Genetic code properties and their characteristics briefly. Biosynthesis of protein and nucleic acids

Hereditary information is information about the structure of a protein (information about which amino acids in what order combine during the synthesis of the primary structure of the protein).

Information about the structure of proteins is encoded in DNA, which in eukaryotes is part of the chromosomes and is located in the nucleus. The section of DNA (chromosome) that encodes information about one protein is called gene.

Transcription- this is the rewriting of information from DNA to mRNA (messenger RNA). mRNA carries information from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, to the site of protein synthesis (to the ribosome).

Broadcast is the process of protein biosynthesis. Inside the ribosome, tRNA anticodons are attached to mRNA codons according to the principle of complementarity. The ribosome links the amino acids brought by the tRNA with a peptide bond to form a protein.

The reactions of transcription, translation, and replication (doubling of DNA) are reactions matrix synthesis. DNA serves as a template for mRNA synthesis, mRNA serves as a template for protein synthesis.

Genetic code is the way in which information about the structure of a protein is recorded in DNA.

Genecode Properties

1) Tripletity: one amino acid is encoded by three nucleotides. These 3 nucleotides in DNA are called a triplet, in mRNA - a codon, in tRNA - an anticodon (but in the exam there may be a “code triplet”, etc.)

2) Redundancy(degeneracy): there are only 20 amino acids, and there are 61 triplets encoding amino acids, so each amino acid is encoded by several triplets.

3) Unambiguity: each triplet (codon) codes for only one amino acid.

4) Versatility: the genetic code is the same for all living organisms on Earth.

Tasks

Tasks for the number of nucleotides / amino acids
3 nucleotides = 1 triplet = 1 amino acid = 1 tRNA

Tasks at ATHC
DNA mRNA tRNA
A U A
T A U
G C G
C G C

Choose one, the most correct option. mRNA is a copy
1) one gene or group of genes
2) chains of a protein molecule
3) one protein molecule
4) parts of the plasma membrane

Answer

Choose one, the most correct option. The primary structure of a protein molecule, given by the mRNA nucleotide sequence, is formed in the process
1) broadcasts
2) transcriptions
3) reduplication
4) denaturation

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Choose one, the most correct option. Which sequence correctly reflects the way of realization of genetic information
1) gene --> mRNA --> protein --> trait
2) trait --> protein --> mRNA --> gene --> DNA
3) mRNA --> gene --> protein --> trait
4) gene --> DNA --> trait --> protein

Answer

Choose one, the most correct option. Choose the correct sequence of information transfer in the process of protein synthesis in the cell
1) DNA -> messenger RNA -> protein
2) DNA -> transfer RNA -> protein
3) ribosomal RNA -> transfer RNA -> protein
4) ribosomal RNA -> DNA -> transfer RNA -> protein

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Choose one, the most correct option. The same amino acid corresponds to the CAA anticodon on transfer RNA and the triplet on DNA
1) CAA
2) TSUU
3) GTT
4) GAA

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Choose one, the most correct option. AAU anticodon on transfer RNA corresponds to a triplet on DNA
1) TTA
2) AAT
3) AAA
4) TTT

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Choose one, the most correct option. Each amino acid in a cell is encoded
1) one DNA molecule
2) several triplets
3) multiple genes
4) one nucleotide

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Choose one, the most correct option. Functional unit of the genetic code
1) nucleotide
2) triplet
3) amino acid
4) tRNA

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Choose three options. As a result of reactions of the matrix type, molecules are synthesized
1) polysaccharides
2) DNA
3) monosaccharides
4) mRNA
5) lipids
6) squirrel

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1. Determine the sequence of processes that provide protein biosynthesis. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) the formation of peptide bonds between amino acids
2) attachment of the tRNA anticodon to the complementary mRNA codon
3) synthesis of mRNA molecules on DNA
4) movement of mRNA in the cytoplasm and its location on the ribosome
5) delivery of amino acids to the ribosome using tRNA

Answer

2. Establish the sequence of protein biosynthesis processes in the cell. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) the formation of a peptide bond between amino acids
2) interaction of mRNA codon and tRNA anticodon
3) release of tRNA from the ribosome
4) connection of mRNA with a ribosome
5) release of mRNA from the nucleus into the cytoplasm
6) mRNA synthesis

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3. Set the sequence of processes in protein biosynthesis. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) mRNA synthesis on DNA
2) amino acid delivery to the ribosome
3) formation of a peptide bond between amino acids
4) attachment of an amino acid to tRNA
5) mRNA connection with two ribosome subunits

Answer

4. Set the sequence of steps in protein biosynthesis. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) separation of a protein molecule from a ribosome
2) attachment of tRNA to the start codon
3) transcription
4) elongation of the polypeptide chain
5) release of mRNA from the nucleus into the cytoplasm

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5. Set the correct sequence of protein biosynthesis processes. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) attachment of an amino acid to a peptide
2) mRNA synthesis on DNA
3) codon recognition of anticodon
4) association of mRNA with a ribosome
5) release of mRNA into the cytoplasm

Answer

Choose one, the most correct option. Which transfer RNA anticodon corresponds to the TGA triplet in the DNA molecule
1) ACU
2) ZUG
3) UGA
4) AHA

Answer

Choose one, the most correct option. The genetic code is universal because
1) each amino acid is encoded by a triplet of nucleotides
2) the place of an amino acid in a protein molecule is determined by different triplets
3) it is the same for all creatures living on Earth
4) several triplets code for one amino acid

Answer

Choose one, the most correct option. The section of DNA containing information about one polypeptide chain is called
1) chromosome
2) triplet
3) genome
4) code

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Choose one, the most correct option. Translation is the process by which
1) the number of DNA strands doubles
2) mRNA is synthesized on the DNA template
3) proteins are synthesized on the mRNA template in the ribosome
4) hydrogen bonds between DNA molecules are broken

Answer

Choose three options. Protein biosynthesis, unlike photosynthesis, occurs
1) in chloroplasts
2) in mitochondria
3) in plastic exchange reactions
4) in reactions of the matrix type
5) in lysosomes
6) in leukoplasts

Answer

Choose one, the most correct option. The translation matrix is ​​the molecule
1) tRNA
2) DNA
3) rRNA
4) mRNA

Answer

All but two of the features below can be used to describe the functions of nucleic acids in a cell. Identify two signs that “fall out” from the general list, and write down the numbers under which they are indicated in the table.
1) carry out homeostasis
2) endure hereditary information from nucleus to ribosome
3) participate in protein biosynthesis
4) are part of the cell membrane
5) transport amino acids

Answer

AMINO ACIDS - CODONS mRNA
How many mRNA codons encode information about 20 amino acids? Write down only the appropriate number in your answer.

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AMINO ACIDS - NUCLEOTIDES mRNA
1. The polypeptide region consists of 28 amino acid residues. Determine the number of nucleotides in the mRNA region containing information about the primary structure of the protein.

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2. How many nucleotides does mRNA contain if the protein synthesized from it consists of 180 amino acid residues? Write down only the appropriate number in your answer.

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AMINO ACIDS - DNA NUCLEOTIDES
1. Protein consists of 140 amino acid residues. How many nucleotides are in the region of the gene in which the primary structure of this protein is encoded?

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2. Protein consists of 180 amino acid residues. How many nucleotides are in the gene that encodes the sequence of amino acids in this protein. Write down only the appropriate number in your answer.

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3. A fragment of a DNA molecule encodes 36 amino acids. How many nucleotides does this DNA fragment contain? Write down the corresponding number in your answer.

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4. The polypeptide consists of 20 amino acid units. Determine the number of nucleotides in the gene region encoding these amino acids in the polypeptide. Write your answer as a number.

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5. How many nucleotides in the gene region encode a protein fragment of 25 amino acid residues? Write down the correct number for your answer.

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6. How many nucleotides in a fragment of the DNA template chain encode 55 amino acids in a polypeptide fragment? Write down only the appropriate number in your answer.

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AMINO ACIDS - tRNA
1. How many tRNAs took part in protein synthesis, which includes 130 amino acids? Write the correct number in your answer.

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2. A fragment of a protein molecule consists of 25 amino acids. How many tRNA molecules were involved in its creation? Write down only the appropriate number in your answer.

Answer

AMINO ACIDS - TRIPLETS
1. How many triplets does a fragment of a DNA molecule contain, encoding 36 amino acids? Write down the corresponding number in your answer.

Answer

2. How many triplets encode 32 amino acids? Write down the correct number for your answer.

Answer

NUCLEOTIDES - AMINO ACIDS
1. What is the number of amino acids encoded in the gene section containing 129 nucleotide residues?

Answer

2. How many amino acids does 900 nucleotides encode? Write down the correct number for your answer.

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3. What is the number of amino acids in a protein if its coding gene consists of 600 nucleotides? Write down the correct number for your answer.

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4. How many amino acids does 1203 nucleotides encode? In response, write down only the number of amino acids.

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5. How many amino acids are needed for the synthesis of a polypeptide if the mRNA encoding it contains 108 nucleotides? Write down only the appropriate number in your answer.

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mRNA NUCLEOTIDES - DNA NUCLEOTIDES
An mRNA molecule takes part in protein synthesis, the fragment of which contains 33 nucleotide residues. Determine the number of nucleotide residues in the region of the DNA template chain.

Answer

NUCLEOTIDES - tRNA
How many transport RNA molecules were involved in translation if the gene section contains 930 nucleotide residues?

Answer

TRIPLETS - NUCLEOTIDES mRNA
How many nucleotides are in a fragment of an mRNA molecule if the fragment of the DNA coding chain contains 130 triplets? Write down only the appropriate number in your answer.

Answer

tRNA - AMINO ACIDS
Determine the number of amino acids in a protein if 150 tRNA molecules were involved in the translation process. Write down only the appropriate number in your answer.

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SIMPLY
How many nucleotides make up one mRNA codon?

Answer

How many nucleotides make up one mRNA stop codon?

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How many nucleotides make up a tRNA anticodon?

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DIFFICULT
The protein has a relative molecular weight of 6000. Determine the number of amino acids in a protein molecule if the relative molecular weight of one amino acid residue is 120. In your answer, write down only the corresponding number.

Answer

There are 3,000 nucleotides in two strands of a DNA molecule. Information about the protein structure is encoded on one of the chains. Count how many amino acids are encoded on one strand of DNA. In response, write down only the number corresponding to the number of amino acids.

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Choose one, the most correct option. The same amino acid corresponds to a UCA anticodon on transfer RNA and a triplet in a gene on DNA
1) GTA
2) ACA
3) TGT
4) TCA

Answer

Choose one, the most correct option. The synthesis of hemoglobin in the cell controls a certain segment of the DNA molecule, which is called
1) codon
2) triplet
3) genetic code
4) genome

Answer

In which of the following cell organelles do matrix synthesis reactions take place? Identify three true statements from the general list, and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1) centrioles
2) lysosomes
3) Golgi apparatus
4) ribosomes
5) mitochondria
6) chloroplasts

Answer

Consider the picture depicting the processes occurring in the cell, and indicate A) the name of the process, indicated by the letter A, B) the name of the process, indicated by the letter B, C) the name of the type of chemical reactions. For each letter, select the appropriate term from the list provided.
1) replication
2) transcription
3) broadcast
4) denaturation
5) exothermic reactions
6) substitution reactions
7) matrix synthesis reactions
8) cleavage reactions

Answer

Look at the picture and write (A) the name of process 1, (B) the name of process 2, (c) the end product of process 2. For each letter, select the appropriate term or concept from the list provided.
1) tRNA
2) polypeptide
3) ribosome
4) replication
5) broadcast
6) conjugation
7) ATP
8) transcription

Answer

Establish a correspondence between the processes and stages of protein synthesis: 1) transcription, 2) translation. Write the numbers 1 and 2 in the correct order.
A) t-RNA amino acid transfer
B) DNA is involved
C) i-RNA synthesis
D) formation of a polypeptide chain
D) occurs on the ribosome

Answer

All of the features listed below, except for two, are used to describe the process depicted in the figure. Identify two signs that “fall out” from the general list, and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1) according to the principle of complementarity, the nucleotide sequence of a DNA molecule is translated into a nucleotide sequence of molecules of various types of RNA
2) the process of translating a nucleotide sequence into an amino acid sequence
3) the process of transferring genetic information from the nucleus to the site of protein synthesis
4) the process takes place in ribosomes
5) the result of the process - RNA synthesis

Answer

The molecular weight of the polypeptide is 30,000 USD. Determine the length of the gene encoding it if the molecular weight of one amino acid is on average 100, and the distance between nucleotides in DNA is 0.34 nm. Write down only the appropriate number in your answer.

Answer

Choose from the reactions listed below two related to the reactions of matrix synthesis. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1) cellulose synthesis
2) ATP synthesis
3) protein biosynthesis
4) glucose oxidation
5) DNA replication

Answer

Choose three correct answers from six and write down the numbers under which they are indicated in the table. Matrix reactions in the cell include
1) DNA replication
2) photolysis of water
3) RNA synthesis
4) chemosynthesis
5) protein biosynthesis
6) ATP synthesis

Answer

All of the following features, except for two, can be used to describe the process of protein biosynthesis in a cell. Identify two features that “fall out” of the general list, and write down in response the numbers under which they are indicated.
1) The process occurs in the presence of enzymes.
2) The central role in the process belongs to RNA molecules.
3) The process is accompanied by the synthesis of ATP.
4) Amino acids serve as monomers for the formation of molecules.
5) The assembly of protein molecules is carried out in lysosomes.

Answer

Find three errors in the given text. Specify the numbers of proposals in which they are made.(1) During protein biosynthesis, matrix synthesis reactions occur. (2) Matrix synthesis reactions include only replication and transcription reactions. (3) As a result of transcription, mRNA is synthesized, the template for which is the entire DNA molecule. (4) After passing through the pores of the nucleus, mRNA enters the cytoplasm. (5) Messenger RNA is involved in the synthesis of tRNA. (6) Transfer RNA provides amino acids for protein assembly. (7) The energy of ATP molecules is spent on the connection of each of the amino acids with tRNA.

Answer

All but two of the following concepts are used to describe translation. Identify two signs that “fall out” from the general list, and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1) matrix synthesis
2) mitotic spindle
3) polysome
4) peptide bond
5) higher fatty acids

Answer

© D.V. Pozdnyakov, 2009-2019

The genetic code is a way of encoding the sequence of amino acids in a protein molecule using the sequence of nucleotides in a nucleic acid molecule. The properties of the genetic code follow from the features of this coding.

Each amino acid of a protein is associated with three successive nucleic acid nucleotides - triplet, or codon. Each of the nucleotides can contain one of four nitrogenous bases. In RNA, these are adenine (A), uracil (U), guanine (G), cytosine (C). By combining nitrogenous bases in different ways (in this case, nucleotides containing them), you can get many different triplets: AAA, GAU, UCC, GCA, AUC, etc. The total number of possible combinations is 64, i.e. 43.

The proteins of living organisms contain about 20 amino acids. If nature "conceived" to encode each amino acid not with three, but with two nucleotides, then the variety of such pairs would not be enough, since there would be only 16 of them, i.e. 42.

In this way, the main property of the genetic code is its triplet. Each amino acid is encoded by a triplet of nucleotides.

Since there are significantly more possible different triplets than amino acids used in biological molecules, such a property as redundancy genetic code. Many amino acids began to be encoded not by one codon, but by several. For example, the amino acid glycine is encoded by four different codons: GGU, GGC, GGA, GGG. Redundancy is also called degeneracy.

Correspondence between amino acids and codons is reflected in the form of tables. For example, these:

In relation to nucleotides, the genetic code has the following property: uniqueness(or specificity): each codon corresponds to only one amino acid. For example, the GGU codon can only code for glycine and no other amino acid.

Again. Redundancy is about the fact that several triplets can encode the same amino acid. Specificity - Each specific codon can code for only one amino acid.

There are no special punctuation marks in the genetic code (except for stop codons that indicate the end of polypeptide synthesis). The function of punctuation marks is performed by the triplets themselves - the end of one means that another will begin next. This implies the following two properties of the genetic code: continuity and non-overlapping. Continuity is understood as the reading of triplets immediately one after another. Non-overlapping means that each nucleotide can be part of only one triplet. So the first nucleotide of the next triplet always comes after the third nucleotide of the previous triplet. A codon cannot start at the second or third nucleotide of the preceding codon. In other words, the code does not overlap.

The genetic code has the property universality. It is the same for all organisms on Earth, which indicates the unity of the origin of life. There are very rare exceptions to this. For example, some triplets of mitochondria and chloroplasts code for amino acids other than their usual ones. This may indicate that at the dawn of the development of life, there were slightly different variations of the genetic code.

Finally, the genetic code has noise immunity, which is a consequence of its property as redundancy. Point mutations, sometimes occurring in DNA, usually result in the replacement of one nitrogenous base with another. This changes the triplet. For example, it was AAA, after the mutation it became AAG. However, such changes do not always lead to a change in the amino acid in the synthesized polypeptide, since both triplets, due to the property of the redundancy of the genetic code, can correspond to one amino acid. Given that mutations are more often harmful, the noise immunity property is useful.

The genetic, or biological, code is one of the universal properties of living nature, proving the unity of its origin. Genetic code- this is a method of encoding the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide using a nucleic acid nucleotide sequence (informative RNA or a complementary DNA section on which mRNA is synthesized).

There are other definitions.

Genetic code- this is the correspondence to each amino acid (which is part of living proteins) of a certain sequence of three nucleotides. Genetic code is the relationship between nucleic acid bases and protein amino acids.

In the scientific literature, the genetic code is not understood as the sequence of nucleotides in the DNA of any organism, which determines its individuality.

It is wrong to assume that one organism or species has one code, and another has another. The genetic code is how amino acids are encoded by nucleotides (i.e. principle, mechanism); it is universal for all living things, the same for all organisms.

Therefore, it is incorrect to say, for example, "The genetic code of a person" or "The genetic code of an organism", which is often used in near-scientific literature and films.

In these cases, we usually mean the genome of a person, an organism, etc.

The diversity of living organisms and the characteristics of their vital activity is primarily due to the diversity of proteins.

The specific structure of a protein is determined by the order and quantity of the various amino acids that make up its composition. The amino acid sequence of the peptide is encrypted in DNA using the biological code. From the point of view of the diversity of the set of monomers, DNA is a more primitive molecule than a peptide. DNA is a variety of alternations of only four nucleotides. This has long prevented researchers from considering DNA as the material of heredity.

How amino acids are encoded by nucleotides

1) Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) are polymers made up of nucleotides.

Each nucleotide can include one of four nitrogenous bases: adenine (A, en: A), guanine (G, G), cytosine (C, en: C), thymine (T, en: T). In the case of RNA, thymine is replaced by uracil (Y, U).

When considering the genetic code, only nitrogenous bases are taken into account.

Then the DNA chain can be represented as their linear sequence. For example:

The mRNA region complementary to this code will be as follows:

2) Proteins (polypeptides) are polymers consisting of amino acids.

In living organisms, 20 amino acids are used to build polypeptides (a few more are very rare). One letter can also be used to designate them (although three are more often used - an abbreviation for the name of the amino acid).

Amino acids in a polypeptide are also linearly linked by a peptide bond. For example, suppose there is a region of a protein with the following sequence of amino acids (each amino acid is denoted by a single letter):

3) If the task is to encode each amino acid using nucleotides, then it boils down to how to encode 20 letters using 4 letters.

This can be done by matching the letters of the 20-letter alphabet to words made up of several letters of the 4-letter alphabet.

If one amino acid is encoded by one nucleotide, then only four amino acids can be encoded.

If each amino acid is matched with two consecutive nucleotides in the RNA chain, then sixteen amino acids can be encoded.

Indeed, if there are four letters (A, U, G, C), then the number of their different pair combinations will be 16: (AU, UA), (AG, GA), (AC, CA), (UG, GU), ( UC, CU), (GC, CG), (AA, UU, GG, CC).

[Brackets are used for convenience of perception.] This means that only 16 different amino acids can be encoded with such a code (two-letter word): each will have its own word (two consecutive nucleotides).

From mathematics, the formula for determining the number of combinations looks like this: ab = n.

Here n is the number of different combinations, a is the number of letters of the alphabet (or the base of the number system), b is the number of letters in a word (or digits in a number). If we substitute the 4-letter alphabet and words consisting of two letters into this formula, we get 42 = 16.

If three consecutive nucleotides are used as the code word for each amino acid, then 43 = 64 different amino acids can be encoded, since 64 different combinations can be made up of four letters taken in three (for example, AUG, GAA, CAU, GGU, etc.).

d.). This is already more than enough to code for 20 amino acids.

Exactly the three-letter code is used in the genetic code. Three consecutive nucleotides that code for the same amino acid are called triplet(or codon).

Each amino acid is associated with a specific triplet of nucleotides.

In addition, since the combinations of triplets overlap the number of amino acids, many amino acids are encoded by multiple triplets.

Three triplets do not code for any of the amino acids (UAA, UAG, UGA).

They mark the end of a broadcast and are called stop codons(or nonsense codons).

The AUG triplet encodes not only the amino acid methionine, but also initiates translation (plays the role of a start codon).

Below are tables of correspondence of amino acids to nucleoitide triplets.

According to the first table, it is convenient to determine the corresponding amino acid from a given triplet. For the second - for a given amino acid, the triplets corresponding to it.

Consider an example of the implementation of the genetic code. Let there be mRNA with the following content:

Let's break the sequence of nucleotides into triplets:

Let's compare each triplet with the amino acid of the polypeptide encoded by it:

Methionine - Aspartic acid - Serine - Threonine - Tryptophan - Leucine - Leucine - Lysine - Asparagine - Glutamine

The last triplet is a stop codon.

Properties of the genetic code

The properties of the genetic code are largely a consequence of the way amino acids are coded.

The first and obvious property is tripletity.

It is understood as the fact that the code unit is a sequence of three nucleotides.

An important property of the genetic code is its non-overlapping. A nucleotide included in one triplet cannot be included in another.

That is, the sequence AGUGAA can only be read as AGU-GAA, but not, for example, like this: AGU-GUG-GAA. That is, if a GU pair is included in one triplet, it cannot already be integral part another.

Under uniqueness The genetic code understands that each triplet corresponds to only one amino acid.

For example, the AGU triplet encodes the amino acid serine and no other amino acid.

Genetic code

This triplet uniquely corresponds to only one amino acid.

On the other hand, several triplets can correspond to one amino acid. For example, the same serine, in addition to AGU, corresponds to the codon AGC. This property is called degeneracy genetic code.

Degeneracy allows you to leave many mutations harmless, since often the replacement of one nucleotide in DNA does not lead to a change in the value of the triplet. If you look closely at the table of correspondence of amino acids to triplets, you can see that if an amino acid is encoded by several triplets, then they often differ in the last nucleotide, that is, it can be anything.

Some other properties of the genetic code are also noted (continuity, noise immunity, universality, etc.).

Stability as an adaptation of plants to the conditions of existence. The main reactions of plants to the action of adverse factors.

Plant resistance is the ability to withstand the effects of extreme environmental factors (soil and air drought).

The unambiguity of the ge-not-ti-che-th code is manifest in the fact that

This property has been developed in the process of evolution and is genetically fixed. In areas with unfavorable conditions, stable decorative forms and local varieties of cultivated plants - drought-resistant - were formed. A particular level of resistance inherent in plants is revealed only under the action of extreme environmental factors.

As a result of the onset of such a factor, the irritation phase begins - a sharp deviation from the norm of a number of physiological parameters and their rapid return to normal. Then there is a change in the intensity of metabolism and damage to intracellular structures. At the same time, all synthetic ones are suppressed, all hydrolytic ones are activated, and the overall energy supply of the body decreases. If the effect of the factor does not exceed the threshold value, the adaptation phase begins.

An adapted plant reacts less to repeated or increasing exposure to an extreme factor. At the organismic level, the interaction of m / y organs is added to the mechanisms of adaptation. Weakening of the movement of water, mineral and organic compounds aggravates competition between organs, stops their growth.

Bio-resistance in plants determined. max. is the value of the extreme factor at which the plants still form viable seeds. Agronomic sustainability is determined by the degree of yield reduction. Plants are characterized by their resistance to a specific type of extreme factor - wintering, gas-resistant, salt-resistant, drought-resistant.

Type of roundworms, unlike flat ones, they have a primary body cavity - a schizocele, formed due to the destruction of the parenchyma that fills the gaps between the body wall and internal organs- Its function is transport.

It maintains homeostasis. The body shape is round in diameter. The integument is cuticularized. Musculature is represented by a layer of longitudinal muscles. The intestine is end-to-end and consists of 3 sections: anterior, middle and posterior. The mouth opening is located on the ventral surface of the anterior end of the body. The pharynx has a characteristic triangular lumen. excretory system represented by protonephridia or special skin - hypodermal glands. Most species are dioecious, with only sexual reproduction.

Development is direct, rarely with metamorphosis. They have a constant cellular composition of the body and lack the ability to regenerate. The anterior intestine is made up of oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus.

They do not have a middle or rear section. The excretory system consists of 1-2 giant cells of the hypodermis. The longitudinal excretory canals lie in the lateral ridges of the hypodermis.

Properties of the genetic code. Proofs of the triplet code. Deciphering codons. Termination codons. The concept of genetic suppression.

The idea that information is encoded in the gene in the primary structure of the protein was specified by F.

Crick in his sequence hypothesis, according to which the sequence of gene elements determines the sequence of amino acid residues in the polypeptide chain. The validity of the sequence hypothesis is proved by the colinearity of the structures of the gene and the polypeptide encoded by it. The most significant achievement in 1953 was the idea that. That the code is most likely triplet.

; DNA base pairs: A-T, T-A, G-C, C-G - can encode only 4 amino acids if each pair corresponds to one amino acid. As you know, there are 20 basic amino acids in proteins. If we assume that each amino acid corresponds to 2 base pairs, then 16 amino acids (4 * 4) can be encoded - this is again not enough.

If the code is triplet, then 64 codons (4 * 4 * 4) can be made from 4 base pairs, which is more than enough to encode 20 amino acids. Creek and his coworkers assumed that the code was triplet, that there were no "commas" between codons, i.e., separating characters; reading the code within a gene occurs from fixed point in one direction. In the summer of 1961, Kirenberg and Mattei reported on the deciphering of the first codon and proposed a method for determining the composition of codons in a cell-free system of protein synthesis.

So, the codon for phenylalanine was deciphered as UUU in mRNA. Further, as a result of applying the methods developed by the Koran, Nirenberg and Leder in 1965.

a code dictionary was compiled in his modern form. Thus, obtaining mutations in T4 phages caused by deletion or addition of bases was evidence of the triplet code (property 1). These dropouts and additions, leading to frame shifts when “reading” the code, were eliminated only by restoring the correctness of the code, this prevented the appearance of mutants. These experiments also showed that the triplets do not overlap, i.e., each base can belong to only one triplet. (Property 2).

Most amino acids have more than one codon. Code in which the number of amino acids less than number codons are called degenerate (3 property), i.e.

e. a given amino acid can be coded for by more than one triplet. In addition, three codons do not code for any amino acid at all (“nonsense codons”) and act as a “stop signal”. The stop codon is the end point of the DNA functional unit, the cistron. Termination codons are the same in all species and are represented as UAA, UAG, UGA. A notable feature of the code is that it is universal (property 4).

In all living organisms, the same triplets code for the same amino acids.

The existence of three types of mutant codons - terminators and their suppression have been shown in E. coli and yeast. The discovery of genes - suppressors, "comprehending" nonsense - alleles of different genes, indicates that the translation of the genetic code can change.

Mutations affecting the tRNA anticodon change their codon specificity and create an opportunity for mutation suppression at the translational level. Suppression at the level of translation may occur due to mutations in the genes encoding some ribosome proteins. As a result of these mutations, the ribosome "mistakes", for example, in reading nonsense codons and "understands" them at the expense of some non-mutant tRNAs. Along with genotypic suppression, acting at the level of translation, phenotypic suppression of nonsense alleles is also possible: with a decrease in temperature, with the action of aminoglycoside antibiotics that bind to ribosomes, such as streptomycin, on cells.

22. Reproduction of higher plants: vegetative and asexual. Sporulation, the structure of spores, equal and heterosporous. Reproduction as a property of living matter, that is, the ability of an individual to give rise to its own kind, existed in the early stages of evolution.

Forms of reproduction can be divided into 2 types: asexual and sexual. Actually asexual reproduction is carried out without the participation of germ cells, with the help of specialized cells - spores. They are formed in the organs asexual reproduction- sporangia as a result of mitotic division.

The spore during its germination reproduces a new individual, similar to the parent, with the exception of spores of seed plants, in which the spore has lost the function of reproduction and settlement. Spores can also be formed by reduction division, with single-celled spores spilling out.

Propagation of plants with the help of vegetative (part of the shoot, leaf, root) or division of unicellular algae in half is called vegetative (bulb, cuttings).

Sexual reproduction is carried out by special sex cells - gametes.

Gametes are formed as a result of meiosis, there are female and male. As a result of their fusion, a zygote appears, from which a new organism subsequently develops.

Plants differ in the types of gametes. In some unicellular organisms, it functions as a gamete at a certain time. Different-sex organisms (gametes) merge - this sexual process is called hologamy. If male and female gametes are morphologically similar, mobile - these are isogametes.

And the sexual process isogamous. If female gametes are somewhat larger and less mobile than male gametes, then these are heterogametes, and the process is heterogamy. Oogamy - female gametes are very large and immobile, male gametes are small and mobile.

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Genetic code - correspondence between DNA triplets and amino acids of proteins

The need to encode the structure of proteins in the linear sequence of mRNA and DNA nucleotides is dictated by the fact that during translation:

• there is no correspondence between the number of monomers in the mRNA matrix and the product - the synthesized protein;
• there is no structural similarity between RNA and protein monomers.

It excludes complementary interaction between the matrix and the product - the principle by which the construction of new DNA and RNA molecules is carried out during replication and transcription.

From this it becomes clear that there must be a "dictionary" that makes it possible to find out which mRNA nucleotide sequence provides for the inclusion of amino acids in a given sequence in a protein. This "dictionary" is called the genetic, biological, nucleotide, or amino acid code. It allows you to encode the amino acids that make up proteins using a specific sequence of nucleotides in DNA and mRNA. It has certain properties.

Tripletity. One of the main questions in elucidating the properties of the code was the question of the number of nucleotides, which should determine the inclusion of one amino acid in the protein.

It was found that the coding elements in the encoding of the amino acid sequence are indeed triplets of nucleotides, or triplets, which have been named "codons".

Meaning of codons.

It was found that out of 64 codons, the inclusion of amino acids in the synthesized polypeptide chain encodes 61 triplets, and the remaining 3 - UAA, UAG, UGA do not encode the inclusion of amino acids in the protein and were originally called meaningless or non-sense codons. However, later it was shown that these triplets signal the completion of translation, and therefore they became known as termination or stop codons.

mRNA codons and nucleotide triplets in the DNA coding strand with direction from 5' to 3' end have the same sequence of nitrogenous bases, except that in DNA instead of uracil (U), characteristic of mRNA, is thymine (T).

Specificity.

Each codon corresponds to only one specific amino acid. In this sense, the genetic code is strictly unambiguous.

Table 4-3.

Unambiguity is one of the properties of the genetic code, manifested in the fact that ...

The main components of the protein synthesis system

Notes: elF( eukaryotic initiation factors) are initiation factors; eEF( eukaryotic elongation factors) are elongation factors; eRF ( eukaryotic releasing factors) are termination factors.

degeneracy. In mRNA and DNA, 61 triplets make sense, each of which encodes the inclusion of one of the 20 amino acids in the protein.

It follows from this that in informational molecules the inclusion of the same amino acid in a protein is determined by several codons. This property of the biological code is called degeneracy.

In humans, only 2 amino acids are encrypted with one codon - Met and Tri, while Leu, Ser and Apr - with six codons, and Ala, Val, Gli, Pro, Tre - with four codons (Table 1).

The redundancy of coding sequences is the most valuable property of the code, since it increases the resistance of the information flow to the adverse effects of the external and internal environment. In determining the nature of an amino acid to be included in a protein, the third nucleotide in a codon is not as important as the first two. As can be seen from Table. 4-4, for many amino acids, the replacement of the nucleotide in the third position of the codon does not affect its meaning.

Linearity of information recording.

During translation, mRNA codons are "read" from a fixed starting point sequentially and do not overlap. There are no signals in the record of information indicating the end of one codon and the beginning of the next. The AUG codon is initiating and is read both at the beginning and in other regions of the mRNA as Met. The triplets following it are read sequentially without any gaps up to the stop codon, at which the synthesis of the polypeptide chain is completed.

Versatility.

Until recently, it was believed that the code is absolutely universal, i.e. the meaning of code words is the same for all studied organisms: viruses, bacteria, plants, amphibians, mammals, including humans.

However, one exception later became known, it turned out that mitochondrial mRNA contains 4 triplets that have a different meaning than in mRNA of nuclear origin. Thus, in mitochondrial mRNA, the UGA triplet encodes Tri, AUA codes for Met, and ACA and AGG are read as additional stop codons.

Gene and product colinearity.

In prokaryotes, a linear correspondence between the sequence of codons of the gene and the sequence of amino acids in the protein product was found, or, as they say, there is colinearity between the gene and the product.

Table 4-4.

Genetic code

Notes: U, uracil; C - cytosine; A - adenine; G, guanine; * - termination codon.

In eukaryotes, the base sequences in the gene, the co-linear amino acid sequences in the protein, are interrupted by introns.

Therefore, in eukaryotic cells, the amino acid sequence of a protein is co-linear with the sequence of exons in a gene or mature mRNA after post-transcriptional deletion of introns.

In any cell and organism, all features of the anatomical, morphological and functional nature are determined by the structure of the proteins that are included in them. The hereditary property of an organism is the ability to synthesize certain proteins. Amino acids are located in a polypeptide chain, on which biological characteristics depend.
Each cell has its own sequence of nucleotides in the DNA polynucleotide chain. This is the genetic code of DNA. Through it, information about the synthesis of certain proteins is recorded. About what the genetic code is, about its properties and genetic information is described in this article.

A bit of history

The idea that perhaps a genetic code exists was formulated by J. Gamow and A. Down in the middle of the twentieth century. They described that the nucleotide sequence responsible for the synthesis of a particular amino acid contains at least three units. Later they proved the exact number of three nucleotides (this is a unit of the genetic code), which was called a triplet or codon. There are sixty-four nucleotides in total, because the acid molecule, where or RNA occurs, consists of residues of four different nucleotides.

What is the genetic code

The method of coding the protein sequence of amino acids due to the sequence of nucleotides is characteristic of all living cells and organisms. That's what the genetic code is.
There are four nucleotides in DNA:

• adenine - A;
• guanine - G;
• cytosine - C;
• thymine - T.

They are indicated by capital letters in Latin or (in Russian-language literature) Russian.
RNA also has four nucleotides, but one of them is different from DNA:

• adenine - A;
• guanine - G;
• cytosine - C;
• uracil - U.

All nucleotides line up in chains, and in DNA a double helix is ​​obtained, and in RNA it is single.
Proteins are built on twenty amino acids, where they, located in a certain sequence, determine its biological properties.

Properties of the genetic code

Tripletity. The unit of the genetic code consists of three letters, it is triplet. This means that the twenty existing amino acids are coded for by three specific nucleotides called codons or trilpets. There are sixty-four combinations that can be created from four nucleotides. This amount is more than enough to encode twenty amino acids.
Degeneracy. Each amino acid corresponds to more than one codon, with the exception of methionine and tryptophan.
Unambiguity. One codon codes for one amino acid. For example, in the gene healthy person with information about the beta target of hemoglobin, the triplet of GAG and GAA encodes A in everyone who has sickle cell anemia, one nucleotide is replaced.
Collinearity. The amino acid sequence always corresponds to the nucleotide sequence that the gene contains.
The genetic code is continuous and compact, which means that it does not have "punctuation marks". That is, starting at a certain codon, there is a continuous reading. For example, AUGGUGTSUUAAAUGUG will be read as: AUG, GUG, CUU, AAU, GUG. But not AUG, UGG, and so on, or in any other way.
Versatility. It is the same for absolutely all terrestrial organisms, from humans to fish, fungi and bacteria.

Table

Not all available amino acids are present in the presented table. Hydroxyproline, hydroxylysine, phosphoserine, iodo derivatives of tyrosine, cystine, and some others are absent, since they are derivatives of other amino acids encoded by mRNA and formed after protein modification as a result of translation.
From the properties of the genetic code, it is known that one codon is able to code for one amino acid. The exception is the genetic code that performs additional functions and codes for valine and methionine. RNA, being at the beginning with a codon, attaches a t-RNA that carries formyl methion. Upon completion of the synthesis, it splits off itself and takes the formyl residue with it, transforming into a methionine residue. Thus, the above codons are the initiators of the synthesis of a chain of polypeptides. If they are not at the beginning, then they are no different from others.

genetic information

This concept means a program of properties that is transmitted from ancestors. It is embedded in heredity as a genetic code.
Implemented during protein synthesis genetic code:

• information and RNA;
• ribosomal rRNA.

Information is transmitted by direct communication (DNA-RNA-protein) and reverse (environment-protein-DNA).
Organisms can receive, store, transfer it and use it most effectively.
Being inherited, information determines the development of an organism. But due to interaction with environment the reaction of the latter is distorted, due to which evolution and development take place. Thus, new information is laid in the body.

Deciphering the human code

In the nineties, the Human Genome Project was launched, as a result of which fragments of the genome containing 99.99% of human genes were discovered in the 2000s. Fragments that are not involved in protein synthesis and are not encoded remained unknown. Their role is still unknown.

Chromosome 1, last discovered in 2006, is the longest in the genome. More than three hundred and fifty diseases, including cancer, appear as a result of disorders and mutations in it.

The role of such research can hardly be overestimated. When they discovered what the genetic code is, it became known according to what patterns development occurs, how the morphological structure, the psyche, predisposition to certain diseases, metabolism and vices of individuals are formed.

Leading scientific journal Nature announced the discovery of a second genetic code - a kind of "code within a code", which was recently cracked by molecular biologists and computer programmers. Moreover, in order to reveal it, they did not use evolutionary theory, but information technology.

The new code is called the Splicing Code. It is within the DNA. This code controls the underlying genetic code in a very complex yet predictable way. The splicing code controls how and when genes and regulatory elements are assembled. Revealing this code within a code helps shed light on some of the long-standing mysteries of genetics that have surfaced since the Complete Human Genome Sequencing Project. One such mystery was why there are only 20,000 genes in an organism as complex as the human being? (Scientists expected to find a lot more.) Why are genes broken into segments (exons) that are separated by non-coding elements (introns) and then joined together (i.e., spliced) after transcription? And why are genes turned on in some cells and tissues and not in others? For two decades, molecular biologists have tried to elucidate the mechanisms of genetic regulation. This article points to a very important point in understanding what is really going on. It doesn't answer every question, but it does demonstrate that the internal code exists. This code is a communication system that can be deciphered so clearly that scientists could predict how a genome might behave in certain situations and with inexplicable accuracy.

Imagine that you hear an orchestra in the next room. You open the door, look inside and see three or four musicians in the room playing the musical instruments. This is what Brandon Frey, who helped break the code, says the human genome looks like. He says: “We were only able to detect 20,000 genes, but we knew that they form great amount protein products and regulatory elements. How? One of the methods is called alternative splicing". Different exons (parts of genes) can be assembled in different ways. “For example, three genes for the neurexin protein can create over 3,000 genetic messages that help control the brain’s wiring system.” Frey says. Right there in the article, it says that scientists know that 95% of our genes have alternative splicing, and in most cases, transcripts (RNA molecules resulting from transcription) are expressed differently in different types of cells and tissues. There must be something that controls how these thousands of combinations are assembled and expressed. This is the task of the Splicing Code.

Readers who want a quick overview of the discovery can read the article at Science Daily entitled "Researchers who cracked the 'Splicing Code' unravel the mystery behind biological complexity". The article says: “Scientists at the University of Toronto have gained a fundamental new understanding of how living cells use a limited number of genes to form incredibly complex organs like the brain.”. Nature magazine itself begins with Heidi Ledford's "Code Within Code." This was followed by a paper by Tejedor and Valcarcel titled “Gene Regulation: Breaking the Second Genetic Code. Finally, a paper by a group of researchers from the University of Toronto led by Benjamin D. Blencoe and Brandon D. Frey, "Deciphering the Splicing Code," was decisive.

This article is an information science victory that reminds us of codebreakers from World War II. Their methods included algebra, geometry, probability theory, vector calculus, information theory, program code optimization, and other advanced techniques. What they didn't need was evolutionary theory, which has never been mentioned in scientific articles. Reading this article, you can see how much tension the authors of this overture are under:

“We describe a ‘splicing code’ scheme that uses combinations of hundreds of RNA properties to predict tissue-mediated changes in alternative splicing of thousands of exons. The code establishes new classes of splicing patterns, recognizes different regulatory programs in different tissues, and establishes mutation-controlled regulatory sequences. We have uncovered widely used regulatory strategies, including: using unexpectedly large property pools; detection of low levels of exon inclusion, which are attenuated by the properties of specific tissues; the manifestation of properties in introns is deeper than previously thought; and modulation of the levels of the splice variant by the structural characteristics of the transcript. The code helped establish a class of exons whose inclusion mutes expression in adult tissues, activating mRNA degradation, and whose exclusion promotes expression during embryogenesis. The code facilitates the disclosure and detailed description of genome-wide regulated events of alternative splicing.”

The team that cracked the code included specialists from the Department of Electronics and Computer Engineering, as well as from the Department of Molecular Genetics. (Frey himself works for Microsoft Research, a division of Microsoft Corporation) Like the decoders of the past, Frey and Barash developed "a new computer-assisted biological analysis that detects 'code words' hidden within the genome". With the help of a huge amount of data created by molecular geneticists, a group of researchers carried out "reverse engineering" of the splicing code until they could predict how he would act. Once the researchers got it right, they tested the code for mutations and saw how exons were inserted or deleted. They found that the code could even cause tissue-specific changes or act differently depending on whether it was an adult mouse or an embryo. One gene, Xpo4, is associated with cancer; The researchers noted: “These data support the conclusion that Xpo4 gene expression must be tightly controlled to avoid potential detrimental effects, including oncogenesis (cancer), since it is active during embryogenesis but is reduced in adult tissues. It turns out that they were absolutely surprised by the level of control they saw. Intentionally or not, Frey did not use random variation and selection as a clue, but the language of intelligent design. He noted: "Understanding a complex biological system is like understanding a complex electronic circuit."

Heidi Ledford said that the apparent simplicity of Watson-Crick's genetic code, with its four bases, triplet codons, 20 amino acids, and 64 DNA "characters" - hides a whole world of complexity. Encapsulated within this simpler code, the splicing code is much more complex.

But between DNA and proteins lies RNA, a separate world of complexity. RNA is a transformer that sometimes carries genetic messages, and sometimes controls them, while using many structures that can influence its function. In an article published in the same issue, a team of researchers led by Benjamin D. Blencoe and Brandon D. Frey at the University of Toronto in Ontario, Canada, report attempts to unravel a second genetic code that can predict how messenger RNA segments are transcribed from a particular genes can mix and match to form a variety of products in different tissues. This process is known as alternative splicing. This time there is no simple table - instead, algorithms that combine more than 200 different properties of DNA with definitions of the structure of RNA.

The work of these researchers indicates the rapid progress that computational methods have made in modeling RNA. In addition to understanding alternative splicing, computer science is helping scientists predict RNA structures and identify small regulatory fragments of RNA that do not code for proteins. "It's a wonderful time", says Christopher Berg, a computer biologist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge. “In the future, we will have a huge success”.

Computer science, computer biology, algorithms, and codes were not part of Darwin's vocabulary when he developed his theory. Mendel had a very simplified model of how traits are distributed during inheritance. In addition, the idea that features are encoded was only introduced in 1953. We see that the original genetic code is regulated by an even more complex code included in it. These are revolutionary ideas.. Moreover, there are all indications that this level of control is not the last. Ledford reminds us that, for example, RNA and proteins have a three-dimensional structure. The function of molecules can change when their shape changes. There must be something that controls folding so that the three-dimensional structure does what the function requires. In addition, access to genes appears to be controlled another code, histone code. This code is encoded by molecular markers or "tails" on histone proteins that serve as centers for DNA coiling and supercoiling. Describing our time, Ledford speaks of "permanent renaissance in RNC informatics".

Tejedor and Valcarcel agree that complexity lies behind simplicity. “In theory, everything looks very simple: DNA forms RNA, which then creates a protein”, - they begin their article. “But the reality is much more complicated.”. In the 1950s, we learned that all living organisms, from bacteria to humans, have a basic genetic code. But we soon realized that complex organisms (eukaryotes) have some unnatural and difficult to understand property: their genomes have peculiar sections, introns, that must be removed so that exons can join together. Why? The fog is clearing today "The main advantage of this mechanism is that it allows different cells to choose alternative ways of splicing the precursor messenger RNA (pre-mRNA) and thus one gene forms different messages," they explain, "and then different mRNAs can code for different proteins with different functions". From less code, you get more information, as long as there is this other code inside the code that knows how to do it.

What makes cracking the splicing code so difficult is that the factors that control exon assembly are set by many other factors: sequences near exon boundaries, intron sequences, and regulatory factors that either aid or inhibit the splicing mechanism. Besides, "the effects of a certain sequence or factor may vary depending on its location relative to the boundaries of the intron-exon or other regulatory motifs", - Tejedor and Valcarcel explain. “Therefore, the most difficult task in predicting tissue-specific splicing is to compute the algebra of the myriad of motifs and the relationships between the regulatory factors that recognize them.”.

To solve this problem, a team of researchers entered into the computer a huge amount of data about the RNA sequences and the conditions under which they were formed. "The computer was then given the task of identifying the combination of properties that would best explain the experimentally established tissue-specific exon selection.". In other words, the researchers reverse engineered the code. Like World War II codebreakers, once scientists know the algorithm, they can make predictions: "It correctly and accurately identified alternative exons and predicted their differential regulation between pairs of tissue types." And just like any good scientific theory, the discovery provided new insights: “This allowed us to re-explain previously established regulatory motivations and pointed to previously unknown properties of known regulators, as well as unexpected functional relationships between them.”, the researchers noted. “For example, the code implies that the inclusion of exons leading to processed proteins is a general mechanism for controlling the process of gene expression during the transition from embryonic tissue to adult tissue.”.

Tejedor and Valcarcel consider the publication of their paper an important first step: "The work... is better seen as the discovery of the first fragment of the much larger Rosetta Stone needed to decipher the alternative messages of our genome." According to these scientists, future research will undoubtedly improve their knowledge of this new code. At the conclusion of their article, they mention evolution in passing, and they do it very in an unusual way. They say, “That doesn't mean that evolution created these codes. This means that progress will require an understanding of how the codes interact. Another surprise was that the degree of conservation observed to date raises the question of the possible existence of "species-specific codes".

The code probably works in every single cell, and therefore must be responsible for more than 200 types of mammalian cells. It also has to cope with a huge variety of alternative splicing schemes, not to mention simple solutions on the inclusion or skipping of a single exon. The limited evolutionary retention of regulation of alternative splicing (estimated to be about 20% between humans and mice) raises the question of the existence of species-specific codes. Moreover, the relationship between DNA processing and gene transcription influences alternative splicing, and recent evidence points to DNA packaging by histone proteins and histone covalent modifications (the so-called epigenetic code) in the regulation of splicing. Therefore, future methods will have to establish the exact interaction between the histone code and the splicing code. The same applies to the still little understood influence of complex RNA structures on alternative splicing.

Codes, codes and more codes. The fact that scientists say almost nothing about Darwinism in these papers indicates that evolutionary theorists, adherents of old ideas and traditions, have a lot to think about after they read these papers. But those who are enthusiastic about the biology of codes will be at the forefront. They have a great opportunity to take advantage of a fun web application that the codebreakers have created to encourage further exploration. It can be found on the University of Toronto website called "Alternative Splicing Prediction Website". Visitors will look in vain for mention of evolution here, despite the old axiom that nothing in biology makes sense without it. A new version this 2010 expression might sound like this: "Nothing in biology makes sense unless viewed in the light of computer science" .

Links and notes

We're glad we were able to tell you about this story on the day it was published. Perhaps this is one of the most significant scientific articles of the year. (Of course, every big discovery made by other groups of scientists, like the discovery of Watson and Crick, is significant.) The only thing we can say to this is: “Wow!” This discovery is a remarkable confirmation of Designed Creation and a huge challenge to the Darwinian empire. I wonder how evolutionists will try to fix their simplistic history of random mutations and natural selection, which was invented back in the 19th century, in the light of these new data.

Do you understand what Tejedor and Valcarcel are talking about? Views can have their own code specific to those views. “Therefore, future methods will have to establish the exact interaction between the histone [epigenetic] code and the splicing code,” they note. In translation, this means: “Darwinists have nothing to do with it. They just can't handle it." If the simple genetic code of Watson-Crick was a problem for the Darwinists, then what do they say now about the splicing code, which creates thousands of transcripts from the same genes? And how will they deal with the epigenetic code that controls gene expression? And who knows, maybe in this incredible "interaction" that we are just beginning to learn about, other codes are involved, reminiscent of the Rosetta Stone, just beginning to emerge from the sand?

Now that we're thinking about codes and computer science, we're starting to think about different paradigms for new research. What if the genome partially acts as a storage network? What if cryptography takes place in it or compression algorithms occur? We should remember about modern information systems and information storage technologies. Maybe we will even find elements of steganography. Undoubtedly, there are additional resistance mechanisms, such as duplications and corrections, that may help explain the existence of pseudogenes. Whole genome copying may be a response to stress. Some of these phenomena may be useful indicators historical events, which have nothing to do with a universal common ancestor, but help explore comparative genomics within informatics and resistance design, and help understand the cause of a disease.

Evolutionists find themselves in a major quandary. The researchers tried to modify the code, but got only cancer and mutations. How are they going to navigate the field of fitness when it's all mined with catastrophes waiting in the wings as soon as someone starts tampering with these inextricably linked codes? We know there is some built-in resilience and portability, but the whole picture is an incredibly complex, designed, optimized information system, not a jumble of pieces that can be played around endlessly. The whole idea of ​​code is the concept of intelligent design.

A.E. Wilder-Smith emphasized this. The code assumes an agreement between the two parts. An agreement is an agreement in advance. It implies planning and purpose. The SOS symbol, as Wilder-Smith would say, we use by convention as a distress signal. SOS does not look like a disaster. It doesn't smell like a disaster. It doesn't feel like a disaster. People would not understand that these letters stand for disaster if they did not understand the essence of the agreement itself. Similarly, an alanine codon, HCC, does not look, smell, or feel like alanine. A codon would have nothing to do with alanine unless there was a pre-established agreement between the two coding systems (protein code and DNA code) that "GCC should stand for alanine." To convey this agreement, a family of transducers, aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases, are used, which translate one code into another.

This was to strengthen the theory of design in the 1950s, and many creationists preached it effectively. But evolutionists are like eloquent salesmen. They made up their tales about the Tinker Bell fairy, who deciphers the code and creates new species through mutation and selection, and convinced many people that miracles can still happen today. Well, well, today is the 21st century outside the window and we know the epigenetic code and the splicing code - two codes that are much more complex and dynamic than the simple code of DNA. We know about codes within codes, about codes above codes and below codes - we know a whole hierarchy of codes. This time around, the evolutionists can't just put their finger in the gun and bluff us with their beautiful speeches, when guns are placed on both sides - a whole arsenal aimed at their main structural elements. All this is a game. A whole era of computer science has grown around them, they have long gone out of fashion and look like the Greeks, who are trying to climb modern tanks and helicopters with spears.

Sad to admit, evolutionists don't understand this, or even if they do, they're not going to give up. By the way, this week, just as the article about the Splicing Code was published, the most angry and hated for recent times rhetoric against creationism and intelligent design. We are yet to hear of many more such examples. And as long as they hold the microphones in their hands and control the institutions, many people will fall for them, thinking that science continues to give them a good reason. We are telling you all this so that you will read this material, study it, understand it, and stock up on the information you need in order to combat this fanatical, misleading nonsense with the truth. Now, go ahead!

Under the genetic code, it is customary to understand such a system of signs denoting the sequential arrangement of nucleotide compounds in DNA and RNA, which corresponds to another sign system that displays the sequence of amino acid compounds in a protein molecule.

It is important!

When scientists managed to study the properties of the genetic code, universality was recognized as one of the main ones. Yes, strange as it may sound, everything is united by one, universal, common genetic code. It was formed over a long time period, and the process ended about 3.5 billion years ago. Therefore, in the structure of the code, traces of its evolution can be traced, from the moment of its inception to today.

When talking about the sequence of elements in the genetic code, it means that it is far from being chaotic, but has a strictly defined order. And this also largely determines the properties of the genetic code. This is equivalent to the arrangement of letters and syllables in words. It is worth breaking the usual order, and most of what we will read on the pages of books or newspapers will turn into ridiculous gibberish.

Basic properties of the genetic code

Usually the code carries some information encrypted in a special way. In order to decipher the code, you need to know the distinguishing features.

So, the main properties of the genetic code are:

• triplet;
• degeneracy or redundancy;
• uniqueness;
• continuity;
• the versatility already mentioned above.

Let's take a closer look at each property.

1. Tripletity

This is when three nucleotide compounds form a sequential chain within a molecule (i.e. DNA or RNA). As a result, a triplet compound is created or encodes one of the amino acids, its location in the peptide chain.

Codons (they are code words!) are distinguished by their connection sequence and by the type of those nitrogenous compounds (nucleotides) that are part of them.

In genetics, it is customary to distinguish 64 codon types. They can form combinations of four types 3 nucleotides each. This is equivalent to raising the number 4 to the third power. Thus, the formation of 64 nucleotide combinations is possible.

2. Redundancy of the genetic code

This property is observed when several codons are required to encrypt one amino acid, usually within 2-6. And only tryptophan can be encoded with a single triplet.

3. Uniqueness

It is included in the properties of the genetic code as an indicator of healthy gene inheritance. For example, the GAA triplet in sixth place in the chain can tell doctors about a good state of blood, about normal hemoglobin. It is he who carries information about hemoglobin, and it is also encoded by him. And if a person is anemic, one of the nucleotides is replaced by another letter of the code - U, which is a signal of the disease.

4. Continuity

When writing this property of the genetic code, it should be remembered that codons, like chain links, are located not at a distance, but in direct proximity, one after another in the nucleic acid chain, and this chain is not interrupted - it has no beginning or end.

5. Versatility

It should never be forgotten that everything on Earth is united by a common genetic code. And therefore, in a primate and a person, in an insect and a bird, a hundred-year-old baobab and a blade of grass that has barely hatched out of the ground, similar amino acids are encoded in identical triplets.

It is in the genes that the basic information about the properties of an organism is stored, a kind of program that the organism inherits from those who lived earlier and which exists as a genetic code.