothing of its heat-shielding properties. That is why experienced tourists, climbers, hunters prefer to undress when performing heavy physical work, and dress warmly during rest.

In these cases, it is very important to constantly monitor your well-being, change clothes in time, and periodically rest.

Of course, the fight against overheating in the conditions described does not present any particular difficulties. And if any violation of the internal thermal balance occurs, then the victim himself is primarily to blame. The Arctic or the highlands are not the places where it is permissible to die from overheating.

It is much more difficult for a person in an emergency situation that happened in a desert or semi-desert zone. And this is explained not by the fact that it is very hot here, but by the fact that the heat enters into an overwhelming alliance with thirst.

Insufficient, as well as excessive, intake of water in the body affects the general physical condition of a person.

Lack of water leads to a decrease in body weight, a significant decline in strength, thickening of the blood and, as a result, an overstrain of cardiac activity. At the same time, the concentration of salts in the blood rises, which serves as a formidable signal that dehydration has begun. Loss of up to 5% of fluid occurs without any consequences for humans. But dehydration of the body, exceeding 15%, can lead to serious consequences and death. A person deprived of food can lose almost the entire supply of fat, almost 50% of protein, and only then approach the dangerous line. However, when it comes to fluid, the loss of "only" 15% of the fluid is fatal! A person can starve for several weeks, without water he dies in a matter of days, and in a hot climate this happens faster.

The need of the human body for water in favorable climatic conditions does not exceed 2.5–3 liters per day. Moreover, this figure is a liquid, not only used in the form of compotes, tea, coffee and other drinks, but also part of solid foods, not to mention soups and gravies. In addition, water is formed in the body itself as a result of chemical reactions occurring in it.

In total it looks like this:

¦ water itself - 0.8–1.0 l;

¦ liquid meals - 0.5–0.6 l;

¦ solid foods (bread, meat, cheese, sausage, etc.) - up to 0.7 l;

¦ water formed in the body itself - 0.3-0.4 liters.

In an emergency, it is especially important to distinguish true water hunger from the apparent one. Very often, the feeling of thirst arises not due to an objective lack of water, but due to improperly organized water consumption.

One of the manifestations of thirst is a decrease in the secretion of saliva in the oral cavity.

The sensation of initial dryness in the mouth is often perceived as a feeling of intense thirst, although dehydration as such is not observed. A person begins to consume a significant amount of water, although there is no real need for this. An excess of water with a simultaneous increase in physical activity leads to subsequent increased sweating. Simultaneously with the abundant excretion of excess fluid, the ability of body cells to retain water is impaired. There is a kind of vicious circle. The more a person drinks, the more he sweats, the more thirsty he feels.

An experiment is known when people who were not accustomed to normal thirst quenching drank 5–6 liters of water in 8 hours, while others in the same conditions managed 0.5 liters.

It is not recommended to drink a lot of water in one gulp. Such a one-time consumption of liquid does not quench thirst, but, on the contrary, leads to swelling and weakness. It must be remembered that the drunk water does not quench thirst immediately, but only after reaching the stomach, it is absorbed into the blood, that is, after 10–15 minutes. It is best to drink water in small portions at short intervals until full. Sometimes, in order not to waste water from a flask or emergency supply, it is enough to rinse your mouth with cool water or suck on sour candy, caramel. The taste of the lollipop will cause a reflex release of saliva, and the feeling of thirst will be greatly reduced. In the absence of a lollipop, it can be replaced with a fruit stone or even a small clean pebble.

With intense sweating, leading to leaching of salts from the body, it is advisable to drink lightly salted water. The dissolution of 0.5–1.0 g of saline water will have almost no effect on its taste. However, this amount of salt is usually enough to restore the salt balance inside the body. The most tragic effect of the heat is manifested in the summer in a desert area. Perhaps, in this zone, the heat leaves a person less chance of salvation than even the cold in the Arctic. In the fight against frost, a person has a considerable arsenal of means. He can build a snow shelter, generate heat by eating high-calorie food, protect himself from the effects of low temperatures with warm clothes, build a fire, keep warm by doing intense physical work. By applying any of these methods, a person can save his life for a day, two or three. Sometimes, using all of the above possibilities, he resists the elements for weeks. In the desert, only water prolongs life. There is no other way available to a person who finds himself in an emergency in the desert!

Cold

According to statistics, from 10 to 15% of people who died on tourist routes became victims of hypothermia.

Cold threatens a person to the greatest extent in the high-latitude zones of the country: in the ice zone, tundra, forest-tundra, - in winter - in the taiga, steppes and adjacent semi-deserts, in the highlands. But these zones are also heterogeneous in terms of temperature characteristics. Even in the same area, at the same time, the thermometer readings can vary by a dozen or more degrees. For example, often in river valleys, gorges and other depressions, the decrease in temperature as a result of the flow of cold air into the lowlands is much more noticeable than at elevated points of the relief. Humidity matters a lot. For example, in the Oymyakon region, which is the cold pole of the Northern Hemisphere, the temperature reaches -70 ° C (the minimum of -77.8 ° C was recorded in 1938), but due to the dryness of the air, it is quite easily tolerated. Conversely, the wet, typical for coastal areas frost, which envelops and literally sticks to the skin, causes more trouble. There, subjectively, the air temperature is always estimated lower than it really is. But perhaps the greatest, and in some cases decisive for human survival in low temperatures, is the wind speed:

¦ at an actual air temperature of –3 °C and a wind speed of 10–11 m/s, their total cooling effect on a person is expressed as a value of –20 °C;

¦ at -10 °C is actually -30 °C;

¦ at -15 °C is actually -35 °C;

¦ at -25 °C is actually -50 °C;

¦ at -45 °C is actually -70 °C.

In areas devoid of natural shelters - thick forests, folds of relief, low air temperatures combined with strong winds can reduce the time of human survival to several hours.

Long-term survival at sub-zero temperatures depends, in addition to the listed climatic factors, on the condition of clothes and shoes at the time of the accident, the quality of the shelter built, the availability of fuel and food supplies, and the moral and physical condition of a person.

In an emergency, clothing is usually able to protect a person from cold injuries (frostbite, general hypothermia) only for a short time, sufficient for the construction of a snow shelter. The heat-shielding properties of clothing depend primarily on the type of fabric. Fine-pored fabric retains heat best. If we take the thermal conductivity of air as a unit, then the thermal conductivity of wool will be 6.1; silk - 19.2; and linen and cotton fabric - 29.9.

Clothing made from synthetic materials and fillers such as synthetic winterizer, nitron, etc. has found wide application. In them, air capsules are enclosed in the thinnest shell of artificial fibers. Perhaps, synthetic clothing loses a little in comparison with fur in terms of heat transfer, but it has a number of other undeniable advantages. It is very light, almost not blown by the wind, snow does not stick to it, it gets wet a little when immersed in water for a short time and, which is very important, dries quickly.

Perhaps one of the best options is the use of multilayer clothing from different fabrics. Special studies have shown that 4-5 layers of clothing retain heat best. For example, a good combination is a tight cotton suit, a few thin, loose-fitting woolen pants and sweaters (2-3 thin sweaters are much more warm than one thick one, as an air gap forms between them) and a suit or overalls made of synthetic fabric.

Shoes play a very important role in emergency winter conditions. Suffice it to say that 8 out of 10 of all frostbites occur in the lower extremities. Therefore, a person who has had an accident in the winter period of time should first of all pay attention to the condition of his legs.

By all available means, you need to keep socks and shoes dry. To do this, shoe covers are made from improvised material, legs are wrapped with a piece of loose fabric, etc. All the material remaining after this is used to warm clothes and protect the face from the wind.

It is important to always remember that clothing, no matter how warm it may be, can protect a person from the cold only for a very short time - hours, rarely days. And if you do not use this time properly to build a warm shelter or to search for the nearest settlement, no clothing will save a person from death.

Very often, in an emergency, people prefer to set up cloth tents, build shelters from the wreckage of a vehicle, logs. They cling to traditional materials as their salvation. Wood and metal seem to be much more reliable than, for example, snow. Meanwhile, this is a mistake, for which you often have to pay with your own life!

When building shelters from traditional materials, it is almost impossible to achieve hermetic sealing of seams and joints of building materials. Shelters are “blown through” by the wind through and through. Warm air escapes through numerous cracks. Therefore, in the absence of stoves, stoves and similar highly efficient heating devices, the temperature in the shelter almost always coincides with the outside. In addition, the construction of such shelters is very laborious, often associated with the risk of increased injury. It is not uncommon for such a makeshift shelter to collapse under wind pressure or due to careless movement and put the group in critical conditions. Meanwhile, an excellent building material is literally under a person’s feet. This is the most common snow. Due to its porous structure, snow has good thermal insulation properties. It is easy to process.

Snow shelters - igloos, caves, houses, lairs, erected in one and a half to two hours, reliably protect a person from the effects of low temperatures and wind, and in the presence of fuel provide thermal comfort. In a properly built snow shelter, the air temperature rises to -5 ... - 10 ° C only due to the heat emitted by a person at 30-40-degree frost outside the shelter. With the help of a candle, the temperature in the shelter can be raised from 0 to +4 ... +5 ° C or more. Many polar explorers, having installed a pair of stoves inside, heated the air up to +30 °C. Thus, the temperature difference inside the shelter and outside can reach 70 °C.

But the main advantage of snow shelters is the ease of construction. Most snow shelters can be built by anyone who has never held a snow shovel or a snow knife in their hands.

The term of resistance to low temperatures to a large extent depends on the mental state of a person. For example, the feeling of fear greatly reduces the life of a person at low temperatures. Panic fear of freezing accelerates freezing. Conversely, the psychological attitude “I am not afraid of the cold. I have real opportunities to protect myself from its impact” noticeably increases the period of survival, allows you to reasonably distribute forces and time, and introduce an element of planning into your actions.

However, it must be remembered that it is almost impossible to win in single combat with the elements without fencing it off with a wall of snow bricks. All recognized polar authorities, including Stefansson himself, unanimously assert that a person who has fallen into a snowstorm can be saved only by a shelter built on time and nothing but a shelter!

The most important commandment in combat with the cold - stop in time!

It is impossible to overcome frost with physical strength alone. In such cases, it is better to play it safe - turn back a little earlier, set up camp, build a shelter, rest, etc.

In any case, in the event of an emergency in the winter, self-rescue of a person or a group of people should begin with the organization of a winter bivouac. Before the construction of a reliable shelter or the cultivation of a fire fire, it is not advisable to engage in other work. Even if there is a tent in the group, the construction of snow shelters must be recognized as mandatory. A tent can protect a person only from wind and rain, but not from frost. Only a person who has an unlimited amount of fuel can afford to wait out the accident in a tent. During the construction of a snow shelter, in addition to the main goal - protecting a person from cold injuries - a number of side effects are achieved, for example, snow building skills are developed. A person builds the next igloo or cave in a shorter time with less expenditure of energy.

Very often, spending the night in a snow shelter is preferable to spending the night near a fire. The construction of a cave or a house requires less effort and time than the preparation of a large amount of firewood, breeding and many hours of maintaining a hot fire.

The confidence that the presence of deep snow or crust guarantees a safe overnight stay, makes it possible even in an emergency to organize a transition, to overcome significant distances. The depletion of forces expended on the transition is to some extent compensated by the accumulation of experience in moving on snow, building snow shelters. The duration of vigorous activity with a normal supply of food can be 8–12 hours per day, respectively, 10 hours will be for sleep and rest, 1–3 hours for setting up a bivouac.

However, it should be taken into account that "passive" survival (waiting for help) at low air temperatures, especially in high latitudes, is always preferable to "active" (self-exit to people). The final choice of survival tactics, of course, depends on the specific situation in which the person finds himself.

The only possibility that guarantees one hundred percent luck not to suffer in an emergency winter situation is to prevent it.

It is known that the vast majority of winter emergencies are provoked not by "intrigues of nature", but by the wrong actions of the victims themselves - a weak level of preparation for the campaign, frivolity, and neglect of elementary security measures.

There are a few simple rules that should be observed when going on a winter trip. If you are not completely confident in your abilities, doubt the quality of the equipment or the weather for the next few days, it is better to postpone the trip to a later date.

You can’t go on a risky journey without learning how to make a fire in the most adverse conditions, without building several “training” snow shelters with your own hands, without spending the night in them. Well, and, of course, it is categorically unacceptable to go on an “assault on the polar heights” without checking yourself in two or three easier trips.

In tents, clothes, equipment that you have to take with you, a double supply “for cold” should be structurally laid. Assuming to meet ten-degree frosts on the route, it is necessary to prepare for twenty-degree frosts. Here it is better to err on the big side.

Tents, fuel, food and other vital items of equipment should be evenly distributed among the members of the entire group. It is extremely dangerous to carry two or three tents or the entire food supply in one backpack. The accidental loss of it can put the group in a critical position.

Warm linen, sleeping bags are personal property, they must be carried by everyone in their backpack, not transferring to each other.

Each member of the group should have a small emergency kit with them, which includes: enhanced burning matches (“hunting”, “windproof”, etc.), a piece of candle or other combustible material, a small piece of plastic wrap, some food, in polar regions - a lightweight hacksaw or a long knife. Moreover, if it is permissible to carry large items in a backpack, but in a place where they can be quickly removed if necessary, then matches and a candle should always be carried with you, for example, sewn into the inner pocket of a windbreaker.

During the trip, you must constantly remember and strictly follow the rules for passing difficult sections, organizing a bivouac. It is impossible to change your initial decisions without extreme necessity, it is categorically unacceptable to hope for a chance!

It is also unacceptable to divide the group into two or more independent subgroups. There are few examples when the division of the group justified itself. In the overwhelming majority of cases, this only exacerbated the gravity of the situation.

While traveling, keep an eye on changes in the weather by listening to weather reports or observing the surrounding nature. Find out from the local population signs of approaching bad weather.

It should not be assumed that people freeze only "somewhere out there" - in the far North or on mountain peaks. Nothing of the kind, a considerable number of victims are collected precisely by suburban forests and even parks. Proximity alone does not guarantee safety. The cold is equally merciless everywhere. Minus thirty - minus thirty everywhere! Therefore, one should not neglect extra clothes and turn away from the offered sandwiches or a thermos with hot tea.

You can not build new roads, cut corners, trying to shorten the path, you must remember: the straight road is not always the shortest. If people have laid a ski track, then there are reasons for that.

You can not travel through the forest at dusk. You need to be prepared for the fact that the weather will worsen, and the ski track will skid. Therefore, it is necessary to "tie" your route to "eternal" landmarks - rocks, single trees, blockages, accumulations of stones, etc.

You cannot walk alone. The fact that the city is one or two kilometers away does not save a person who has broken his leg or lost consciousness as a result of a heart attack. It is necessary to return immediately as soon as a person feels unwell or very tired.

In cold weather, especially with strong wind, it is necessary to constantly monitor your condition, avoiding general or local hypothermia. It is necessary to rub open areas of the skin that are directly exposed to low temperatures and wind, and warm the frozen limbs by all available means - rubbing, heating on the body, wide swings, etc.

Signaling is not as easy as it might seem. Your alarm may go unnoticed. In addition, the inability to properly signal with certain types of personnel tools can cost you your life.

All means of distress signals are divided into service and improvised (type of means), as well as sound, visual and radio signals (the principle of signal transmission). Their main goal is to indicate your exact location for subsequent evacuation and emergency assistance in the form of dropping food, medicine, weapons and ammunition from the aircraft.

Staff funds

Radio distress signal (SOS). SOS distress signal (save our souls) … – … )) was adopted by the International Convention in Berlin on November 3, 1906, for its unimpeded reception every hour for 6 minutes (from 15th to 18th and from 45th to 48th) on "distress frequencies" - 500 and 2182 kHz - all radio stations in the world fall silent; silence sets in on the air, so that everyone who is in trouble can freely go on the air and give a distress signal, indicating the square of their location, or give them the opportunity to find themselves. To send this radio signal, you must have an emergency radio transmitter and know the basic use of this device and Morse code.

Visual signaling aids

Pyrotechnic means of signaling. These include:

¦ signal rockets;

¦ signal checkers;

¦ signal mortars.

These signaling means require the implementation of certain rules for use and storage:

¦ remember that they can shoot, treat these tools like weapons;

¦ do not repair them in case of malfunction;

¦ if a misfire occurs, do not use again;

¦ hold any pyrotechnic in your outstretched hand, turning the nozzle away from you;

¦ stay away from other people and from flammable objects, store these funds in boxes that are protected from shock and precipitation, give a signal from the closest possible distance and only when there is confidence that it will be noticed;

¦ Take the utmost precautions.

signal mirror. This is a polished metal plate with a hole in the middle (5-7 mm) through which you can follow the object.

The "sunbeam" launched by your mirror is detected even from an airplane that flies at an altitude of 2 km at a distance of 2025 km from your location. The mirror is effective even at night, probably, it can be called “letting moonbeams”.

Improvised signaling means

Reflectors. To indicate your location in the absence of a signal mirror, you can use a cosmetic mirror, foil, or a knife blade. The more polished the plate, the farther the light signal is visible.

Spread pieces of crumpled (this will increase the number of reflective planes) foil on the hill. Or attach the foil to a tree or a pole in a clear view area, it will rotate and give signals.

Kite. A kite can also serve you well. Make a frame out of thin boards, pull thin (preferably colored) paper over it, tie pieces of foil and bright ribbons to the tail of the snake.

signal flags. Hang on tall trees near your camp signal "flags" - bright pieces of matter. In order for them to be visible from above, stretch these "flags" along the ground. Tie one side of the fabric to bushes growing near the reservoir, and the other to stakes driven into the bottom of the reservoir.

Signal fire. If you don't have "flags", foil, pyrotechnics, or a flashlight, you can start a fire that is just as good as any other means. A bonfire located in an open area or a high hill is visible from afar. At night, a brightly burning fire is visible from a distance of 20 km when viewed from the sky, 8 km - when viewed from the ground. Even better, if there are several fires, the distance between them in this case should not exceed 20–30 m. However, for the idea to work, it is necessary to maintain a constant small fire near the fires, so you can make your “alarm” blaze in a short time.

Terrestrial code signals

In open areas, you can lay out the signals of the code table. The most banal HELP and SOS. The size of one signal must be at least 3 m. Remember, the larger the signal, the higher the likelihood that it will be noticed. You can make a signal from improvised means: aircraft wreckage, life jackets, clothes, logs.

You can not lay out the signal, but “dig it up”. To do this, remove the sod and deepen the trench. Such signals work both day and night (at night you can make a fire in the recesses). "Scatter" signals around the periphery, the more of them, the better.

Gesture code system for communicating with pilots

¦ "Here landing! We need help!” hands up, palms in, feet together.

¦ "Landing is impossible! We don't need help!" - Left hand up, legs together.

¦ "Straight" - arms raised, bent at the elbows, palms back. Legs shoulder width apart. Swinging the forearms back.

¦ "Back" - hands are raised forward to shoulder level. Palms forward.

¦ “Stop! Stop the engine” - cross your arms, the speed of this action corresponds to the degree of need to stop.

¦ "Hang up!" - arms to the sides, palms down.

¦ "Lower" - swaying down with straight arms, palms down.

¦ "Higher" - swaying up with straight arms, palms up.

¦ "Landing" - cross your arms in front of you below.

1. What types of survival factors do you know?

2. What is the role of anthropological factors in ensuring the safety of human life?

3. What is the role of material and technical factors in ensuring the safety of human life?

4. What is the nature of the impact of natural environmental factors on a person with autonomous existence in the natural environment?

5. What is the impact of environmental factors on a person with autonomous existence in the natural environment?

6. What are “survival stressors”? What is their impact on the human condition?

7. What are the first-priority actions for those in distress in a vehicle accident?

8. What are the first-priority actions of those who got into extreme conditions in nature?

9. What do you need to know (determine) in order to correctly assess the situation in order to make a decision on further actions for those who are in an extreme situation?

10. List the rules for safe behavior when leaving the scene.

11. List the rules of safe behavior while waiting for help at the scene.

12. What activities are included in the action plan for organizing a temporary camp?

13. What is the role and tasks of the group leader in conditions of forced autonomous existence?

14. List the basic requirements for temporary shelters.

16. What factors influence the choice of shelter type?

17. What natural shelters can be used to organize an overnight stay in an emergency?

18. What can serve as the simplest shelter in the warm season?

19. How can you spend the night under a canopy at low temperatures?

20. What shelters and how can be built from snow?

offline survival

Introduction

Even today, it is not uncommon for a person, as a result of the prevailing circumstances, to find himself in conditions of autonomous existence, the favorable outcome of which largely depends on his psychophysiological qualities, sound knowledge of the basics of survival and other factors. The main task of a person in an autonomous situation is to survive. The word "survive" has always been used in a very specific sense - "stay alive, survive, protect yourself from death." Survival is understood as active, intelligent actions aimed at preserving life, health and performance in an autonomous existence. But an extreme situation is easier to prevent than to get out of it. Therefore, do not go anywhere without telling someone your route and the approximate time of return. Learn the terrain of travel when setting off; take with you: a first aid kit, comfortable shoes and clothes for the season, a cell phone / pager / walkie-talkie.

Survival in offline conditions

Overcoming fear

Under any circumstances, the survival of a person, first of all, depends on himself. It's not just about his skills. More often than not, a situation of autonomy arises unexpectedly, and the first reaction of anyone who finds himself in a dangerous situation is fear. But the obligatory conditions for the successful overcoming of all difficulties in an autonomous situation are the manifestation of will, perseverance, and competent actions. Panic and fear dramatically reduce the chances of salvation.

With a short-term external threat, a person acts on a sensual level, obeying the instinct of self-preservation: bounces off a falling tree, clings to immovable objects when falling, tries to stay on the surface of the water when there is a threat of drowning. There is no need to talk about some kind of will to live in such cases. Another thing is long-term survival. In the conditions of autonomous existence, sooner or later, a critical moment comes when exorbitant physical and mental stress, the seeming senselessness of further resistance suppress the will. A person is seized by passivity, indifference. He is no longer afraid of the possible tragic consequences of ill-conceived overnight stays, risky crossings. He does not believe in the possibility of salvation and therefore perishes without exhausting his reserves of strength to the end, without using food supplies.

Survival, based only on the biological laws of self-preservation, is short-lived. It is characterized by rapidly developing mental disorders and hysterical behavioral reactions. The desire to survive must be conscious and purposeful, and must be dictated not by instinct, but by conscious necessity.

Fear- this is an emotional reaction to danger, which may be accompanied by such physical sensations as trembling, rapid breathing, strong heartbeat. This is a natural reaction, and it is characteristic of every normal person. It is the fear for one's life that causes the desire to act in the name of one's own salvation. If a person knows how to act, fear sharpens the reaction, activates thinking. But if he has no idea what to do, feels pain or weakness from blood loss, then fear can lead to stress - excessive tension, inhibition of thoughts and actions. These sensations can be so intense that sudden intense fear can lead to death. There are various ways to overcome fear. If a person is familiar with the method of auto-training, then he will be able to relax, calm down, and analyze the situation impartially in a matter of minutes. If not, then thinking about something else will help the person relax and be distracted. Breathing exercises also have a good effect. You need to take a few deep breaths. When a person experiences fear or stress, his pulse speeds up, and he begins to breathe very quickly. Forcing yourself to breathe slowly means convincing the body that the stress is passing, whether it has passed or not.

In addition, a person cannot act successfully if he does not have a clear goal and a plan to achieve it. Sometimes it seems that professional rescuers, pilots, and the military act in difficult situations without hesitation. But this is not so: they simply have a ready-made, often already proven plan, or even several versions of the plan. At first, it may seem to a person that he knows nothing and can do nothing. But one has only to divide the situation and tasks into its constituent parts, as it turns out that much is within his power. The surest way to overcome fear and confusion is to organize planned actions to ensure survival. To do this, a person needs to give himself a clear set of how to act in a possible emergency situation.

Assistance to victims

It is good to have a first aid kit to help, so when you go on a trip, it is better to take it with you. The set of necessary medicines depends on climatic conditions. For example, in the desert you need serum against snake venom, sunburn cream, etc. In a tropical first-aid kit, there should be repellent against leeches, insects, powder for fungal diseases, and an antimalarial drug. Every first aid kit should have:

individual dressing package for each travel participant;

1. sterile wipes;

   plaster (bactericidal and simple);

   potassium permanganate;

   medical alcohol;

   a syringe, tubes of morphine, or other pain medication;

   broad-spectrum antibiotics;

   nitroglycerine;

   corvalol / validol;

   caffeine solution;

   adrenaline solution;

   synthomycin emulsion (for burns / frostbite);

   tetracycline ointment (for inflammation of the eyes);

   pantocide (for water disinfection).

You should have medicines individually selected for everyone in sufficient quantities (at least the required minimum). Names and uses of medicines must be signed with indelible pencil/ink. The first-aid kit should be packed carefully, excluding the possibility of damage to medicines. Scissors or a scalpel, if not available, can be replaced with a disinfected razor blade.

It is necessary to be able to use medicinal herbs, as well as to distinguish them from poisonous plants. Only well-known herbs can be used, therefore, when going to another climatic zone, it is better to remember local poisonous plants in advance, and at least 5 medicinal / edible ones. For example, strawberries, celery, elm bark help with fever. Lilac, sunflower, nettle tincture with garlic, wild rose, willow bark help against malaria.

To provide medical assistance immediately after an accident or if a long autonomous existence is necessary, skills are needed, therefore everyone should be able to provide first aid. With autonomous survival, the most likely:

Burn. The burnt place should be cooled, wiped with an alcohol solution, apply a dry bandage. The affected area can be rubbed with a decoction of oak bark, raw potatoes, urine. Do not lubricate the burn with oil, do not open the resulting bubbles.

Bleeding. Press the damaged vessel (artery - from above, except for the arteries of the head, neck) or apply a tourniquet / pressure bandage from improvised means (except for wires, ropes, cords). Treat the wound with iodine / hydrogen peroxide / brilliant green and close with a plaster / bandage. You can apply viburnum berries, wild rose, plantain, aloe to a bleeding wound. For purulent wounds, a decoction of burdock is applied. The tourniquet can not be kept longer than 1.5 hours in summer and 30 minutes. in winter.

Fractures/dislocations. The injured limb must be immobilized (for which a splint or stick/ski/board is used). Pain can be reduced by applying ice. Finely chopped onion helps (with dislocations). You can not take painkillers, you can not try to set the limb yourself.

Artificial respiration/cardiac massage necessary in case of clinical death (no pulse and breathing or spasmodic breathing, pupils do not react to light). The caregiver inhales air into the victim's mouth/nose about 24 times per minute. The nose / mouth of the victim should be clamped. Circulation can be restored by pressing on the chest. The patient should lie on a hard surface, unbutton the clothes. Death occurs within 5 minutes. after clinical death, but resuscitation should be continued for 20-30 minutes. Sometimes it works.

Fainting. If breathing and cardiac activity are not disturbed, it is enough to unbutton the clothes, bring a swab with ammonia to the nose, and lay the person down so that the head is lower than the legs.

In case of any injuries, it is best to try to deliver the victim to a doctor.

Orientation on the ground

When traveling in unfamiliar terrain, it is best to have a map. If it is not there, you can navigate without it.

The sides of the horizon can be determined by the compass, celestial bodies, according to some signs of local objects. When not braked, the compass needle is set with its northern end in the direction of the north magnetic pole, respectively, the other end of the arrow will point south. The compass has a circular scale (limb), which is divided into 120 divisions. The scale has a double digit. The inner one is applied clockwise from 0 to 360 degrees in 15 degrees. For sighting on local objects and taking readings on the compass scale, a sighting device and a reading pointer are fixed on the rotating compass ring. When working with a compass, you should always remember that strong electromagnetic fields or closely spaced metal objects deviate the magnetic needle from its correct position. Therefore, when determining compass directions, it is necessary to move 40-50 m away from power lines, railway tracks, military vehicles and other large metal objects.

You can determine the sides of the horizon by celestial bodies.

By the sun. The sun is in the east at 7 am, in the south at 1 pm, and in the west at 7 pm.

By the sun and the clock with arrows. To determine the direction in this way, it is necessary to hold the clock in a horizontal position and turn it so that the hour hand with its sharp end is directed towards the sun. A straight line dividing the angle between the hour hand and the direction of the number 1 points to the south.

By moving the shadow. The shadow of a vertically placed stick will show the approximate east-west direction.

At night, the sides of the horizon can be determined by the North Star. To do this, you need to find the constellation Ursa Major with a characteristic arrangement of stars in the form of a bucket with a handle. An imaginary line is drawn through the two extreme stars of the bucket, and the distance between these stars is plotted on it 5 times. At the end of the fifth segment there will be a bright star - Polaris. The direction to it will correspond to the direction to the north.

The sides of the horizon can be determined by some signs of local objects.

The bark of most trees is rougher on the north side;

Stones, trees, wooden, tiled and slate roofs on the north side are covered with moss earlier and more abundantly. On coniferous trees, resin is more abundant on the south side. It is useless to look for all these signs on trees in the thicket. But they are clearly expressed on a separate tree in the middle of a clearing or at the edge;

Anthills are located on the south side of trees and stones;

Snow melts faster on the southern slopes of the hills and mountains.

Magnetic azimuth is used - a horizontal angle measured clockwise from 0 degrees to 360 from the north direction of the magnetic meridian to the direction to be determined.

To determine the magnetic azimuth, it is necessary: ​​to stand facing the observed object (landmark), release the brake of the compass needle and, having given the compass a horizontal position, turn it until the northern end of the arrow is against the zero division of the scale. While holding the compass in an oriented position, turn the rotating cover to direct the line of sight passing through the slot and the front sight in a given direction to a given object. The average error in measuring the azimuth with a compass is about 2 degrees. Movement, during which a given direction is maintained and an accurate exit to the designated point is carried out, is called movement in azimuth. Movement along azimuths is used mainly in the forest, in the desert, at night, in fog and tundra, and other terrain and visibility conditions that make visual orientation difficult. When moving in azimuth at each turning point of the route, starting from the initial one, they find the desired direction of the path on the ground using the compass and move along it, counting the distance traveled. When moving in azimuth, it becomes necessary to bypass obstacles that cannot be overcome directly. In doing so, proceed as follows. They notice a landmark on the opposite side of the obstacle in the direction of movement, determine the distance to it, add it to the distance traveled. After that, bypassing the obstacle, they go to the chosen landmark and determine the direction of movement by the compass.

In mountainous terrain, landmarks are chosen so that they are distributed in the direction of action of the subunits not only along the front and in depth, but also in height. In a forest area, maintaining a route of movement passing along dirt roads and clearings requires the ability to accurately recognize on the ground those of them along which the path selected on the map passes. At the same time, it should be taken into account that forest roads are often hardly visible on the ground, and some of them may not be shown on the maps. At the same time, you can meet not shown on the map, but well-trodden roads. As landmarks in the forest, roads, clearings, intersections, and forks in roads and clearings, rivers and streams, glades crossing the route of movement are used. Clearings are usually cut in mutually perpendicular directions, as a rule, in a northerly direction, respectively, west-east.

There are several ways to measure angles and distances on the ground.

Measuring angles on the ground with binoculars. In the field of view of the binoculars there are two perpendicular goniometric scales for measuring horizontal and vertical angles. The value (price) of one large division corresponds to 0 - 10, and a small one - 0 - 05. To measure the angle between two directions, looking through binoculars, combine any stroke of the angular scale with one of these directions and count the number of divisions to the second direction . Multiplying, then, this reading by the division price, we get the value of the measured angle in "thousandths".

Angle measurement using a ruler. In some conditions, a situation may arise when binoculars are not at hand. Then he can measure angular values ​​with a ruler. To do this, you need to keep the ruler in front of you at eye level at a distance of 50 cm. One millimeter of the ruler will correspond to 0 - 0.2. The accuracy of measuring angles in this way depends on the ability to maintain a distance from the eyes (50 cm), which requires some training.

Angle measurement improvised means. Instead of a ruler, you can use various objects whose sizes are well known: a matchbox, a pencil, fingers and palms of your hands. You can measure angles with a compass. Measuring angles on the ground is a preparation for determining distances on the ground.

Various methods and instruments are used to determine distances on the ground. Often people are forced to determine distances in various ways: by eye or by the measured angular magnitude of objects on the ground, by the speedometer of a car, by measuring steps, by average speed. Visually - the main way and the easiest way to determine distances, available to everyone. This method does not give high accuracy in determining distances, but with some training, you can achieve an accuracy of up to 10 m. To develop your eye, you need to constantly practice determining distances on the ground.

One way to measure distances on the ground is to use known distances on the ground (power lines - distance between supports, distance between communication lines, etc.).

For a rough estimate of distances on the ground, you can use the data from the following table:

Table #1

For each person, this table can be refined by him.

Measuring distances in steps. Each commander needs to know that a person's step is approximately equal to 0.75 m, but it is inconvenient to make calculations at this size and, therefore, it is assumed that a couple of steps are equal to 1.5 m. In this case, it is much more convenient to carry out calculations. With this method, the accuracy of determining distances can be 98%.

It is advisable to determine distances by the speed of movement and by the speedometer of the car in cases of movement. One of the ways to determine distances can be a method by sound, flashes. Knowing that the speed of sound in air is 330 m / s, i.e., rounded off 1 km in 3 seconds, you can determine the distance by doing a little calculation. In some cases, the distance can be determined by ear.

From the experience of assessing the audibility of various sounds, it becomes clear that:

walking on a dirt road can be heard at a distance of 300 m, and when driving on a highway - 600 m;

traffic on a dirt road - 500 m, on a highway - up to 1000 m;

loud screams - 0.5 - 1 km .;

driving stakes, logging - 300 - 500 m ..

The given data is very approximate and depends on the hearing of the person. At the heart of any method of determining distances is the ability to select landmarks on the ground and use them as marks indicating the desired directions, points and boundaries. Landmarks are usually called well-visible objects on the ground and relief details, relative to which they determine their location, direction of movement and indicate the position of targets and other objects. Landmarks are chosen as evenly as possible. The selected landmarks can be numbered by choosing a direction, or given a conventional name. To indicate your location on the ground relative to a landmark, determine the direction and distance from it.

The apparent similarity of the environment - trees, terrain folds, etc. - can completely disorient a person, and he often moves in circles, unaware of his mistake. In order to maintain the chosen direction, some well-marked landmark is usually marked every 100-150 m of the route. This is especially important if the path is blocked by a blockage or dense thickets of shrubs, which force you to deviate from the direct direction. Trying to go ahead is always fraught with injury, which will aggravate the already difficult situation of the person in distress.

It is especially difficult to make transitions in the swamp zone. It is not easy to find a safe walking path among the shifting green space. Of particular danger in the swamp are the so-called windows - areas of clear water on the gray-green surface of the swamps. Sometimes their sizes reach tens of meters. It is necessary to overcome the swamp with the utmost care, always armed with a long, strong pole. It is held horizontally at chest level. Having failed, in no case should you flounder. It is necessary to get out slowly, leaning on the pole, without making sudden movements, trying to give the body a horizontal position. For a short rest when crossing the swamp, you can use outcrops of hard rock. Water obstacles, especially rivers with a fast current and a rocky bottom, are overcome without taking off their shoes, for greater stability. Before taking the next step, the bottom is probed with a pole. It is necessary to move obliquely, sideways to the current, so that the stream does not knock you down.

In winter, you can move along the beds of frozen rivers, while observing the necessary precautions. So, it must be remembered that the current usually destroys the ice from below, and it becomes especially thin under snowdrifts near steep banks, that in the channels of rivers with sandy shallows, streaks often form, which, when frozen, turn into a kind of dam. At the same time, water usually finds a way out along the coast under snowdrifts, near snags, rocks, where the current is faster.

In cold weather, the streaks soar, resembling the smoke of human habitation. But much more often, streaks are hidden under deep snow, and they are difficult to detect. Therefore, it is better to bypass all obstacles on the river ice; in places where rivers bend, one must stay away from the steep bank, where the current is faster and therefore the ice is thinner.

Often, after the river freezes, the water level drops so quickly that pockets form under the thin ice, which pose a great danger to pedestrians. On the ice, which seems not strong enough, and there is no other way, they crawl. In spring, the ice is thinnest in areas overgrown with sedge, near flooded bushes.

If there is no firm confidence in the ability to quickly get out of the situation, and the situation does not require immediate departure from the scene, it is better to stay in place, make a fire, build a shelter from improvised materials. This will help to protect yourself well from the weather and save strength for a long time. In addition, in parking conditions it is much easier to get food. In some cases, this tactic will facilitate the actions of the search and rescue service, which received information about the incident in a particular area. Having made the decision to “stay in place”, you need to draw up a plan for further action, in which to provide for the necessary measures.

Shelter construction

The simplest shelter from wind and rain is made by linking individual elements of the base (frame) with thin spruce roots, willow branches, and tundra birch. Natural cavities in the steep bank of the river allow you to comfortably sit on them so that the place of sleep is between the fire and the vertical surface (cliff, rock), which serves as a heat reflector.

Organizing an overnight stay is hard work. First you need to find a suitable site. First of all, it must be dry. Secondly, it is best to settle down near the stream, in an open place, in order to always have a supply of water on hand.

When preparing a place to sleep, two holes are dug - under the thigh and under the shoulder. You can spend the night on a bed of spruce branches in a deep hole dug or thawed to the ground with a large fire. Here, in the pit, one should keep the fire in the fire all night in order to avoid a serious cold. In the winter taiga, where the thickness of the snow cover is significant, it is easier to arrange a shelter in a hole near a tree. In severe frost, you can build a simple snow hut in loose snow. To do this, the snow is raked into a heap, its surface is compacted, watered and allowed to freeze. Then the snow is removed from the pile, and a small hole is made in the remaining dome for the chimney. A fire built inside melts the walls and makes the whole structure strong. Such a hut retains heat. You can not climb under clothes with your head, because from breathing the material becomes damp and freezes. It is better to cover the face with clothes that are easy to dry later. From a burning fire, an accumulation of carbon monoxide is possible and you need to take care of a constant influx of fresh air to the combustion center.

A canopy, a hut, a dugout, a tent can serve as a temporary shelter. The choice of type of shelter will depend on the skill, ability, diligence and, of course, the physical condition of the people, since there is no shortage of building material. However, the more severe the weather, the more reliable and warmer the dwelling should be. Make sure that the future home is spacious enough. There is no need to adhere to the principle of "in close quarters, but not offended."

Before starting construction, it is necessary to clear the site well, and then, having estimated how much building material is needed, prepare it in advance: cut down poles, chop spruce branches, branches, collect moss, cut bark. To make the pieces of bark sufficiently large and strong, deep vertical cuts are made on the larch trunk, up to the wood itself, at a distance of 0.5 - 0.6 m from each other. After that, the strips are cut from above and below with large teeth 10–12 cm in diameter, and then the bark is carefully peeled off with an ax or a machete knife.

Rice. 1. Hut, canopy and bonfires: A - combined gable hut and “star” bonfire; B - the simplest canopy and fire "pyramid".

Rice. 2. Trench, hut and fire: A - snow trench near a tree; B - a gable hut and a "taiga" fire.

Rice. 3. Tent type "chum".

In the warm season, you can limit yourself to building a simple canopy. Two one and a half meter stakes as thick as a hand with forks at the end are driven into the ground at a distance of 2.0 - 2.5 m from each other. A thick pole is laid on the forks - a load-bearing beam. 5-7 poles are leaned against it at an angle of approximately 45 - 60 ° and, having secured them with a rope or vine, a tarpaulin, parachute or any other fabric is pulled over it. The edges of the awning are bent from the sides of the canopy and tied to a beam laid in the base of the canopy. Litter is made from spruce branches or dry moss. The canopy is dug in with a shallow groove to protect it from water in case of rain.

A gable hut is more convenient for housing (Fig. 2, B). After driving in the racks and laying the load-bearing beam on them, the poles are laid on it at an angle of 45 - 60 ° on both sides, and three or four poles are tied to each slope parallel to the ground - rafters. Then, starting from the bottom, spruce branches, branches with dense foliage or pieces of bark are laid on the rafters so that each subsequent layer, like a tile, covers the bottom one to about half. The front part, the entrance, can be hung with a piece of fabric, and the back part is covered with one or two poles and braided with spruce branches.

The concept of autonomous existence, its essence and features.
The influence of the autonomous existence of man in nature on his psychological and physical condition.
Rules of safe behavior in forced autonomous existence, survival criteria.

Introduction

Conclusion

• Introduction

The favorable outcome of autonomous existence depends on many factors: physical and psychological state, food and water supplies, equipment efficiency, etc.
The Arctic and the tropics, mountains and deserts, taiga and the ocean - each of these natural zones is characterized by its own characteristics that determine the specifics of human life (rules of conduct, methods of obtaining water and food, building a shelter, the nature of diseases and measures to prevent them, ways of moving around the area ). The more severe the conditions of the external environment, the shorter the period of autonomous existence, the more stress the struggle with nature requires, the more strictly the rules of conduct must be followed, the more expensive the price paid for each mistake.
The vital activity of a person is greatly influenced by his will, determination, composure, ingenuity, physical fitness, endurance. But even these important qualities are sometimes not enough for salvation. People die from heat and thirst, not suspecting that a saving source of water is three steps away, freeze in the tundra, unable to build a shelter from snow, die of hunger in a forest where there is a lot of game, become victims of poisonous animals, not knowing how to help. first aid for a bite.

When a person is in any type of terrain, the chances of survival depend on the following factors:

desire to survive;

The ability to apply existing knowledge, strictly comply with the requirements of staying in a particular area;

Confidence in local knowledge;

Reasonableness and initiative;

Discipline and ability to act according to plan;

The ability to analyze and take into account their mistakes.

To survive means to solve three most important tasks:

1. Be able to hide from cold, heat and wind, protect the body from hypothermia or overheating, depending on the terrain and weather conditions.

2. Immediately set the daily rate of water consumption, and leave emergency supplies as a last resort. Measures must also be taken to find sources of water.

3. Formulate a diet and make sure there is enough water for food preparation and consumption.

• Human survival in autonomous existence

Autonomous existence is the continuous existence of one or groups of people without replenishment of supplies and without communication with the outside world.

The autonomous existence of a person in nature, no matter what reasons lead to it, always has a serious impact on his condition, primarily because in everyday life we ​​are accustomed to certain laws that are well known to us.

However, in a situation of loneliness or group isolation, a person is forced to act in several directions: provide medical care, build shelters, make decisions, etc.

All this can cause self-doubt: lack of special skills; a person who has succumbed to panic is not able to determine the priority of the tasks facing him and correctly allocate time.

Extreme situations are not so rare, so it is necessary to work out the rules of behavior in them. The situation of autonomy arises unexpectedly. The most typical reasons for its appearance include: loss of orientation, lagging behind the group, vehicle accidents.
Survival, based only on the biological laws of self-preservation, is short-lived. It is characterized by rapidly developing mental disorders and hysterical behavioral reactions. The desire to survive must be conscious and purposeful, and must be dictated not by instinct, but by conscious necessity.
The natural environment and its physical and geographical conditions are also important for human life. Actively influencing the human body, it increases or shortens the period of autonomous existence, promotes or hinders the success of survival. Each of the natural zones determines the specifics of human life: the mode of behavior, methods of obtaining food, the construction of shelters, the nature of diseases and measures to prevent them, etc.

Rules for safe human behavior in forced autonomous existence in natural conditions

Orientation on the ground is the determination of one's position relative to the sides of the horizon and local objects. Depending on the nature of the terrain, the availability of technical means and visibility, the sides of the horizon can be determined by the position of the Sun, the North Star, by signs of local objects, etc.
In the northern hemisphere, the direction not north can be determined by standing with your back to the Sun at local noon. The shadow will indicate the direction to the north, the west will be on the left, the east on the right. Local noon is determined using a vertical pole 0.5 - 1.0 m long according to the smallest value of the shadow length from it on the Earth's surface. The moment when the shadow was the shortest in terms of marks on Earth corresponds to the passage of the Sun through this meridian.
Determining cardinal points with a clock: the clock must be placed horizontally and rotated so that the hour hand points to the sun. Through the center of the dial, the bisector of the angle formed between this line and the hour hand is mentally drawn, showing the direction north-south, and the south is to the right of the Sun until 12 o'clock, and after 12 o'clock - to the left.
At night in the northern hemisphere, the direction of north can be determined using the North Star, located approximately above the North Pole. To do this, you need to find the constellation Ursa Major with a characteristic arrangement of stars in the form of a bucket with a handle. An imaginary line is drawn through the last two stars of the bucket, and the distance between these stars is plotted on it 5 times. At the end of the fifth segment there will be a bright star - Polaris. The direction to it will correspond to the direction to the north.

You can navigate by some natural signs. So, for example, on the north side, the trees have a coarser bark, covered with lichen and moss at the foot, the bark of birch and pine on the north side is darker than on the south, and tree trunks, stones or ledges of rocks are densely covered with moss and lichens. During thaws, snow stays longer on the northern slopes of the hills. Anthills are usually protected from the north by something, their northern side is steeper. Mushrooms usually grow on the north side of trees. On the surface of the trunk of coniferous trees, facing south, more resin drops stand out than on the north. These signs are especially clearly visible on trees standing separately. On the southern slopes, grass grows faster in spring, and many flowering shrubs have more flowers.

Organizing an overnight stay is hard work. First you need to find a suitable site. First of all, it must be dry. Secondly, it is best to settle down near the stream, in an open place, in order to always have a supply of water on hand.
The simplest shelter from wind and rain is made by linking individual elements of the base (frame) with thin spruce roots, willow branches, and tundra birch. Natural cavities in the steep bank of the river allow you to comfortably sit on them so that the place of sleep is between the fire and the vertical surface (cliff, rock), which serves as a heat reflector.

When preparing a place to sleep, two holes are dug - under the thigh and under the shoulder. You can spend the night on a bed of spruce branches in a deep hole dug or thawed to the ground with a large fire. Here, in the pit, one should keep the fire in the fire all night in order to avoid a serious cold.
In the winter taiga, where the thickness of the snow cover is significant, it is easier to arrange a shelter in a hole near a tree. In severe frost, you can build a simple snow hut in loose snow. To do this, the snow is raked into a heap, its surface is compacted, watered and allowed to freeze. Then the snow is removed from the pile, and a small hole is made in the remaining dome for the chimney. A fire built inside melts the walls and makes the whole structure strong. Such a hut retains heat. You can not climb under clothes with your head, because from breathing the material becomes damp and freezes. It is better to cover the face with clothes that are easy to dry later. From a burning fire, an accumulation of carbon monoxide is possible and you need to take care of a constant influx of fresh air to the combustion center.

A bonfire in the conditions of autonomous existence is not only warm, it is dry clothes and shoes, hot water and food, protection against midges and an excellent signal for a search helicopter. And most importantly, a fire is an accumulator of vivacity, energy and vigorous activity.
To get fire, you need to use a steel, a piece of flint. Any steel object can serve as a flint and flint, in extreme cases, the same iron pyrites. Fire is struck by sliding blows on flint so that sparks fall on tinder - dry moss, crushed dry leaves, newspaper, cotton wool, etc.

Fire can be made by friction. For this purpose, a bow, a drill and a support are made: a bow - from a dead trunk of a young birch or hazel 2-3 cm thick and a piece of rope as a bowstring; drill - from a pine stick 25 - 30 cm long, pencil-thick, pointed at one end; the support is cleaned of bark and a hole 1-1.5 cm deep is drilled with a knife. The drill, wrapped once with a bowstring, is inserted with a sharp end into the hole, around which tinder is laid. Then, pressing the drill with the palm of the left hand, the right hand quickly moves the bow perpendicular to the drill. In order not to damage the palm, a gasket is placed between it and the drill from a piece of cloth, tree bark, or a glove is put on. As soon as the tinder smolders, it must be blown up and put into kindling prepared in advance.

To achieve success, you should remember three rules: the tinder must be dry, you must act in strict sequence, and most importantly, show patience and perseverance.

Obtaining food and water. A person who finds himself in conditions of autonomous existence must take the most energetic measures to provide himself with food by collecting edible wild plants, fishing, hunting, i.e. use everything that nature gives.

Over 2,000 plants grow on the territory of our country, partially or completely suitable for food.

When collecting plant gifts, care must be taken. About 2% of plants can cause severe and even fatal poisoning. To prevent poisoning, it is necessary to distinguish between such poisonous plants as the crow's eye, wolf's bast, poisonous milestone (hemlock), bitter henbane, etc. Food poisoning is caused by poisonous substances contained in some mushrooms: pale grebe, fly agaric, false honey agaric, false chanterelle, etc. .
It is better to refrain from eating unfamiliar plants, berries, mushrooms. When forced to use them for food, it is recommended to eat at a time no more than 1 - 2 g of food mass, if possible, drinking plenty of water (vegetable poison contained in such a proportion will not cause serious harm to the body). Wait 1-2 hours. If there are no signs of poisoning (nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, dizziness, intestinal disorders), you can eat an additional 10-15 g. You can eat without restrictions a day later.

An indirect sign of the edibility of a plant can be: fruits pecked by birds; many seeds, scraps of peel at the foot of fruit trees; bird droppings on branches, trunks; plants gnawed by animals; fruits found in nests and burrows. Unfamiliar fruits, bulbs, tubers, etc. it is desirable to boil. Cooking destroys many organic poisons.

In conditions of autonomous existence, fishing is perhaps the most affordable way to provide yourself with food. Fish has a higher energy value than vegetable fruits, and is less labor intensive than hunting.

Fishing tackle can be made from improvised materials: fishing line - from loose shoelaces, thread pulled out of clothes, untwisted rope, hooks - from pins, earrings, hairpins from badges, "invisible", and spinners - from metal and mother-of-pearl buttons, coins and etc.

It is permissible to eat fish meat raw, but it is better to cut it into narrow strips, dry them in the sun, so it will become tastier and last longer. In order to avoid fish poisoning, certain rules must be observed. You can not eat fish covered with thorns, spikes, sharp growths, skin ulcers, fish that are not covered with scales, devoid of lateral fins, having an unusual appearance and bright color, hemorrhages and tumors of internal organs. You can not eat stale fish - with gills covered with mucus, with sunken eyes, flabby skin, with an unpleasant odor, with dirty and easily detached scales, with meat easily lagging behind the bones and especially from the spine. It is better not to eat unfamiliar and dubious fish. You should also not eat fish caviar, milk, liver, because. they are often poisonous.

Hunting is the most preferred, in winter the only way to provide food. But unlike fishing, hunting requires sufficient skill, skills, and a lot of labor from a person.

Small animals and birds are relatively easy to catch. To do this, you can use traps, snares, loops and other devices.

The mined meat of the animal, the birds are fried on a primitive spit. Small animals and birds are roasted on a spit without skinning or plucking. After cooking, the charred skin is removed, and the carcass is cleaned of the inside. It is advisable to burn the meat of larger game after gutting and cleaning over high heat, and then roast it on coals.

Rivers, lakes, streams, swamps, accumulation of water in certain areas of the soil provide people with the necessary amount of liquid for drinking and cooking.

Water from springs and springs, mountain and forest rivers and streams can be drunk raw. But before you quench your thirst with water from stagnant or low-flowing reservoirs, it should be cleaned of impurities and disinfected. For cleaning, it is easy to make the simplest filters from several layers of fabric or from an empty tin can, punching 3-4 small holes in the bottom, and then filling it with sand. You can dig a shallow hole half a meter from the edge of the reservoir, and after a while it will be filled with clean, clear water.

The most reliable method of water disinfection is boiling. In the absence of dishes for boiling, a primitive box made of a piece of birch bark will do, provided that the flame only touches the part that is filled with water. You can boil water by lowering heated stones into a birch bark box with wooden tongs.

Prevention and treatment of diseases. In conditions of autonomous existence, when a wide variety of injuries, bruises, burns, poisoning, diseases, etc. are possible, knowledge of self-help techniques is especially necessary, because you have to rely on your own strength.

To protect against mosquitoes, midges need to lubricate open areas of the body with a thin layer of clay. Smoked bonfires are widely used to repel insects. To drive insects out of the hut before going to bed, burning coals are placed on a thick piece of bark, and covered with wet moss on top. The smoke oven is brought into the shelter, kept there until it is filled with smoke, and then it is well ventilated and the entrance is tightly closed. At night, the smoker is left at the entrance on the leeward side so that the smoke, repelling insects, does not penetrate into the shelter.

During the transitions, care must be taken not to step on the snake. In case of an unexpected meeting with a snake, it is necessary to stop, let it crawl away and not pursue it. If the snake is aggressive, immediately deliver a strong blow to the head, and then finish it off. When bitten by a poisonous snake, it is necessary to carefully suck out the poison (if there are no cracks in the mouth and lips) and spit it out. Wash the wound and apply a bandage.

In the treatment of diseases, certain plants should be widely used.

Ash bark has an anti-inflammatory effect. To do this, remove the bark from a not very young, but not very old branch and attach the juicy side to the wound. Fresh crushed nettle leaves help well. They promote blood clotting and stimulate tissue healing. For the same purposes, the wound can be sprinkled with greenish-brown pollen of a mature puffball mushroom, tightly clamping the cut with the velvety skin of the same fungus turned inside out.

Fireweed fluff, reeds, linen and hemp tow can be used as cotton wool.

The burning reddish juice of the lungwort can replace iodine. And white moss is used as a dressing with a disinfectant effect. Fresh juice of plantain and wormwood stops bleeding and disinfects wounds, has an analgesic and healing effect. This remedy is also indispensable for severe bruises, sprains, as well as for the bites of wasps and bumblebees. The leaves of plantain and wormwood are crushed and applied to the wound.

How to send a distress signal. The fire remains one of the most effective means of emergency signaling. In order to give a signal to the search helicopter in a timely manner, the fire is prepared in advance. Dry branches, trunks, moss, etc. are piled up in open places - a clearing, a hilltop, a clearing, otherwise the trees will trap smoke and the signal will go unnoticed. To make the column of smoke thicker and blacker, fresh grass, green leaves of trees, damp moss, etc. are thrown into the blazing fire. The fire is set on fire when a helicopter or plane has appeared in the visibility zone and the noise of running engines is clearly audible.
The attention of the crew of an aircraft search vessel can also be attracted by various signals that unmask the terrain: for example, trample geometric shapes in the snow, cut down (break out) bushes, and if there is a fabric of bright colors, stretch it out in the open.

The favorable outcome of an autonomous existence depends on many factors, but the main one is solid knowledge from various fields. It is desirable not only to know how to behave in a given situation, but also to be able to do it, because when the situation becomes threatening, it is too late to start learning.

Conclusion

How to behave a person who finds himself in extreme conditions of the natural environment? If there is no firm confidence in the ability to quickly get out of the situation, and the situation does not require immediate departure from the scene, it is better to stay in place, make a fire, build a shelter from improvised materials. This will help you to protect yourself well from the weather and keep your strength for a long time. In addition, in parking conditions it is much easier to get food. In some cases, this tactic will facilitate the actions of the search and rescue service, which received information about the incident in a particular area.
Having made the decision to “stay in place”, you need to draw up a plan for further action, which includes the following activities: determining your location; protection from the adverse effects of environmental factors; making a fire; issuing distress signals; obtaining food and water; self-care and disease prevention.
The ability of a person to successfully overcome the harsh conditions of the natural environment is one of his most ancient qualities. Even in time immemorial, he learned to protect himself from cold and heat, to build a dwelling for himself from snow and tree branches, to make fire by friction, looking for edible fruits and roots, to hunt birds and animals, etc. But centuries passed, and a person, having tasted the benefits of civilization, began to gradually move away from nature and lose the skills acquired by many generations of ancestors. As a member of society, he is accustomed to the idea that many of his needs are provided by the people around him, that someone constantly takes care of satisfying his needs, that in this or that unfavorable situation he can always count on someone's help. Indeed, in everyday life, a person does not have to rack his brains over how to hide from heat or cold, how and where to quench thirst and hunger. Lost in an unfamiliar city, he can easily get the information he needs. If you get sick, seek medical help.

However, even today, cases are not uncommon when a person, as a result of the prevailing circumstances, finds himself in conditions of autonomous existence, the favorable outcome of which largely depends on his psychophysiological qualities, sound knowledge of the basics of survival and other factors.

With a short-term external threat, a person acts on a sensual level, obeying the instinct of self-preservation: bounces off a falling tree, clings to immovable objects when falling, tries to stay on the surface of the water when there is a threat of drowning. There is no need to talk about some kind of will to live in such cases.
Another thing is long-term survival. In the conditions of autonomous existence, sooner or later, a critical moment comes when exorbitant physical and mental stress, the seeming senselessness of further resistance suppress the will. A person is seized by passivity, indifference. He is no longer afraid of the possible tragic consequences of ill-conceived overnight stays, risky crossings. He does not believe in the possibility of salvation and therefore perishes without exhausting his reserves of strength to the end, without using food supplies.

All factors affecting the ability to survive can be divided into 4 groups:

Anthropological;

natural and environmental;

· material and technical;

environmental and stress.

Anthropological factors characterize the state of human health, the constancy of its internal environment, the reserve capabilities of the body.

Anthropological factors include:

psychological readiness;

moral and volitional qualities;

Active-transformative activity that affects the predominance of positive or negative emotions;

The ability to act in an autonomous environment.

For an unprepared person, the environment is a source of all kinds of dangers, he is in constant anxiety. This state lasts from several minutes to several days.

Thus, an important task of training is to psychologically prepare a person to overcome a possible emergency, increase his emotional and volitional stability, teach him to correctly perceive and evaluate the current situation and act in accordance with the situation.

Natural and environmental factors- temperature, air humidity, solar radiation, precipitation, atmospheric pressure level, wind, etc.

People are able to endure even the most severe natural conditions for a long time. However, getting into them for the first time, they are poorly adapted to life in an unfamiliar environment. Therefore, the harsher the conditions of the external environment, the greater the effort required by the struggle for survival, the more strictly the rules of conduct must be followed and the more expensive the price paid for each mistake.

Logistical factors provide protective materials in conditions of autonomous existence: clothing, emergency equipment, food and water supplies, improvised means used for various purposes, etc.

1.3 Characteristics of the main survival stressors

For a person who finds himself in emergency circumstances, survival stressors take on special significance. It is precisely because of illness, fear, heat, thirst, overwork, loneliness, etc. that most of the tragic outcomes of accidents occur.

There are major survival stressors:

heat, thirst

overwork;

Hunger. In medical literature, the feeling of hunger is understood as a set of sensations that express the physiological need of the body for food. Accordingly, starvation is a state of the body in the complete absence or insufficiency of the intake of nutrients.

Conventionally, there are several types of fasting:

· absolute- a person is deprived of food and water;

· complete- a person is deprived of food, but not limited in water consumption;

· incomplete- food is consumed by a person in limited quantities, insufficient to restore energy costs;

· partial- with sufficient quantitative nutrition, a person does not receive one or more substances with food (vitamins, proteins, carbohydrates, etc.).

With complete and absolute starvation, the body is forced to switch to internal self-sufficiency. It is estimated that in a person weighing 70 kg, the energy reserves of the body are approximately 160 thousand kcal; 40-45% of these reserves (65-70 thousand kcal) the body can use up without a direct threat to its existence.

In a state of absolute rest, a person needs one kilocalorie per hour per kilogram of mass to maintain the vital activity of the body (the work of the heart, lungs, brain and other organs). With a mass of 70 kg, a person's energy consumption will be 70 kcal / h or 1680 kcal / day. These are inevitable internal energy costs. The rest of the body's energy reserve is enough for an average man for 30-40 days of fasting without much damage to his health.

These calculations of the energy reserve of the body and the duration of safe fasting were made in the conditions of a "room" microclimate and complete immobility of a person.

In a real situation, a person is affected by cold, snow, rain, wind, blizzard, and the person is not in a stationary state. The costs of human energy for various types of movements are presented in Table. 1. The duration of safe fasting is significantly reduced by various diseases, increased emotionality, fear and other physical and mental conditions that increase the metabolism in the human body.