Armament of the army of Ancient Rome (21 photos). Roman armor: description, names and materials for making Roman weapons and armor
During their centuries-old history, the Romans created the most advanced weapons in antiquity, distinguished by durability, reliability and high combat qualities. The protective equipment of the legionnaire was quite simple to use, did not hamper the movements of the fighter on the battlefield, although they required a lot of physical effort.
In the field of offensive and defensive weapons, they adopted a lot, and then improved, from the neighboring Italics and, above all, the Etruscans, with whom their early history was associated, the Greeks, or rather the Macedonians, whose military organization during the Hellenistic period reached unprecedented heights, the Spaniards , Gauls, Sarmatians. Since the time of the Republic, the standard protective kit has included a helmet - "galea" or "cassis", a shell - "lorica", a shield - "scutum". The term "lorica" (lorica) is used to describe the armor that covers the chest, back, stomach and sides to the waist.
This armor had three main types:
1.Composite - all-leather or all-metal, or consisting of overlapping leather belts.
2. Their iron curved plates connected by buckles and hinges. The plates could be sewn to the skin. Flexible metal belts were attached to the plates, covering both shoulders and the middle part of the body. The width of the plates is 5-6 cm.
3. Chainmail.
Lorica lintea (Lorica lintea)
A type of soft armor used in the ancient Roman army. It was either a leather likeness of a cuirass protecting the torso, made of 2-3 layers of boiled leather; or a kind of tunic, also sewn from several layers of linen or wool, which was then boiled in salt and vinegar. Digestion added rigidity and strength to the skin or matter, but, all the same, the protective properties of lintea lorica were very small. Lorica lintea was used by lightly armed warriors, such as hastati or velites.
Lorica hamata (Lorica hamata)
This is one of the types of chain mail armor that was used in the ancient Roman Republic and Empire mainly by auxiliary troops: archers, cavalry, spearmen. Roman legionnaires also used the lorica hamata, and later the hamata began to be dressed by some legionnaires under the segmentata. The main theory says that the ancient Roman craftsmen learned to weave chain mail from the Celtic or Iberian tribes. For the most part, puck-shaped riveted rings for lorica hamata were made of bronze or iron, they had a diameter of about 5 - 7 mm, and strips of rings were located horizontally, which gave this armor flexibility, strength and reliability.
For each type of troops, there were their own variants of lorika hamata, specialized for one or another type of troops. Lorika hamata also had shoulder pads that protected the upper body, which were more like Greek linothoraxes (Linothorax). These chain mail pauldrons were connected on the chest with the chain mail cloth with bronze or iron hooks, went from the chest along the shoulders to the middle of the back, where they were also connected with hooks to the hamata. The number of rings in Roman chain mail could reach 40,000. . Hamata could weigh 9-15 kg (with shoulder pads - 16 kg). In its use, chain mail showed good results, and could last for decades, and all due to the fact that due to friction, when wearing lorik hamata, the rust itself was peeled off the rings, which accordingly increased its service life.
Despite the complexity of production, hamata lorica was cheaper than segmentata lorica, and ultimately in the 3rd - 4th centuries. AD, in the ancient Roman army, the legionnaires again completely switched to the use of chain mail, however, the new versions differed from the original ones, which were about hip-length and with a short, and sometimes completely absent sleeve, late types of Roman chain mail were about knee-length, with cuts down the front and back, and also had long sleeves.
Lorica segmentata (lorica segmentata).
Starting from the 1st c. a shell made of iron plates, fastened with copper fittings to the leather base of the lorica segmentata (lorica segmentata), comes into use. However, auxiliary troops (auxilia), as well as some legions in Asia and Africa, retained the hamata lorica as their main armor.
The origin of the lorica segmentata is not entirely clear. Perhaps it was borrowed by the legionnaires from the armament of the gladiators-croupellari, who participated in the rebellion of Flor Sacrovir in Germany (21). Thus, the popularity of protective equipment of this type in the Rhine legions could be explained. The lamellar shell was several kilograms lighter than chain mail. If the chain mail was pressed into the body upon impact, then the lamellar shell, due to its special elasticity, "absorbed" the force of the blow.
If the hamata lorica was used with might and main by the auxiliary units of the Roman army, then this type of armor was not available to them. Lorica segmentata was worn only by legionnaires and personal bodyguards of emperors - Praetorians.
The Latin name lorica segmentata appeared only in the 16th century (the ancient name of this armor is unknown). The Lorica Segmentata entered service at the beginning of the 1st century and immediately justified the hopes of the Roman generals. Lightweight, durable and much more resistant to chopping blows than the hamata lorica, segmentata lorica became a real symbol of the Roman army. The design of the lorica segmentata is quite interesting, it consisted of metal strips that were sewn onto leather straps. The stripes were more like halves of a hoop, which were fastened together on the back and chest, the upper part of the armor was strengthened with plates to cover the shoulders and upper body. It was convenient to store and transport Lorica segmentata, and as the parts (leather belts or metal plates) wore out, they could be easily and quickly replaced with new ones, which, of course, made it possible, instead of buying new armor, to simply repair the worn out one. The shell already connected at the back, with certain skills, could be relatively quickly thrown over oneself, like a shirt, and then tied and fastened in front.
This armor had a different weight, due to the fact that the thickness of the metal varied from 1 mm to 2.5-3 mm, thus the weight of the armor itself varied from 9 to 16 kg and more. During its existence, the segmentata has undergone various modifications more than once. Initially, the connecting parts of the armor were made of brass, for example: fasteners, loops were subsequently replaced with simpler bronze options - rivets, and belts were changed to small hooks, two small ones at the bottom of the armor were replaced with one large strip.
Lorica plumata (Lorica plumata)
This is one of the most rare types of Roman scaly (lamellar) armor, which was used exclusively by officers of the Roman legion. Due to the low prevalence of this armor, information about it is extremely scarce, and they are collected bit by bit. Although the design of this armor is known, it is not known for certain whether the lorica plumata was used by anyone other than officers. This armor was not only a good means of protection, but also a distinctive feature. There is an assumption that ordinary soldiers were forbidden to use plumata lorica, if this was a hallmark of officers, then it is quite logical that the use of plumata by ordinary soldiers introduced some confusion in the ranks of their own troops.
Scale armor was one of the most practical and was in service in various European countries until the 14th century. It is not difficult to guess where this type of armor came from, our ancestors simply looked at the protection of animals, in some tribes in ancient times even armor was made from scaly animal skins. With proper processing, the skin did not lose scales, but only added strength, and with the advent of metal weapons, lamellar armor became a rather interesting solution for protection. It was created on the principle of stitching together small metal plates-flakes. However, the lorica plumata is, in a way, a unique piece of armor because the scales in it looked more like bird feathers than fish or reptile scales.
The design of the plume lorica is quite complex, compared to the designs of most lamellar-type armor of that time, the scales in it were not stitched together and sewn onto chain mail rather than on a fabric or leather base, which gave strength and practicality. In addition to these fighting qualities, she had a spectacular appearance, which had a positive effect on the morale of the soldiers during the battle. Although its protective properties were very high - almost three layers of metal, given the chain mail and plates overlapping each other, it is unlikely that generals or tribunes went on the attack in it. Most likely this strong and beautiful armor was a sign of rank, and not a real battle armor. Due to the complexity of manufacturing and the requirement for the master to have special skills for manufacturing, plumata was one of the most expensive armor in the Roman Empire. As in the case of other types of Roman armor, the original name was lost, and a new one was introduced by modern scientists due to the similarity of the armor to the plumage of a bird.
Lorica squamata (Lorica squamata)
This is another type of ancient Roman lamellar armor, but, unlike plumata lorica, it was used not so much by officers as by mounted warriors, although many centurions wore squamata. There is an assumption that the lorica squamata appeared in the Roman army under the influence of Parthian weapons, which at that time was dominated by a scaly type of armor.
Lorica squamata was made according to the same principle as plumata. Metal plates in the form of fish scales were fastened to the chain mail, often the scales were additionally fastened together with a wire or a strong cord, so there could be from 4 to 12 holes in the scale, and sometimes more. The plates were fastened in horizontal rows and had a rounded shape, so the lorica squamata looked more like fish scales. Remarkably, scales on one armor could be made of different types of metal, most likely this was used simply as a decorative component, without affecting the degree of protection.
The thickness of the plates varied from 0.5 mm to 0.8 mm, while the size of the plate could vary from 6.5x9.5 mm to 5x8 cm, however, on average, the size of the plate was approximately 1.3x2.5 cm. But despite this difference , any lorica squamat gave excellent protection for the torso, since the plates perfectly overlapped each other in a checkerboard pattern, so the impact force was evenly distributed over almost the entire armor, while the armor almost did not restrict movement. The length of the squamata was the same as the hamata, because it was the hamata that was often taken as the basis. The weight of this scaly armor depended on the number of rings in the chain mail base and on the number of scales.
The only weak side of the armor is a piercing blow from the bottom up, the tip fell between the plates and tore the chain mail, with such blows (albeit rare, but still taking place), the lorica squamata protected no better than the hamata lorica. Despite the cost, this type of armor becomes more common around the 3rd century BC. AD
Lorica musculata (Lorica musculata)
This is an anatomically shaped ancient Roman shell, which originated from the ancient Greek thorax. The very first Roman armor looked like two plates (chest and dorsal) held on shoulder straps, a kind of harness.
And only with time, after several contacts of the Roman and Greek civilization, did the lorica of the musculata appear. This armor completely replaced the first armor of the Roman legionnaires of the early Republic, and was used as standard armor until the end of the 2nd beginning of the 1st centuries. BC. Muscular Lorica showed itself all this time as a reliable and practical armor, which did not greatly hinder movement, but a more interesting version appeared, which gave greater freedom in movement, while not much inferior in protective qualities.
Lorica hamata was more expensive to manufacture than muscle carapace, but lasted longer and was cheaper to repair, which is why lorica hamata became standard protection. Muscular lorica remained the same as the armor of the highest officers, in contrast to plumata lorica, which was used by middle-ranking officers. During the Roman Empire, only generals, legates and the emperor himself could wear armor.
The first types of Roman thorax for the soldiers of the republic were made of bronze and consisted of two parts (chest and dorsal), which were fastened together with belts. In length, they differed from the imperial versions only in that they covered the torso of the warriors only to the hips. Imperial officer armor was very different, because it was made not only from bronze (at that time it became one of the rarest options), but also from leather and iron (later versions began to be created from steel).
Also, leather strips began to be fixed to the lower part of the armor in a vertical position, often with sewn metal plates, which made the armor approximately knee-length, and in this case, the protection extended not only to the torso, but also to the upper legs.
Among other things, some armor of the Muscular Loric was made not only consisting of 2 parts, but also monolithic (of course, with the exception of leather strips). In any case, after being withdrawn from service, the muscle lorica became more of a parade armor than a combat one.
Lorica hamis serta (Lorica hamis serta)
A shell made of bone (or metal) plates, not sewn onto a leather or fabric base, but interconnected by metal hooks and rings.
Each plate (at its upper edge) has two holes through which the fastener passes. When the plates are aligned, each fastener strip is covered and protected by the circular ends of the top layer plates.
Information about this armor is very limited.
An essential element of the protective armament of a legionnaire was a helmet.
Apulo-corinthian
A type of helmet that came into the Roman army from the South Italian Greeks and Etruscans, who in turn had it in the 6th-4th centuries. BC e - Apulo-Corinthian (apulo-corinthian) - indicates that this type was originally produced mainly in Apulia. The standard Corinthian helmet was taken as a model and structurally it was turned into a helmet worn exclusively on the head, not allowing the face to be covered. At the same time, the nose cutout and eyes began to carry a purely decorative function, and on at least one sample they were simply scratched on the helmet metal itself.
Structurally, this helmet is a high bronze helmet, beveled to the front, with a straight cut along the lower edge and a slight neck shield. Despite numerous painted reconstructions, this helmet apparently did not have metal cheek pads and was fastened by means of a chin strap and a neck shield strap. The height of such helmets usually varies between 165-250 mm., Its weight ranges from 670 to 1084 grams. , although there are options up to 1535 gr. Its characteristic features also include strongly protruding eyebrows knocked out on the front side above the eye sockets, as well as an expanding occipital part. The helmet was often decorated with notches and engravings on both sides, usually depicting boars, bulls or horses, and (less often) lions, sphinxes and dogs. The thickness of these helmets varied from 0.5 to 2.0 mm.
As an additional decoration, this type of helmet usually carried a vertical detachable (or stationary) rack for attaching a horsehair crest and two stationary side tubes for feathers.
Chalcidian
A helmet of Greek origin, also borrowed from the Italic Greeks, examples of which for Italy are usually dated to the 6th-3rd centuries. BC e. Structurally, it was much more advanced compared to the Apulo-Corinthian type, having a fairly deep conical helmet, which initially had a high longitudinal rib, later (when the helmet became more rounded) replaced by an embossed chased rib, ear cutouts with a slight metal bend and pretty good protection of the cervical region , which fell significantly below the front edge. The helmet, the material for which was also bronze, had an insignificant rudimentary nosepiece on the front edge, and the helmet itself carried numerous embossed ribs that imitated the superciliary part (usually depicted on reliefs), forming curls on the temporal parts of the helmet, and also carried a rib separating the cervical region from the helmet itself.
The helmet had developed cheek pads attached to the helmet on hinges, the shape of which became a model for late Roman helmet variations. The cheek pads had eye and mouth cutouts and created a satisfactory lateral view.
The helmet also carried a detachable center post for a hair comb and side tubes (or coils) for feathers. The height of such a helmet was usually 190-220 mm., And the weight was 700-1200 grams.
Montefortino
One of the most massive helmets, the history of which covers not only the entire period of the Roman Republic, but almost the entire 1st century of the empire. Usually considered to be borrowed from the Gauls, although there are examples of such helmets from Apulia and even Sicily, dating from the 5th century. BC e. Being the most numerous Roman helmet.
Structurally, it was a bronze (rarely iron) domed or hemispherical (later) helmet, which had a massive pommel - both monolithic and drilled for attaching a comb of feathers or horsehair. Some samples had additionally installed iron tubular mounts (up to 5 pieces) for feathers. One sample from a Gallic burial near Parma has side fasteners for fixing high and flat horns on a helmet.
The helmet itself of this type of helmet was made by casting (with subsequent forging) or forging. The helmet had a straight cut along the lower edge and, initially, a completely insignificant neck shield, bent from the helmet itself, which had a hole in the center for fixing the hanging ring of the strap, through which the helmet was fixed on the wearer's head. Accordingly, the thickness of such helmets was 2-3.5 mm for cast helmets and 0.7-1.5 mm for forged ones. The weight of such helmets varied between 0.7 - 2.2 kg. Decorations on most of these helmets consisted of 5-6 sawn horizontal lines, repeating the lower edge, a twisted rim and a leaf-shaped ornament of a comb knob on the top of the helmet. Sometimes there were additional decorations in the form of various figures.
The cheek pads, which were hinged to the helmet, were practically flat with a slight curve and wide enough to partially cover the wearer's ears. They had eye and mouth cutouts, which in early models had parts protruding strongly forward. The helmet itself had excellent visibility, but completely insufficient protection of the cervical region, which had to be compensated for by the use of a long horsehair crest falling on the back.
In the process of becoming mass-produced of this type of helmet, it underwent changes towards simplification, having lost almost all of its decoration and, moreover, became lower - almost hemispherical, and the neck shield increased significantly. Some of the latest models, dating back to the 1st half of the 1st century, are already almost indistinguishable from the Coolus helmet, as they have a pointed pommel and brow reinforcement, while the latest (discovered near Cremona and dated to 69) already has a giant neck shield and simplified flat cheek pads.
Coolus
A helmet originating from Gallic models, commonly called Mannheim, and which appeared in the Roman army from the con. 1st century BC e. It was in service with the Roman troops until the 3rd quarter of the 1st century.
The helmet had a hemispherical helmet, almost always made of bronze - there was only one iron version, but while in the Dortmundt Museum, it was destroyed during the Second World War.
Helmets of the coolus type had a straight cut along the lower edge (as in the case of the montefortino), and also did not have ear cutouts and, accordingly, coatings for them. Initially, the helmet was devoid of a crest holder, but later they appeared - as well as side tubes for feathers. Early models also had an insignificant neck shield, which later developed into quite large and flat ones. The cheek plates had complex embossed ribs, and also differed in large size and significant cutouts for places near the eyes and mouth. A significant difference between this type of helmet was the invariable reinforcing visor in front of the front of the helmet, designed to protect against a chopping blow to the front of the head. On the first models, it had a complex profile, later it became lightweight and had an L-shaped profile. The thickness of the helmet varied from 0.9 to 1.5 mm (sometimes up to 2 mm), the approximate weight was up to 1.5 kg.
Imperial-Italic
One of the large groups of helmets, along with the Imperial-Gallic, formed the basis for completing the helmets of the imperial army of the 1st-3rd centuries. It is considered to be based on the previous models of Italian gunsmiths, and at first, on this basis, it was claimed that bronze models predominated in this group, although in fact their ratio is about half.
The helmet helmet is mostly shallow, for the first time its occipital part began to fall below the front lower edge and there it began to be reinforced with broken ribs - usually in the amount of 3 to 5. The helmet itself had a good hemispherical shape, which subsequently began to better fit the shape of the head, ear cutouts appeared on it - the covers of which on the first samples were bent from the metal of the helmet itself, later became overhead. The neck shield was well developed almost from the very beginning and, as it became natural, in later models it reached a significant size. The shield itself also had knocked-out ribs and had a slight downward bend, remaining almost flat. The reinforcing frontal visor at first looked like a solid bar, later it became profiled in the form of the letter G. The cheek pads were usually quite narrow, with ribs and crescents embossed on them as standard, as well as folds from the side of the neck and throat. There were cheek plates and they were completely smooth.
In the next models of this type of helmets, they begin to use reinforcing crossed overhead rims that cross at the top and protect the helmet from chopping blows; the helmets themselves are sometimes equipped with a fairly large number of applied bronze ornaments, and a small handle appears on the neck shield for wearing it. As a rack for the crest, both a holder identical to the Coolus type and a new sample were used - a rotary type, where the comb fork itself was inserted into the slot of the patch plate on the top of the helmet and fixed by turning. Small hooks riveted on the front and back of the helmet served as an additional means of fixing the crest box. Later models of the helmet had a corrugated bronze strip on the brow as a decoration, and the edges of the neckguard and cheek guards themselves often had a bronze edging to hide the poorly finished edges of the metal.
The thickness of this type of helmet varied from 0.8 to 1.5 mm, weight - up to 1.5 kg.
In general, this is a fairly high-quality helmet, which provided excellent protection for the wearer's head, on which all design features were tested and implemented, to which there was practically nothing to add later.
Scutum
The shield of the Roman legionnaire was the foundation of all the military art of Rome. This is a convex growth shield, about 120 cm high and up to 75 cm wide. We are most familiar with rectangular scutums, common during the Empire, but the armies of Republican Rome were more often armed with oval ones.
The shield was made of glued wooden planks (practically plywood) and sheathed with leather on the outside. The edges of the shield were edged with bronze or iron; in the center there was a rounded bronze umbon. The Roman shield had only one horizontal handle in the center. Like the Argive shields, the scutums were very heavy - rectangular ones weighed about six kilograms, and oval ones were even heavier ...
In battle, the legionnaire held a shield in front of his chest, practically pressed to the body, while the chest, stomach and hips of the warrior were completely covered. Because of this, the Romans wore a gladius not on their left, but on their right side - it would be very difficult to take out a sword, even a short one, from under such a shield. Attacking, the legionnaire pushed the enemy - and this was not a blow with his hand, but with his whole body, primarily with his shoulder pressed against the shield (this is how doors are planted) - and it was not easy to stand on his feet. In hand-to-hand combat, the legionnaires often crouched, putting the shield on the ground - with a short sword in their hands, the fighter, covered from the sides by his comrades, turned out to be well protected, and it was very difficult to get him. At the same time, the static nature of the battle line was more than compensated for by the maneuvers of individual formations.
The appearance of the first armor occurred long before the advent of war and military affairs. Armor is often associated with metal, but leather and cloth were much more common materials. Stone Age people first learned how to make simple armor from animal skins, which became the prototype of the first leather and fabric armor. Animal skins protected people not only from the cold, but also from the sharp claws and teeth of predators who attacked during the hunt. Of course, such armor could not save the hunter from serious wounds, but people learned to sew durable clothes from animal skin that covered the entire body. With the advent of the first melee weapon - a sharp knife, a dagger, a battle ax, and a ranged weapon - a throwing spear, arrows with metal tips, it was necessary to take care of a more reliable protection of the warrior. First of all, the warrior needed a reliable helmet, shield, chest leather armor.
Ancient warriors of the Crete-Mycenaean civilization
The period of the first civilizations marked the beginning of the era of wars between new states, an army appeared and weapons were improved.
In ancient times warriors of the Minoan civilization of Crete
wore bone horned helmets, were armed with spears and shields. Bronze double-edged short swords of this period had thin blade about 80 cm long, around the 9th century BC
for the manufacture of swords began to use iron, the blade began to be made wider and shorter.
People learned to process not only fabric, skin and bones of animals, but also metal, in the Bronze Age it became possible to create military armor that gives the warrior real protection. Leather armor, as well as fabric armor, were considered light armor, but they were not abandoned even in the era of heavy knightly armor. They learned to process metal a very long time ago, but truly strong and heavy armor appeared only in the late Middle Ages.
Ancient Hellas, the successor of the Cretan-Mycenaean civilization , in many ways improved the methods of war and military weapons. The duty of a citizen of any free ancient Greek policy was military service, they had to take care of their weapons themselves.
Ancient Greek hoplite warriors (ancient Greek ὁπλίτης) were heavy infantry armed with heavy (about 8 kg.) round "Argive" shields - hoplon (ancient Greek ὅπλον), who protected the warrior from the neck to the knees. The first hoplite warriors appeared in the Spartan army. Hoplites during the war, citizens with average incomes became, they could provide themselves with weapons and equipment at their own expense. The best armies of the Greek policies consisted of wealthy citizens, heavily armed hoplite infantrymen, united in phalanxes.
Light infantry in ancient Greece was called – peltasts (other Greek πελταστής), who were the skirmishers of the battle, they threw darts at the enemy. Peltasty were called by the name of the shield - pelta (ancient Greek πελτα) - a light leather shield used by the Thracian infantry-velites (peltasts), having the shape of a crescent. A shield-pelta was made from light wood, or wickerwork from reeds, vines.
Sling -
throwing edged weapons used by the slingers of Assyria, Persia, Greece, Rome and Carthage. The sling consisted of a rope or belt, with a loop at the end where the slinger's brush was threaded. In the center of the sling, a stone or metal projectile was inserted.
Lead sling bullets with the inscription - "Catch". 4th century BC
The slinger rotated the sling with the projectile in a horizontal or vertical plane, intensifying circular movements, and at the moment of the strongest swing released the free end of the sling and the projectile flew out of the sling at high speed. Although the bow was a more accurate weapon, slingers with metal projectiles were valued more than archers, since projectile lead bullets retained more destructive power.
Xiphos (other Greek ξίφος) a straight double-edged short sword with a leaf-shaped blade about 60 cm long. Borrowed by the Hellenes from the Scythians. The Scythian way of burial was borrowed by the Greeks. (McPherson's Antiquities of Kertch, 1857)
Scythian warriors.
In the Northern Black Sea region before the arrival of the ancient Greeks there lived many tribes related in language, religion, culture, having a common style of fine art, which modern art historians call the "animal style". The ancient Greeks who founded on the shores (Black Sea) colonies, collided with local tribes and did not distinguish at all the features of these tribes, and therefore, all strangers who did not speak Greek and lived outside of Greece, they called barbarians. The Greeks called the nomads and tillers of the Northern Black Sea region Scythians, and their vast territories of residence - Scythia.
The name "Scythian" comes from the Greek oh words "xiphos" - ξιφωζ - thorn as the Greeks called it short scythian sword 60 cm long.- a formidable Scythian weapon in hand-to-hand combat. Scythian blade, short sword, the Scythians called akinak, and in Greek blade -σπαθί - "save".
Scythian warriors were armed with powerful a new type of bow , made of several layers of wood and tendons. Scythian bow was much more powerful than a regular wooden bow, as the different layers of wood increased the power and impact force fired from bow of a Scythian arrow with a trihedral tip.
In equestrian combat, the Scythians used squads of archers who fired hundreds of deadly arrows at the same time for several minutes. At the end of the 6th century A.D. e. Byzantine writer
described the deadly power of the mounted Scythian archers, who did not stop fighting until the enemy was completely destroyed. 
The weapon of the Scythians, who fought on foot, was a battle ax with a narrow long sharp blade - an ax (labrys). In hand-to-hand combat, the Scythian foot soldiers fought as bravely and fiercely as the Scythian riders.
Despite the fact that in these times the processing of bronze reached a very high level, bronze armor was not as popular as cloth, they cost a lot of money.
Into the armor Scythian warrior included a shield with armored coating. The width of the Scythian shield is 93 cm, in the lower part (in the middle) it is divided by a cutout 17 cm long, 10 cm wide. Such a shield was very convenient for the rider end of the 5th - beginning of the 4th centuries. BC.
Scythian rounded helmet with a small cone on the crown, the prototype of the ancient Russian helmet.
Scythian armor
represents sleeveless leather shirt
fastening on the right beck (kosovorotka).
The front part of the armor is tailored so that the shoulder parts, separated by the neckline, go forward in the form long stripes-shoulders with a plate set.
The shoulders covered not only the shoulder, but also the forearm, they were attached to the back of the armor with the help of iron laces and laces. The iron plates of the set are sewn onto the leather base in horizontal rows from bottom to top.
in such a way that the right edge of each plate moved over the left edge of the adjacent one, resulting in a continuous coating that did not give clearance when the base was stretched at the kinks. The armor left room for body movements, providing the warrior with the maximum possible mobility. The front of the armor reaches only to the waist, that is, it is cut out for the rider. In the lower part of the hem of the armor there are two burrs, to which they were attached with the help of laces. pants that served as legguards and leggings (length 60 cm, width 30 cm), the pants were rectangular pieces of leather with a lamellar set. They were wrapped around the legs and connected from the inside. There was no plate set in the knee area, for the convenience of controlling the horse. 
Ancient Greek warriors.
In addition to the shield the Greek hoplite wore a helmet, Two types of ancient Greek helmets are known. Corinthian helmet fully closed with cutouts for eyes and mouth, has a T-shape. The helmet was often decorated with a short horse mane.
Illyrian helmet did not cover the face of the warrior, and did not have protection for the nose, the ears of the warrior were also open, the warrior received a better view, and this made him lighter and more comfortable than the Corinthian. Subsequently, the Corinthian helmet changed and became more similar to the Illyrian one.
Linnothorax - combat armor made of several layers of dense fabric, most often used by hoplites, as well as light infantry and cavalry. Linnothorax did not hamper the movement of a warrior, relying in battle on his strength, agility and speed of movement. Bronze armor was called hippothorax , they repeated the anatomical pattern of the muscles. Ancient warriors wore bracers and greaves, protecting arms and legs from injury. Scaled armor did not gain a foothold in the ancient Greek army, apparently due to their heaviness, which hindered the movement of the war and a very hot climate, because of the heat, the metal of the armor was heated.
In ancient Egypt due to the unbearable heat and the high cost of making even cloth armor, ordinary soldiers almost never wore armor. The Egyptians used a shield and wore traditional Egyptian wigs, which were made of hard leather and adorned with bone or bronze pieces. A helmet and skillful possession of a shield softened the blow of an ax, mace or club. Bronze axes and swords were the weapons of wealthy warriors and military leaders, ordinary soldiers were armed with a shield, a spear and a short blade. For many years of excavations in Egypt, almost not a single metal shell was found, which indicates the high cost of its production and, possibly, low efficiency. The Egyptian army, and many armies of the ancient era, had cavalry and chariots. All noble, well-trained warriors fought by archery and moving in a chariot acting as mobile cavalry. The accuracy of archery during the fast movement of the chariot required considerable skill, such noble warriors on chariots were valued and they wore cloth or leather armor.
Roman army is a kind of continuation and development of the ideas of the phalanx. At this time, the Iron Age begins. Combat armor made of bronze and fabric is replaced by iron, Roman legionaries are armed with short swords, helmets and massive shields that allow them to come close to the enemy, strike and break the formation. In the Iron Age, the sword becomes more durable and longer, there is a need for armor that could effectively stop slashing blows. The spear was the weapon of the hoplite and many armies of this time.
So the heavy armor of the hoplite is replaced chain mail – Lorica hamata. Mail is not very effective against a spear, but can stop a slashing blow from a sword or axe. Legions often fought tribes that were out of order , many barbarians from the north were armed with axes, a reliable shield was needed to protect against slashing weapons.
Large growth (tower) ancient Roman shield with a central handle and umbon, called scutum (lat. scutum), was common in Italy in the Bronze Age. Roman shield had only one horizontal handle in the center.
SCUTUM - is the predecessor of the oval shieldauxilium *, which began to supplant the scutum from about the 2nd century. Auxilium (Latin auxilia) - auxiliary unit of the ancient Roman army, recruited from foreigners.
scutum among the Etruscans. In Etruria
, near Vetulonia, in one of the graves of the necropolis of Poggio alla Tuardia, VIII century BC. e., a sculptural image of a shield-scutum was found. Around the beginning of the 4th century BC. e. began to be used by Roman legionnaires instead of the Argive hoplite shield
Later, from the Romans, this type of shield was adopted by the Celts, Iberians and Illyrians.
The loss shield for Roman a warrior was considered a shame no less than the loss of a sword.
The Roman scutum from the time of the Republic measured about 75 cm wide, about 120 cm high, and weight 8-10 kg. According to Polybius, it was made from two wooden boards, first covered with coarse cloth, and then with calfskin. The Roman Scutum was found in the Fayum oasis, the height of the shield is 128 cm, the width is 63.5 cm, made of birch boards.
During the battle, the Roman soldiers held the shield along the left side and pressed the enemy, leaning on the shield with their shoulders and helping themselves with a short sword.
Later scutums decreased in width, but somewhat lengthened, which made it possible to almost completely close the shield from the enemy.
The ancient Roman shield-scutum served as a reliable defense for the legionnaires, and in combination with combat tactics, the scutums created an impenetrable wall that reliably protected the Roman soldiers, the enemy could not break through the Roman system.
At the beginning of the Imperial era, around 1 AD, a Roman legion consisted of about 5,000 heavy infantry and a small cavalry unit of 120 cavalry. Typically, the Roman legions also had an equal number of archers, cavalry, or light infantry attached as support troops, recruited from among the populations of the Roman provinces. In contrast, legionnaire recruitment took place exclusively among the citizens of Rome. The legions also accompanied the convoys with food and tools for the construction of protected camps, and thus the total number of the legion reached about 11,000 people.
Weapon
The equipment of the legionnaires included not only a variety of weapons and armor, but also tools and everyday utensils. The soldiers mainly had two types of attacking weapons: numerous spears, the so-called pilums, and a gladius, a short sword.
Pilum
The length of the Imperial era pilum was approximately 2.10 meters, 90 cm of which is an iron tip. In battle, pilums were thrown towards the enemy's battle formations from a fairly short distance. Caesar describes the effect of the use of pilums as follows: “... One spear often pierced two overlapping shields, binding them together, (...). Since their hands were now so heavy that they could not fight normally, (…) they got rid of their shields and preferred to fight without protection.
“Gladius, Roman short sword (original find and copy)”
The sword of the legionnaires, the gladius, was a double-edged weapon, approximately 60 cm long and 5 cm wide. It was usually used for striking at close range. Later, during the heyday of the Empire, the legions began to use the spatu, the long sword, primarily as a club.
Roman shield in action
The scutum, a large Roman shield with curved edges for better protection of the body, was used as protective equipment. It was made of thin wood fitted and joined together, reinforced with an iron or bronze frame. In the center of the shield was a cone, and on the opposite side - a handle. The front part was covered with leather and decorated with silver and bronze ornaments in the form of lightnings of Jupiter.
The shields of the cohorts had different colors to make it easier to distinguish them on the battlefield. In addition, the names of the owner and centurion of the cohort were applied to the shields. During forced marches, the shield was carried on a belt over the shoulder.
clothing
The soldiers wore a linen tunic (underwear) and a short-sleeved woolen tunic that went down to the knees in front. The legs of the men were left bare, here protection was sacrificed for greater mobility. The wearing of trousers (lat. bracae) was considered alien and inappropriate for Roman men, although in cold regions legionnaires were allowed to wear long underpants made of wool or leather that ended just below the knee.
Legionnaires' shoes were of high quality and skillful work, mainly heavy sandals with multi-layered soles were used. Sandals were tied with straps in the center of the tibia, and legionnaires could put wool or fur in cold clothes.
Armor
Armor has changed over the years. Different types of armor could be used at the same time. At the turn of the 1st-2nd centuries, legionnaires mostly wore chain mail. Later, they also protected themselves in battle with the "lorica segmentata" - this was an elaborate armor consisting of many overlapping metal plates that were connected to each other by leather straps from the inside so as not to affect mobility. The shoulders were also protected by various kinds of curved plates, and the back and chest were covered with a connected breastplate. The armor could be assembled in one piece and laced up in front, and at the same time it was still easy to disassemble into separate segments for cleaning and repair.
“Legionnaires circa 70 AD.”
From the year 100, scale armor appears, which at first was used only by elite soldiers from the Praetorian Guard. Legionnaires received similar equipment much later. All three types of armor were still in use during the reign of Emperor Constantine the Great.
The head was protected by a specially designed helmet, which consisted of a metal dome with attached neck and face protection. On both sides of the helmet there was protection for the cheeks. Legionnaires wound a scarf around the neck so that the iron elements of the helmet do not damage the skin.
Helmet of the Centurion
Around the waist they wore a wide belt, in some cases exquisitely decorated with metal plates. An apron made of leather straps with riveted plates was attached in front. It dangled freely when moving, and was presumably used mainly as a decorative element, although in certain circumstances it could provide a little additional protection to the lower abdomen and genitals. A dagger, the so-called “pugio”, was attached to the side of the belt.
“Works on the construction of fortifications on Trajan’s Column”
Roman Hatchet
Field inventory
In addition to weapons and armor, each legionnaire had an ax on his belt, the sharp blade of which was protected by a leather sheath. The legionnaire's standard equipment also included a saw, a wicker basket for dredging, a piece of rope or a long leather belt, and a sickle. In the campaign, the legionnaire carried these items on a special stick, which was called “pilum murale”. In the later years of the existence of the Empire, part of this inventory was loaded onto wagons in carts and accompanied by troops. The heaviest and bulkiest items of equipment for legionnaires were the so-called "papilio" - leather tents. They were transported on horsebacks along with two millstones for grinding grain.
Centurion gear
As a rule, the centurion had a bright extraordinary appearance, allowing him to stand out from the crowd of ordinary people. He wore a shirt with leather, mail, or scale armor and metal pauldrons, as well as an ornate belt. Below the waist, the centurions wore a double-pleated kilt-like skirt, and metal greaves were attached to their legs. A cloak with elegant folds hung from the left shoulder. The sword also hung on the left.
Roman military ammunition and weapons were produced during the expansion of the empire in large quantities according to established patterns, and they were used depending on the category of troops. These standard models were called res militares. The constant improvement of the protective properties of armor and the quality of weapons, the regular practice of its use led the Roman Empire to military superiority and numerous victories.
The equipment gave the Romans a clear advantage over their enemies, especially in terms of the strength and quality of their "armor". This does not mean that the common soldier was better equipped than the wealthy among his opponents. According to Edward Luttwak, their fighting equipment was not of the best quality than that used by most of the opponents of the Empire, but the armor significantly reduced the number of deaths among the Romans on the battlefield.
Military features
Initially, the Romans produced weapons based on the experience and samples of Greek and Etruscan masters. They learned a lot from their opponents, for example, when faced with the Celts, they adopted some types of their equipment, they “borrowed” the helmet model from the Gauls, and the anatomical shell from the ancient Greeks to the thorax.
As soon as Roman armor and weapons were officially adopted by the state, they became the standard for almost the entire imperial world. The standard weapons and ammunition changed several times during the long Roman history, but they were never individual, although each soldier decorated his armor at his own discretion and "pocket". However, the evolution of the weapons and armor of the warriors of Rome was quite long and complex.
Pugio daggers
The Pugio was a dagger that was borrowed from the Spaniards and used as a weapon by the Roman soldiers. Like other items of equipment for legionnaires, it underwent some changes during the 1st century. It typically had a large, leaf-shaped blade, 18 to 28 cm long and 5 cm or more wide. The middle "vein" (groove) ran along the entire length of each side of its cutting part, or simply protruded only from the front. The main changes: the blade became thinner, approximately 3 mm, the handle was made of metal and inlaid with silver. A distinctive feature of the pugio was that it could be used both for stabbing and from top to bottom.
Story
Around 50 AD the rod version of the dagger was introduced. This in itself did not lead to significant changes in the appearance of the pugio, but some of the later blades were narrow (less than 3.5 cm wide), had little or no "waist", although they remained double-edged.
Throughout the entire period of their use as part of ammunition, the handles remained about the same. They were made either from two layers of horn, or a combination of wood and bone, or covered with a thin metal plate. Often the hilt was decorated with silver inlay. It was 10–12 cm long, but rather narrow. An extension or a small circle in the middle of the handle made the grip more secure.
gladius
It was customary to call any kind of sword this way, although in the days of the Roman Republic the term gladius Hispaniensis (Spanish sword) referred (and still refers) specifically to a medium-length weapon (60 cm-69 cm) that was used by Roman legionnaires from the 3rd century BC.
Several different models are known. Among collectors and historical reenactors, the two main types of swords are known as gladius (according to the places where they were found during excavations) - Mainz (short version with a blade length of 40-56 cm, a width of 8 cm and a weight of 1.6 kg) and Pompeii (length from 42 up to 55 cm, width 5 cm, weight 1 kg). More recent archaeological finds have confirmed the use of an earlier version of this weapon: the long sword used by the Celts and taken over by the Romans after the Battle of Cannae. Legionnaires wore their swords on their right thigh. According to the changes that have occurred with the gladius, one can trace the evolution of the weapons and armor of the warriors of Rome.
Spata
This was the name of any sword in late Latin (spatha), but most often one of the long variants characteristic of the middle era of the Roman Empire. In the 1st century, the Roman cavalry began to use longer double-edged swords (from 75 to 100 cm), and at the end of the 2nd or beginning of the 3rd century, the infantry also used them for a while, gradually moving to carrying spears.
gasta
It is a Latin word meaning "piercing spear". Gastas (in some versions of hasta) were in service with the Roman legionnaires, later these soldiers were called gastati. However, in Republican times, they were re-equipped with pilum and gladius, and only the triarii still used these spears.
They were about 1.8 meters (six feet) long. The shaft was usually made of wood, while the "head" was of iron, although early versions had bronze tips.
There were lighter and shorter spears, such as those used by the velites (rapid reaction troops) and the legions of the early days of the Republic.
Pilum
Pilum (plural of pila) was a throwing heavy spear two meters long and consisted of a shaft from which protruded an iron shank about 7 mm in diameter and 60-100 cm long with a pyramidal head. The pilum usually weighed between two and four kilograms.
Spears were designed to pierce both shield and armor from a distance, but if they simply got stuck in them, they were difficult to remove. The iron tang would bend on impact, weighing down the enemy shield and preventing immediate reuse of the pilum. With a very strong blow, the shaft could break, leaving the opponent with a curved shank in the shield.
Roman archers (sagittarii)
The archers were armed with compound bows (arcus) and shooting arrows (sagitta). This type of "long-range" weapon was made from horn, wood, and animal tendons held together with glue. As a rule, saggitaria (a kind of gladiators) took part exclusively in large-scale battles, when an additional massive blow to the enemy at a distance was required. This weapon was later used to train recruits on arcubus ligneis with wooden inserts. Reinforcing bars have been found in many excavations, even in the western provinces where wooden bows were traditional.
Hiroballista
Also known as the manuballista. She was a crossbow sometimes used by the Romans. The ancient world knew many variants of mechanical hand weapons, similar to the late medieval crossbow. The exact terminology is the subject of ongoing scholarly debate. Roman authors, such as Vegetius, repeatedly note the use of small arms, such as arcuballista and manuballista, respectively cheiroballista.
While most scholars agree that one or more of these terms refers to hand-held throwing weapons, there is disagreement as to whether these were recurve or mechanized bows.
The Roman commander Arrian (c. 86 - after 146) describes in his treatise on the Roman cavalry "Tactics" shooting from a mechanical hand weapon from a horse. Sculptural bas-reliefs in Roman Gaul depict the use of crossbows in hunting scenes. They are remarkably similar to the late medieval crossbow.
The infantrymen serving the chiroballista carried dozens of lead throwing darts called plumbatae (from plumbum, meaning "lead"), with an effective flight range of up to 30 m, much more than a spear. The darts were attached to the back of the shield.
digging tools
Ancient writers and politicians, including Julius Caesar, documented the use of shovels and other digging tools as important tools of war. The Roman legion, while on the march, dug a ditch and rampart around their camps every night. They were also useful as improvised weapons.
Armor
Not all troops wore reinforced Roman armor. Light infantry, especially in the early Republic, made little or no use of armor. This allowed both faster movement and cheaper equipment for the army.
Legionnaire soldiers of the 1st and 2nd centuries used various types of protection. Some wore chain mail, while others wore scaled Roman armor or a segmented lorica or metal plated cuirass.
This latter type was a sophisticated piece of armament that provided superior protection for mail (lorica hamata) and scale armor (lorica squamata) under certain circumstances. Modern tests with spears have shown that this species was impervious to most direct hits.
Unlined, however, was inconvenient: reenactors confirmed that wearing the linen, known as subarmalis, freed the wearer from bruising, both from long-term wear of the armor and from a blow inflicted by a weapon on the armor.
Auxilia
In the 3rd century, troops are depicted wearing Roman mail armor (mostly) or the standard 2nd century auxilia. The artistic account confirms that most of the soldiers of the late Empire wore metal armor, despite Vegetius' claims to the contrary. For example, illustrations in the treatise Notitia show that armorers were producing mail armor in the late 4th century. They also produced the armor of the gladiators of ancient Rome.
Roman armor lorica segmentata
It was an ancient type of body armor and was mainly used at the beginning of the Empire, but this Latin name was first applied in the 16th century (the ancient form is unknown). Roman armor itself consisted of wide iron bands (hoops) attached to the back and chest with leather straps.
The stripes were arranged horizontally on the body, overlapping each other, they surrounded the body, fastened in front and behind with copper hooks that were connected with leather laces. The upper body and shoulders were protected by additional bands ("shoulder protectors") and chest and back plates.
The shape of the armor of a Roman legionary could be folded very compactly, as it was divided into four parts. It has been modified several times during its use: the currently recognized types are Kalkriese (c. 20 BC to 50 AD), Corbridge (c. 40 AD to 120) and Newstead (c. 120, possibly early 4th century).
There is a fourth type, known only from a statue found at Alba Giulia in Romania, where a "hybrid" variant appears to have existed, with the shoulders protected by scaly armor, while the torso hoops are smaller and deeper.
The earliest evidence of wearing the lorica segmanta dates from around 9 BC. e. (Dangstetten). The armor of the Roman legionary was used in service for quite a long time: until the 2nd century AD, judging by the number of finds from that period (more than 100 sites are known, many of them in Britain).
However, even in the 2nd century AD, the segmentata never replaced the hamata lorica, as it was still the standard uniform for both heavy infantry and cavalry. The last recorded use of this armor is from the end of the 3rd century AD (León, Spain).
There are two opinions as to who used this form of armor in Ancient Rome. One of them states that only legionnaires (heavy infantry of the Roman legions) and praetorians were issued lorica segmenta. Auxiliary forces more often wore lorica hamata or squamata.
The second view is that both legionnaires and auxiliary soldiers used the armor of the Roman warrior of the “segmentata” type, and this is to some extent confirmed by archaeological finds.
The segmentation of the lorica provided more protection than the hamata, but it was also more difficult to manufacture and repair. The expense involved in making the segments for this type of Roman armor may explain the return to plain mail after the 3rd or 4th century. At that time, the trends in the development of military force were changing. Alternatively, all forms of Roman warrior armor may have fallen into disuse as the need for heavy infantry diminished in favor of fast mounted troops.
Lorika hamata
It was one of the types of chain mail used in the Roman Republic and spread throughout the Empire as standard Roman armor and weapons for primary heavy infantry and secondary troops (auxilia). It was mainly made of iron, although sometimes bronze was used instead.
The rings were tied together, alternating closed elements in the form of washers with rivets. This gave a very flexible, reliable and durable armor. Each ring had an inner diameter of 5 to 7 mm and an outer diameter of 7 to 9 mm. On the shoulders of the hamata lorica were flaps similar to the shoulders of the Greek linothorax. They started from the middle of the back, went to the front of the body and were connected with copper or iron hooks that were attached to studs riveted through the ends of the flaps. Several thousand rings made up one lorika hamatu.
Although labor intensive to manufacture, it is believed that with good maintenance they could be used continuously for several decades. Such was the usefulness of the armor that the later appearance of the famous lorica segment, which provided greater protection, did not lead to the complete disappearance of the hamata.
Lorica squamata
Lorica squamata was a type of scale armor used during the Roman Republic and beyond. It was made from small metal scales sewn onto a fabric base. It was worn, and this can be seen in ancient images, by ordinary musicians, centurions, cavalry troops and even auxiliary infantry, but legionnaires could also wear it. The shirt of the armor was shaped in the same way as the lorica hamata: from the middle of the thigh with reinforced shoulders or equipped with a cape.
Individual scales were either iron or bronze or even alternating metals on the same shirt. The plates were not very thick: 0.5 to 0.8 mm (0.02 to 0.032 inches), which may have been the usual range. However, since the scales overlapped in all directions, multiple layers provided good protection.
Size ranged from 6 mm (0.25 in) wide to 1.2 cm high to 5 cm (2 in) wide and 8 cm (3 in) high, with the most common sizes being approximately 1.25 by 2.5 cm. Many had rounded bottoms, while others had pointed or flat bases with cut corners. The plates could be flat, slightly convex, or have a raised middle web or edge. All of them on the shirt were basically the same size, however, the scales from different chain mail varied significantly.
They were connected in horizontal rows, which were then sewn to the backing. Thus, each of them had from four to 12 holes: two or more on each side for attachment to the next in a row, one or two at the top for attachment to the substrate, and sometimes at the bottom for attachment to the base or to each other.
The shirt could be opened either at the back or at the bottom on one side to make it easier to put on, and the opening was pulled together with drawstrings. Much has been written about the alleged vulnerability of this ancient Roman armor.
No specimens of complete squamata scaled lorica have been found, but there have been a few archaeological finds of fragments of such shirts. The original Roman armor is quite expensive and only extremely wealthy collectors can afford it.
Parma
It was a round shield with three Roman feet across. It was smaller than most shields, but solidly built and considered an effective defense. This was provided by the use of iron in its structure. He had a handle and shield (umbo). Finds of Roman armor are often recovered from the ground complete with these shields.
Parma was used in the Roman army by units of the lower class: velites. Their equipment consisted of a shield, a dart, a sword and a helmet. Parma was later replaced by scutum.
Roman helmets
The galea or cassis varied greatly in form. One of the early types was the Montefortino bronze helmet (cup-shaped with a back visor and side shields) used by the armies of the Republic until the 1st century AD.
It was replaced by Gallic counterparts (they were called "imperial"), which provide protection to the soldier's head on both sides.
Today, craftsmen who create the armor of Roman legionnaires with their own hands are very fond of making them.
Baldrick
In another way, a baldrick, bowdrick, bauldrick, and other rare or obsolete pronunciations is a belt worn on one shoulder, which is usually used to carry a weapon (usually a sword) or another tool, such as a bugle or drum. The word can also refer to any belt in general, but its use in this context is perceived as poetic or archaic. These belts were a mandatory attribute of the armor of the Roman Empire.
Application
Baldriks have been used since ancient times as part of military clothing. Without exception, all warriors wore belts with their Roman armor (there are some photos in this article). The design provided more weight support than a standard waist belt without restricting arm movement and allowing easy access to the item being carried.
In more recent times, for example, in the British army of the late 18th century, a pair of white baldriks crossed at the chest was used. Alternatively, especially in modern times, it may serve a ceremonial role rather than a practical one.
Baltey
In ancient Roman times, a balteus (or balteus) was a type of baldrik commonly used to hang a sword. It was a belt worn over the shoulder and passed obliquely down to the side, usually made of leather, often embellished with precious stones, metals, or both.
There was also a similar belt worn by the Romans, especially by soldiers, and called a sintu, which was fastened around the waist. It was also an attribute of Roman anatomical armor.
Many non-military or paramilitary organizations include balteas as part of their dress code. The Colored Corps of the Knights of Columbus 4th Class uses it as part of their uniform. Balteus supports a ceremonial (decorative) sword. The photo of the armor of the Roman legionnaires, along with the Baltei, the reader can see in this article.
Roman belt
Cingulum Militaryare is a piece of ancient Roman military equipment in the form of a belt decorated with metal fittings worn by soldiers and officials as a rank rank. Many examples have been found in the Roman province of Pannonia.
Kaligi
Kaligi were heavy boots with thick soles. Caliga comes from the Latin callus, meaning "hard". So named because hobnails (nails) were hammered into leather soles before being sewn onto a softer leather lining.
They were worn by the lower ranks of the Roman cavalry and infantry, and possibly by some centurions. The strong connection of the kalig with ordinary soldiers is evident, since the latter were called kaligati ("loaded"). At the beginning of the first century AD, two or three-year-old Gaius was nicknamed "Caligula" ("little shoe") by soldiers because he wore miniature soldier's clothing complete with viburnums.
They were stronger than closed shoes. In the Mediterranean, this could be an advantage. In the cold, damp climate of northern Britain, additional woven socks or wool in winter might have helped to insulate the feet, but the caligas were replaced there by the end of the second century AD with the more practical civil-style "closed boots" (carbatinae).
By the end of the 4th century, they began to be used throughout the Empire. The emperor Diocletian's edict on prices (301) includes a fixed price on carbatinae without inscriptions, made for civilian men, women and children.
The sole of the caliga and the openwork upper part were cut from a single piece of high-quality cow or bull hide. The lower part was attached to the midsole with latches, usually iron but sometimes bronze.
The pinned ends were covered with an insole. Like all Roman shoes, the caliga was flat-soled. It was laced up the center of the foot and at the top of the ankle. Isidore of Seville believed that the name "caliga" comes from the Latin "callus" ("hard skin"), or from the fact that the boot was laced or tied (ligere).
Shoe styles varied from manufacturer to manufacturer and region to region. The placement of the nails in it is less variable: they functioned to provide support to the foot, much like modern athletic shoes do. At least one provincial manufacturer of combat boots has been identified by name.
Pteruga
These are strong skirts made of leather or multi-layered fabric (linen), and with stripes or lappets sewn on them, worn around the waist by Roman and Greek soldiers. Also, in a similar way, they had stripes sewn on their shirts, similar to epaulettes, protecting their shoulders. Both sets are usually interpreted as belonging to the same garment worn under the cuirass, although in the linen version (linothorax) they may have been non-removable.
The cuirass itself can be built in different ways: lamellar bronze, linothorax, scaled, lamellar or chain mail. The overlays can be arranged in the form of one row of longer strips or two layers of short, overlapping blades of graduated length.
During the Middle Ages, especially in Byzantium and the Middle East, such stripes were used on the back and sides of helmets to protect the neck while leaving it free enough to move. However, no archaeological remains of leather protective helmets have been found. Artistic representations of such elements can also be interpreted as vertically stitched quilted textile protective coverings.
MUNICIPAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION
"POLITOTDELSKY SECONDARY SCHOOL"
NIKOLAEVSKY MUNICIPAL DISTRICT OF VOLGOGRAD REGION
Research work
on this topic:"Clothes and weapons of the Roman legionnaire"
Ancient world history
Completed:
5th grade student
Volkov Evgeny
Supervisor:
Volkova L.N.,
teacher of history and social studies
With. Politotdelskoye - 2016
Content
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………..2
1. The concept of "Roman legionnaire"……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Composition of the Roman army…………………………………………………….....5
2.1. Legionnaires……………………………………………………………………….5
2.2. Command staff…………………………………………………………....8
3. Clothing of Roman legionnaires…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. Types of weapons used in the Roman army……………………………...16
Conclusion………………………………………………………………………….20
List of sources and literature…………………………………………………22
Appendix…………………………………………………………………………24
Introduction
In the lessons of the history of the Ancient World, we got acquainted with the conquests of the Roman state. Thanks to these conquests, the state inIin. BC. and earlyIAD turned into a huge Roman Empire, which included the entire Mediterranean coast, the modern territory of Western Europe, North Africa, Asia Minor. There is evidence that the Romans more than once tried to conquer the first Slavs, whom they called "Wends".
The fame and status of the “great” empire could only be achieved thanks to loyal and brave warriors who carried on their shoulders all the burdens of long, distant and dangerous campaigns.
Camping trips are families left for a long time, living in the field, eating what grew and lived in these territories. What about clothes? After all, according to the territory, the climate also changed, which means that the clothes of a Roman soldier should be:
Convenient for long hikes;
Have protective equipment in case of cold weather or, falling under the rays of the hot sun, protect from scorching heat;
- and the most important thing - Reliable protection from enemy attacks.
In addition, I was interested in the question of arming the legionnaires. The ancient world knew the possibilities of metal processing, but did not know firearms. So the weapons of the Romans are iron products.
Relevance of the work: the moments that interested me in the organization of the Roman army made me want to learn more about the clothes and weapons of the Roman legionnaires, since the history textbook only tells about campaigns and conquests. Having collected information, I can introduce my classmates to these interesting facts, visualize what a Roman legionnaire looked like.
Research problem lies in the opportunity to get acquainted not only with the conquests of the Roman army, but also with the appearance of the Roman soldiers and with the types of weapons with which they obtained victories for the empire.
An object this work: Roman legionnaire, his appearance.
Subject this work: clothes and weapons of a Roman legionnaire.
Purpose of the study: learn about the appearance of the Roman legionnaire and his weapons.
To achieve the goal, a number oftasks:
Define the concept of "Roman legionnaire";
Consider the composition of the Roman army;
Study the clothes and weapons of a Roman legionnaire.
Research methods:
theoretical: literature analysisand sourceson research issue;
practical: collection andregistration of the received information in a folder - portfolio.
Stages of work on the project:
Studying the literature and collecting the necessary information on the chosen topic;
Analysis and structuring;
Folder design - portfolio;
Presentation of the finished work.
Practical significance: this work can be presented as additional information at the lessons of the history of the Ancient World, as well as at the competition of school design works.
Project product: newspaper "Roman legionnaire".
1. The concept of "Roman legionnaire"
The Roman legionary has its name from the name of the military branch in Ancient Rome.
Legion (lat. legio, genus p. legionis), (lat. legio, genus case legionis, from lego - I collect, recruit) - the main organizational unit in the army . The number of the legion at different times was about 3-8 thousand people. Initially, the legion was called the entire Roman army, which was a collection of armed citizens of Rome. This Roman "militia" (such is the original meaning of the word) was assembled only in time of war and for military training. The legion was assembled according to the curate principle, each clan ( ) fielded 100 warriors ( ) and 10 horsemen, thus the total number of the legion was 3300 people. A warrior who joined the ranks of the army was called -legionnaire (Fig. 1).
Fig.1
Roman horseman, 1st century AD e.
He sits in the saddle without stirrups, as they have not yet been invented.
2. The composition of the Roman army
2.1. Legionnaires
At the beginning of its existence, Rome was a city in which every man was a warrior. Citizens served either in the infantry or in the cavalry. Everything depended on the financial situation. Wealthier people mounted horses, and the poor became heavily armed soldiers on foot.
Subsequently, the military organization of the republic began to be based on universal service. Citizens from 17 to 46 years old were obliged, according to their list of centuries, to attend reviews or go on a campaign; sometimes, in wartime and for senior officers, the service was extended up to 50 years. After 45 to 60 - served in the fortresses. Persons who participated in 20 campaigns in the infantry and 10 in the cavalry were exempted from service. Service life also changed over time.
Physical defects, as well as the performance of magistrate and priestly positions, were exempted from military service. An attempt to avoid military service without legal reasons entailed early sale into slavery, and later large fines and confiscation of property. Desertion, flight from the battlefield, etc., were already special military crimes and were almost always punished by exile or death.
At the beginning of the conquests, Rome gathered an army according to ranks on the basis of the qualifications presented (ie, the availability of property and financial condition).
But, pafter the victorious wars of the 4th-3rd centuries. BC. All the peoples of Italy fell under the rule of Rome. To keep them in obedience, the Romans gave some nations more rights, others less, sowing mutual distrust and hatred between them. It was the Romans who formulated the law of divide and conquer.
And for this, numerous troops were needed. Thus, the Roman army consisted of:
a) legions in which the Romans themselves served, consisting of heavy and light infantry and cavalry attached to them;
b) Italian allies and allied cavalry (after granting citizenship rights to Italians who joined the legion);
c) auxiliary troops recruited from the inhabitants of the provinces.
The main tactical unit was the legion.
The legion was divided into maniples (in Latin - a handful), centuriae (hundreds) and decuria (tens), which resembled modern companies, platoons, squads (Fig. 2).
Fig.2
Maniple structure:
Rice. 3
Light infantry -velites (literally - fast, mobile) walked ahead of the legion in loose formation and started a fight. In case of failure, she retreated to the rear and to the flanks of the legion. In total there were 1200 people.
The first line of the legion -hastati (from the Latin "gasta" - a spear) - spearmen, 120 people in a maniple.
Second line -principles (first) - 120 people in the maniple.
Third line -triarii (third) - 60 people in the maniple. The triarii were the most experienced and experienced fighters. When the ancients wanted to say that the decisive moment had come, they said: "It came to the triarii."
Rice. four
1 - Roman triarii, 2 - Roman hast, 3 - Roman velite.
Each maniple had two centuries. There were 60 people in the centurion of hastati or principes, and there were 30 people in the centurion of triarii.
The legion was given 300 horsemen, which amounted to 10 tours. The cavalry covered the flanks of the legion.
2.2. Command staff
In the days of the republic, the consuls commanded, dividing the troops in half, but when it was necessary to unite, they commanded in turn (Fig. 5). If there was a serious threat, then a dictator was chosen, to whom the head of the cavalry was subordinate, in contrast to the consuls. The dictator had unlimited rights. Each commander had assistants who were entrusted with individual parts of the army.
Separate legions were commanded by tribunes (Fig. 5). There were six of them per legion. Each pair commanded for two months, replacing each other every day, then giving up their place to the second pair, and so on. The centurions were subordinate to the tribunes. Each centuria was commanded by a centurion. The commander of the first hundred was the commander of the maniple. The centurions had the right to punish a soldier for misconduct.
In tsarist times, the king was the commander.
Fig.5
1 - Roman tribune, 2 - Roman standard-bearer, 3 - Roman consul.
So, having examined the composition of the Roman army, I learned that the Roman army was numerous with a complex military organization. Each category of troops had its own specific type of activity. And having become acquainted with the illustration, we can confidently assume that the type of their clothes and weapons also differed. We will study this in the next chapter.
3. Clothing of Roman legionnaires
The military affiliation of the soldiers was determined not by the uniform - the soldier's tunic and cloak differed little from civilian clothes - but by the military belt ("balteus") and shoes ("kaligi").
"Balteus" could take the form of a simple belt worn at the waist and decorated with silver or bronze plates, or two crossed belts tied at the hips. The time of appearance of such crossed belts is unknown. They could appear closer to the reign of Augustus, when additional protection appeared in the form of leather stripes on the sleeves and waist (“pterugs”) (metal lining for such stripes was found near Kalkrize, where Var was defeated). Probably, during the reign of Tiberius, blackening on silver, lead or copper began to be widely used in the manufacture of decorative belt overlays with a complex mosaic pattern. Such a belt was evidence of military status. In the sources there is a description of the soldiers as "armed and belted people." The deprivation of the "Balteus" meant for the soldier an exclusion from the military class. The belt was taken away from a soldier who dishonored himself. In Rome in 69 AD. there was a case when some pranksters, using sharply ground knives, cut off the belts from several soldiers in the crowd. When the soldiers realized what had happened, they flew into an indescribable rage and killed several civilians, including the father of one of the legionnaires.
Military shoes"kaligi" was another important attribute of belonging to the soldier class (Fig. 6). The exact time of their introduction is unknown. They were the standard footwear for Roman soldiers from the reign of Augustus until the beginning of the 2nd century BC. AD These were sturdy sandals. The creak of nailed soles spoke of the presence of the soldiers as well as the tinkle of their belts. Archaeological finds throughout the empire testify to a great degree of standardization in the form of "kalig". This suggests that the models for them, and possibly other items of military equipment, were approved by the emperors themselves.
About the color of the militarytunic there was a lot of controversy (Fig. 7). References to centurions parading in white robes may indicate the use of linen tunics. It is also likely that in this case the color of the crests and “pterugs” was indicated. It is likely that centurions also wore woolen tunics dyed red, while lower-ranking officers wore white tunics.
Most of the legionnaires of the Empire period wore heavyarmor , although some types of troops did not use armor at all. Caesar used unarmoured legionaries ("expediti") fighting as "anti-signani". These were lightly armed legionnaires who started skirmishes at the start of a battle or served as reinforcements for the cavalry. On the relief from the building of the headquarters of the legionnaires (principles) in Mainz, two legionnaires are depicted fighting in close formation. They are armed with shields and spears, but do not have protective armor - even heavily armed legionaries could fight "expediti".
Rice. 6 "Caligi" and greaves (greaves)Fig.7 Roman toga and tunic.
There was no toe on the sandals, the skin was red.
Having considered Fig. 9 where showncenturion, we see him wearing what at first glance appears to be a tunic. However, cuts at the arms and thighs indicate that this is a chain mail shirt (“lorika hamata”), the cuts of which are necessary in order to facilitate the movement of a warrior. Many of these monuments depict details in the form of rings. Mail was probably the kind of armor that was widely used by the Romans. In the period we are considering, chain mail shirts were with short sleeves or without sleeves at all and could fall much lower than the hips. Most of the legionnaires wore chain mail with additional chain mail pads on the shoulders. Depending on the length and number of rings (up to 30,000), such chain mail weighed 9-15 kg. Chain mail with shoulder pads could weigh up to 16 kg. Usually chain mail was made of iron, but there are cases when bronze was used to make rings. Scale armor ("lorica squamata") was another common type, cheaper and easier to manufacture, but inferior to chain mail in strength and elasticity.
Such scaly armor was worn over a shirt with sleeves, probably made of canvas lined with wool. Such clothing helped soften blows and prevented metal armor from being pressed into the body of a legionnaire. “Pterugs” were often added to such attire - canvas or leather protective strips that covered the upper parts of the arms and legs. Such stripes could not protect from serious injuries. Until the end of the 1st century AD centurions could wear greaves, and even then, probably not in all cases (Fig. 6).
Rice. eight Fig.9
Helmet
Legionnaires used various types of helmets. During the time of the Republic, bronze, and sometimes iron, helmets of the Montefortino type became widespread, which became the traditional helmets of legionnaires from the 4th century. BC. They consisted of a single bowl-shaped piece with a very small rear visor and side plates that covered the ears and sides of the face. Later versions of helmets, including the so-called "Culus" type, were used until the end of the 1st century BC. AD They were equipped with large plates to protect the neck.
Legionnaires' helmets were quite massive. The wall thickness reached 1.5 - 2 mm, and the weight was about 2 - 2.3 kg. Helmets and their side plates had felt pads, and the design of some helmets left a small space between the head and the canopy, which made it possible to soften the impact. Montefortino helmets were equipped with wide side plates that completely covered the ears, but the new Gallic Imperial helmets already had cutouts for the ears. True, with the exception of those cases when helmets were made for a soldier to order, the side plates could partially cover the ears of a legionnaire. The side plates covered the sides of the face well, but could limit peripheral vision, and the open front of the face became a target for the enemy.
Fig.10 
Fig.11
To attach the crest to the helmets, two holes were provided, in which special holders were fixed. Crests, most likely, were worn only for parades, and were rarely used in battles. The helmet itself was put on only before the battle, while on the march it was hung on leather straps on the warrior's chest.
Fig.12
Of all the uniforms of Roman soldiers, I would like to highlight the clothes of the Roman velite (Fig. 12). These warriors went ahead of the entire Roman army and caused a fight for themselves. The purpose of the velites was to throw darts at the enemy and quickly retreat behind the backs of well-protected infantry. They did not wear armor and chain mail, as protection they had a simple helmet and a round light . Some sources mention velites wearing wolf skins over their helmets so that their centurions could distinguish their soldiers when they retreated.Probably, from the head of a wolf was a symbol of reverence for the god Mars. This god in ancient Rome was not only the god of war, but was also considered the guardian of fields and herds from pests and wolves.
As for long campaigns with climate change, in cold weather the legionnaire put on a cape with a hood.It is known that different raincoats were used on different occasions, and some of them were defined as only "military". For example, soldiers wore heavy military cloaks in winter, but wore light cloaks in summer. The soldiers did not take off their raincoats even during dinner, so as not to put their legs out. ATAll legionnaires wore red cloaks. Only the dictator and high commanders were allowed to wear purple cloaks.
There were also pants.They were worn tucked into boots.Pants were mostly dark in color: gray or chocolate brown.
In the 2nd century, the wearing of boots spread. Socks came along with the boots.
There were some kind of tights in which the legs turned into socks.
Very popular shoes in the 3rd century were boots with lacing on the instep.
Thus, having examined the clothes of a Roman legionnaire, we can conclude that the clothes of a warrior on a campaign consisted of a tunic, armor or chain mail, a special belt and leather sandals. In winter, a cloak with a hood was thrown over, trousers or gaiters were put on, boots were put on their feet. The legionnaire's head was protected by a helmet during the battle. Such a few attire was of strategic importance - a warrior must move quickly and easily during the battle. But still, the bulk was made up of weapons, they were always with the soldiers.
4. Types of weapons used in the Roman army
From time immemorialshield the legionnaire had an oval curved scutum (scutum). Its origin is not entirely known, some researchers attributed its appearance to the Sabines, others to the Samnites. Be that as it may, at the beginning of the 1st c. the outlines of the scutum change somewhat: it becomes rectangular, but with rounded corners. Later, apparently, in the last quarter of the 1st century, the corners of the shield become straight.
The scutum was made from light aspen or poplar boards and covered first with linen and then with cowhide, upholstered with copper or iron along the edges, and in the middle on the outside it had a metal convex overlay - umbo. In the deepening of this lining on the inside of the shield, the warrior could store small items, such as money, etc. The outer side of the lining could be decorated with chasing or applied silver. Sometimes it depicted a personal emblem (amulet) of the owner of the shield. On the inside, there are records concerning the identity of the owner of the shield: his name, the number of the legion, perhaps the centuria, etc.The weight of the shield was not less than 5.5 kg.
The surface of the shield was decorated with drawings. Among the images there could be signs of the zodiac. Most likely, this sign denoted the astrological cycle in which the legion or auxiliary cohort was formed or the emperor who created them was born. The most famous depiction, the thunderbolts and spindles of Jupiter, most likely belongs to the Praetorian cohorts.
During the campaign and in the camp, in order to cover the shields from moisture, which had a destructive effect on the skin and wood, leather covers were used, which were removed before the battle. Flavius Josephus describes how, under the walls of besieged Jerusalem, the future emperor Titus arranged a ceremony for distributing salaries and food to the soldiers: “According to the custom adopted in such cases, the army set out with open shields, which were usually covered with covers and fully armed. The surroundings of the city sparkled with a bright brilliance of gold and silver. The ceremony lasted for four whole days and made a rather strong impression on the besieged.
It must be said that the shield was used not only as a cover from enemy attacks, but also as an offensive weapon. During the training of soldiers, direct blows were practiced with the central convex lining of the shield, designed to unbalance the enemy, as well as blows with the edge of the shield.
Tooffensive weapons infantry included the sword, pilums and javelins.
Roman sword of the imperial period (gladius) is descended from a slightly longer than Roman, Spanish sword (gladius hispaniensis). After the Punic Wars, when the Iberian Peninsula was conquered, the Romans took advantage of the secrets of local gunsmiths, as a result of which their legions received this excellent weapon.
Gladius sword , whose name in our time has passed to a gladiolus flower similar in shape, in the first half of the 1st century it still had a long (50–56 cm) tapering blade. Later, the shape of the sword underwent some changes: both edges of its blade became parallel, and its pointed part became shorter. The total length of the blade has decreased to 44–55 cm.
At the beginning of the 1st century Legionnaires wore a baldric over the left shoulder, on which the scabbard of the sword was attached. Thus, the sword was located on the right, and the legionnaire could draw it without changing the position of the shield, which always had to cover it as completely as possible.
In addition to the sword, the legionnaire hadcombat dagger (pugio). It was worn on the belt on the left side. Judging by the figures depicted on Trajan's column, by the end of the 1st century. the dagger was most likely not used by the legionnaires. But officers could wear it.
Around the 4th century BC e. legionnaires' throwing weapons werepilums (pilum) - a type of throwing spear. Each legionnaire had two of them. Initially, one of them was lighter and was intended for throwing over a longer distance. After the 80s. 1st century n. e. only heavy pilums were used.
The impact force of a skillfully thrown heavy pilum was large enough: it could break through the enemy's shield. Therefore, the tactics of the legionnaires were based on the fact that they threw pilums at the enemy's shields. The heavy tip got stuck, bent from the force of the blow (soft metal was used), the shaft pulled the enemy's shield down. Then the Romans, with swords in their hands, attacked the opponents, who could no longer take full advantage of the shields with the pilums pierced into them and most often threw the shield to the side, remaining without cover.
Traditionalthrowing weapon : sling, bow, dart - was the weapon of foreign warriors who served Rome.
The slingers, usually recruited in the Balearic Islands, had weaponsprash - double folded belt. For throwing, stones or lead bullets cast in the shape of an acorn were used.
The armament of the triarii, hastati and principes was the same: a shield, a sword, and only instead of pilums they used long spears - gasta.
Velites had a sword, darts and a round shield (parma, parma) about 90 cm in diameter. Darts, "gasta velitaris", were a smaller copy of the pilum; their iron part was 25 - 30 cm, and the wooden shaft was two cubits (about 90 cm) long and about a finger thick.
Thus, one can imagine what weight of combat equipment a Roman legionnaire had to carry.
On the march, this weight also increased due to his luggage, which included cooking utensils, a bag of provisions, spare clothes. All this property, the weight of which could exceed 13 kg, was placed in a leather bag with ropes and carried with the help of a T-shaped pole on the shoulder. If necessary, the legionnaire also had to carry all the equipment for earthworks. This included a pickaxe, an axe, a saw, a chain, a leather belt, and a basket for carrying earth. During the time of Julius Caesar, he made sure that a certain part of the legionnaires during the campaign was not burdened with cargo and could quickly react in the event of an enemy attack.So, the armament of a Roman soldier is not only a military weapon, but also everything a warrior needs to protect his body, and everything he needs to survive on a long, distant campaign (Appendix).
Conclusion
For many centuries, the Roman army was rightfully considered one of the strongest in the world. Moreover, its combat effectiveness did not fall, despite any political conflicts. The main role, of course, was played by warriors - legionnaires, ready to sacrifice themselves in the interests of the state. But a good warrior must correspond to his position, i.e. his military organization, weapons and clothing should be his assistants in military affairs.
The problem of this study was not only to get acquainted with the Roman warrior as a conqueror, but also to get acquainted with his appearance and weapons, with which he won victory for the empire.
Based on the purpose and objectives, it was determined that the legionnaire received his name from the name of the organization of the Roman army - the legion.
The legion was divided into maniples (a handful), centuries (hundreds), decuria (tens). And also divided into warriors - legionnaires and command staff. The troops of the legionnaires consisted of velites, who went first and caused a fight on themselves, hastati - spearmen, principles and, the most experienced warriors, triarii.
But the main task of the study was to study the clothes and weapons of the Roman legionnaire. Expanding this problem, it was found that:
The main everyday wear was a tunic;
A military belt was put on the waist - "balteus";
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