All-Russian Olympiad on the history of Russian entrepreneurship for schoolchildren. Merchants and power in medieval Russia

Ancient information about trade among the Slavs. The Slavs, the ancestors of the modern peoples of Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, came from Central Europe to Eastern Europe in the 5th century. Since that time, they began their centuries-old settlement in Eastern Europe and the economic development of its natural resources. The economy of the Slavic society was based on gathering, hunting, fishing, farming, mining, which were not deep from the surface of the earth. Subsistence farming dominated the country, that is, the Slavs produced everything necessary for life in their place of residence. Therefore, it was not essential products that were exchanged, but only especially valuable and rare items- jewelry, weapons, metals, salt, etc. This feature of the exchange in all ancient societies - dominance of foreign trade over domestic- remained in Russia for many centuries.

Among the Slavs, like among all ancient peoples, the original form of trade was silent exchange. Information about such an exchange of Novgorodians with primitive Ugric tribes has been preserved from the 11th century. in the annals: (Ugrians) “they show iron and wash their hands, asking for iron, and if anyone gives them iron or a knife or an ax, and they (Ugrians) will give quick (furs) against (for this).” That is, at the place where the exchange took place, people usually kept a distance from each other and did not talk to each other, which is why it is called mute. Wishing to receive this or that product - "buyer" - showed it. Another participant in the exchange - the "seller" - put what he asked for and usually left. The “buyer” posted his product and also left. If its quantity seems sufficient, then the “seller” who came to the lying things took the “fee”. If he was not satisfied, he either took his thing back, or did not touch anything and expected that the other participant in the exchange would add some more "fee". This is how an ancient exchange took place, in which one feels mutual distrust towards each other, the desire to insure against troubles or even misfortunes that can be expected from a stranger. Initially, instead of exchange, there was simply robbery with the use of force and murder. Silent exchange is a more humane form of communication between people, the result of the development of social relations, that is, connections between people.

Already in antiquity, some kind of exchange Eastern Slavs ski tribes existed. Thanks to transit trade and other types of exchange, different things got from one region to another. So, items made in the Black Sea region ended up in the Dnieper region, and from there they were transported to the north of Europe. Items brought from Central Asia and Iran (Persia), are found during excavations in the Middle Dnieper region, where the Kievan state was later formed. Perhaps in the VII-VIII centuries. the slave trade was born, which at a later time played a very important role in Russia and in its trade with other countries.

In the ninth century Slavic conquests began Byzantium- a huge empire located south of the Slavic lands. Byzantium at that time was the richest and most culturally developed country in Europe. Its capital, Constantinople (the modern Turkish city of Istanbul), was located along the shores of the strait connecting the Black and Mediterranean Seas. Here Europe bordered on Asia. Through Constantinople, goods of Asian production were sold to Europe, so the capital of Byzantium was a center of trade of world importance. Especially in medieval Europe, Asian spices were valued, necessary for the consumption of meat food. This food spoiled rather quickly during storage, and spices contributed to its storage and beat off an unpleasant odor. Merchants from Europe were also attracted by fine Byzantine handicrafts.

During military campaigns against Byzantium, the Slavs learned about the way of life of strangers, their occupations and products of Byzantine crafts. This created the basis for exchange and trade with Byzantium. Acquaintance with the works of Byzantine crafts, especially weapons and jewelry, increased the level of needs of the Slavic nobility, aroused the desire to acquire them. Wars delivered a very valuable commodity - slaves. The Byzantines captured by the Slavs were ransomed by their relatives, which also contributed to the development of trade between the two peoples.

Volga trade route. From the end of the VIII - the beginning of the IX century. in Eastern Europe there were merchants from the Arab East (Anterior Asia). Their lands were south and east of Byzantium. The territory occupied by the Arabs expanded due to their conquests. They pressed Byzantium, advanced to Central Asia. Therefore, the borders of their lands were approaching the homeland of the Slavs.

The way from the Arab lands to Eastern Europe lay along the Caspian 耠sea 䑎 and along the Volga 䀮 (In the 8th - 10th centuries, the Arabs mastered the Volga trade route and the European North. ␟on the banks of the Middle Volga and its "tributary of the Kama" lived! here the state - Volga Bulgaria (Bulgaria) Į The Bulgarian kingdom adopted Islam - the same religion that "was among the Abs. It established diplomatic relations with the Arabs.

This contributed to trade along the Caspian Sea and the Volga. The main trade of the Arabs was in Volga Bulgaria, in the small town of Bulgar (not far from modern Kazan).

The Arab nobility greatly appreciated the skins of sables and silver foxes. Arab merchants bought mammoth bones and walrus tusks for their artisans. To meet these merchants along the rivers of Eastern Europe, people from the Scandinavian Peninsula, from the territory of modern Sweden, moved.

Immigrants from Scandinavia began to come to Eastern Europe at the end of the 8th century. Initially, these were armed groups that came here for robbery. They began to develop the Baltic-Volga route, which opened up access to the places of trade of Arab merchants. The Scandinavians considered Arabic silver oriental coins to be the most valuable goods (they were interested in metal). They themselves sold slaves, sable furs and squirrels to the Arabs. In the middle of the ninth century Scandinavians began to establish contacts with the Slavs. In the X-XI centuries. Scandinavian merchant ships already regularly went to Russia.

In the land of the Slavs, at the place where the Volkhov River flows into Lake Ladoga, the newcomers founded their city. It had a busy market, craft shops for repairing equipment and weapons. Through this city and from it, military-trading detachments went to the southeast, to the middle reaches of the Volga, where their trade with the Arabs took place. Merchants arrived on the Middle Volga in boats in whole squads. They built booths here, in which they laid out goods for sale. Trade was the most primitive, barter: a commodity was simply exchanged for another commodity. Thus, along the Volga and other routes, goods went from Scandinavia in the north to the Arab East in the south. The flow of Arab silver first went to Scandinavia and other parts of Europe, and from the beginning of the 10th century. silver began to settle in the lands of the Eastern Slavs. Arab merchants traded on the Volga until the 10th-11th centuries. The heyday of their trade fell in the first half of the tenth century. Later, their goods began to come to Eastern Europe, mostly through Constantinople, along the Dnieper route.

On the lower Volga at that time there was a state Khazar Khaganate founded by a nomadic people - the Khazars. In the capital - the city of Itil - on one side, on the right bank of the Volga, lived the ruler-kagan and his nobles, warriors, merchants from different countries stopped on the left. There was a market on the river bank. Merchants arriving in the city moored their ships to the shore and engaged in trade here. This order was widespread among ancient peoples. In European languages, the word "port" means "market", that is, usually the port - the place where ships stopped - was also a place of trade.

A variety of furs came from the north along the Volga to Itil, and from there to Central Asia - sables, ermines, ferrets, foxes, martens, beavers, hares, goats. Treated horse skin was also exported - yuft, wax, honey. From the Arabs, merchants received, in addition to silver items, beads, pearls, precious stones, and jewelry. In the X century. The Volga was the main artery connecting Asia and northern Europe.

The path "from the Varangians to the Greeks". In the ninth century formed another great trade route in Eastern Europe. Contemporaries called it the path "from the Varangians to the Greeks", that is, from Scandinavia to Byzantium; the inhabitants of Scandinavia, the Slavs called the Varangians, and the Byzantines - the Greeks. Unlike the Volga trade route, this route went through the Slavic lands and had a great and varied impact on the life of the local population. He begins to play an important role in the life of the Slavs from the tenth century. Through the Slavic lands, ships moved along the rivers, which carried foreign merchants and their goods. These vessels sometimes walked on water, sometimes they were dragged with the help of the local population overland on wooden skating rinks, beams or on a deck from one river to another. The length of the route from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea was 2,700 km. It took about four months to overcome such a distance, taking into account stops along the way. The path "from the Varangians to the Greeks" ended in the capital of Byzantium - Constantinople.

Passing through unfamiliar lands, Western European merchants now and then encountered the local population, which robbed them. Therefore, as can be assumed, over time they began to negotiate with the leaders of the Slavic tribes. The chieftains took tribute from passing merchants and in return ensured their safety as they advanced through their territory. Apparently, from that time a custom developed, which also operated much later in Russia: a visiting merchant first of all presented his goods to the local ruler, who chose what he especially liked, and then the merchant could start trading. This tribute over time became the most tempting income for the Slavic rulers, since it included items that were not produced or mined in the Slavic land.

From the second half of the ninth century Byzantium experienced an economic boom. Here, after some decline, urban life revived. Foreign trade grew. Silk fabrics of Byzantine production, gold and silver brocade, jewelry and glass items were widely sold in different countries, including in Russia.

From the second half of the IX-X centuries. The Dnieper region began to play a significant role in transit trade. Small towns arose along the trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks”. Thanks to trade and tribute, the local nobility rose from it. Kyiv became an important hub for this trade. Since that time, the state of the Eastern Slavs has been formed, one of the largest centers of which was Kyiv. The top of the society was the military-trading layer, which rallied around the prince, formed his squad, army, administrative apparatus, distributed over the cities. This layer included not only Slavs, but also Scandinavians.

Merchants in Russia in the IX-XIII centuries. At this time, it is already possible to speak of the emergence of the merchant class as a special social group whose main income was trade. The merchant was not just a seller or buyer of goods. Urban and rural artisans who sold their products and bought raw materials, the clergy, who managed the boyar economy, and peasants who sold the products of their agricultural economy and crafts in the nearest cities and at rural markets, were involved in market operations. For all these people, trading was not a professional occupation. They belonged to different classes and class groups. A merchant is a professional merchant who was engaged in the purchase, delivery, resale of consignments of goods and belonged to the merchant class. Already in Kievan Rus, a layer of people was taking shape, who, according to their professional occupations, can be attributed to merchants.

In the IX-X centuries. the process of formation of the merchant class was just beginning. Important conditions for the formation of a layer of professional traders In Slavic society, there was the accumulation in the hands of the local nobility of significant reserves of forestry and agricultural products, the acquaintance of this nobility with such luxury and household items that were not produced or mined in the land subject to it, the separation of craft from agriculture, the emergence of more or less permanent trade - handicraft settlements.

At first, the composition of such merchants was not homogeneous. They were from different lands. The merchants included Scandinavians, Slavs, representatives of other nationalities. In the IX-X centuries. merchant guests in Russia usually came from Scandinavia. They were accustomed to seafaring, to long-distance voyages in ships, so they could embark on long journeys both in Europe and in Asia. During the formation of the state of Kievan Rus, the first merchants, by their origin, were warriors of the princes who ruled in Russia. Later, especially from the 11th century, merchants appeared from among the local boyars, the trade and craft population of cities.

Starting from the first centuries in the history of Russian trade and for a very long time, the merchant was a military man. Trade caravans resembled armed expeditions, as merchants had to face various dangers on a long journey and defend their goods with weapons in their hands. On the way, the merchant could also go on a robbery for the sake of valuable booty. At this time, trading operations sometimes turned into raids. In ancient times trade and plunder accompanied each other everywhere.

An ancient legend, recorded by a chronicler, said that at the end of the 9th century. Novgorod prince Oleg, a Scandinavian by origin, came with soldiers in boats along the Dnieper to Kyiv. Seeing that he would not be able to take the city by storm, Oleg pretended to be a merchant and summoned the rulers of Kyiv, Askold and Dir, to the banks of the Dnieper. The military attire of Oleg and the people around him could not seem strange to the representatives of the local authorities who came to him. This was the usual appearance of merchants who were on a large trading trip. Askold and Dir were killed by Oleg's soldiers, and Oleg turned Kyiv into the capital of his state, uniting the northern and southern Slavic lands. In Kyiv, there were much more merchants traveling to Byzantium than in Novgorod, and the prince's income was higher. Now the path "from the Varangians to the Greeks" was under the control of the new ruler. Dohᐾzh from merchants passing through it significantly replenished the princely treasury.

Varangians

(A.జ.Vasnetsov)

Every year in the fall, the prince set off with his retinue to detour the subservient lands. An important purpose of these trips was the collection of “polyudya”, which consisted of food products and especially valuable items - gathering and hunting. Everything collected during the detour was delivered to Kiev. The princes shared with the warriors part of the collected valuables. In late spring and summer, on behalf of the prince, the combatants went to Byzantium to sell the products that they, together with the prince, collected from the subject population. It is no coincidence that already in the ninth century. such traders exported from Russia for sale not only furs, but also swords, not of Slavic production, but of Western Europe. Thus, the warriors more or less systematically engaged in trade, receiving from it an important income.

Over time, the layer of Scandinavian merchants was replenished with Slavs. The merchant class included people who, like farmers, were not tied to a certain place of residence, who freely left their homes. Among them could be princely and boyar servants, artisans.

Trade was not always a permanent, professional activity for their participants. He could have left them. The composition of the layer of trading people was still unstable. Merchants who made long-distance trading trips were called in Russia guests, and trade guest. The social status of the merchant was quite high. A new period in the development of the merchant class began in connection with the growth of cities in Russia (since the 11th century). At this time, the aggressive policy of the Russian princes was replaced by a policy of peaceful relations with neighbors. In the XI-XII centuries. trade relations between Russia and Byzantium became especially close. Professional merchants arose among the townspeople. Foreign trade began to pass to them. If in the IX-X centuries. merchants led a nomadic lifestyle, were temporary residents of trading settlements, then in the XI-XIII centuries. they increasingly connect their lives with the city, with local trade, become more sedentary.

An important feature of trade in antiquity was that trade duties at that time and for many centuries were very high, reaching 20% of the value of goods carried by the merchant. However, the high prices of goods at the point of sale and the wholesale scope of trading operations not only reimbursed all the costs of travel and trade, but also brought significant profits. A dangerous but very profitable long-distance trading trip quickly enriched the merchant.

At this time, merchants traveled to Byzantium on the way "from the Varangians to the Greeks", to Khazaria - along the Don, through the Caspian Sea - to Baghdad. Their ships plowed the waters of four seas - the Black, Baltic, Azov and Caspian. Clay vessels served as containers for storage and transportation of some goods. Since the ninth century merchants had miniature folding scales with weights. When folded, they easily fit into a small pouch or case and attached to the belt. On such small scales, only precious goods, usually silver, could be weighed.

Scales and weights of an ancient Russian merchant

In the XII century. Russia was divided into different lands-principalities. In the XII century, when the former commercial importance of Kyiv began to fall, the commercial role of such cities as Novgorod, Smolensk, Polotsk, Vladimir-on-Klyazma began to grow rapidly. At this time, the Russian lands finally got rid of dependence on Kyiv, stopped sending the Kyiv prince an annual tribute in silver. The craft developed. At the same time, the stratum of the merchant class grew. There was a further development of trade. Trade-related operations became more diversified. In the XII century. among the merchants, mutual money loans are spreading - lending. Merchants also took other people's goods for sale on a trading trip. One merchant received goods from another for storage. At the same time, the first merchant associations were formed in Novgorod, which indicates a high degree of development of trade. The growth of trade and merchant income causes and sharply negative consequences. From the 30s. 12th century princes constantly attacked merchant caravans, intercepted trade routes, took trading centers from battle, and arrested merchants. According to the collection of laws - Russkaya Pravda - for the murder of a merchant, the same fine was imposed on the guilty as for the prince's combatant - 40 hryvnias.

Merchant people were used as warriors by the princes in case of military danger or even as participants in a military campaign. Even more often, the princes used their knowledge, experience, and opportunities in the field of diplomacy and intelligence. Knowing foreign languages They acted as translators. Messages were passed with reliable merchants. The princes forced merchants to transport princely people and goods at their own expense.

International trade Ancient Russia. Trade with Byzantium and Eastern countries. Around the 11th century . Kyiv has become one of the most important international trade centers in Eastern Europe. He was considered a rival of Constantinople. To some extent, the commercial role of Kyiv was similar to that of the Byzantine capital. Just like Constantinople, Kyiv was the center through which Europe received goods from Asia. In the Kyiv markets one could meet merchants from different countries. Lively trade routes crossed here. Southern Russia was a region of Europe through which goods from the east of the continent moved to the west and from west to east. So from the Russian lands silk fabrics of Arab production went to Poland, the Czech Republic, Germany, France. The path "from the Varangians to the Greeks" was actively used until the 12th century.

Expensive foreign things imported into the Russian lands settled in the cities and estates of the nobility. The needs of the nobility for luxury invariably grew. She needed beautiful dishes for feasts, silk fabrics, chased lining for men's belts and horse harness, men's and women's necklaces, pendants, earrings, etc. The princes generously presented warriors with imported things - expensive weapons, jewelry. Trade in these items in one way or another affected the top of society, without touching the bulk of the population.

In the second half of the X century. Kyiv Prince Svyatoslav dealt a crushing blow to the Khazar Khaganate. After this event, the position of Russia on the Volga trade route increased significantly. Apparently, the regime for collecting duties from Russian merchants has changed. The Volga began to be perceived as a trade road, which was actively used by Russian merchants and foreign merchants who traveled to Russia. From the mouth of the Volga to the Baltic Sea could be reached in two months.

In the tenth century merchant caravans from Russia traveled to the largest center of Central Asia, Khorezm. Furs, processed leather, flax, Baltic amber, and slaves were brought here. From the mouth of the Volga, the ships of ancient Russian merchants moved along the western coast of the Caspian Sea to the Persian coast.

For a long time, trade with Byzantium remained an important area of trade for merchants from Russia. Every year two merchant caravans departed from Kyiv to Constantinople. They consisted not only of Kyiv merchants, but also of warrior merchants from Novgorod, Smolensk, Chernigov and other centers of Russia. First, in May, merchants from the southern lands set off. In July, merchants from Novgorod and other northern regions gathered near Kyiv. From Kyiv in boats, hollowed out of large trees, 30-40 people in each merchants went down the Dnieper. Each of these caravans spent three months in Byzantium. Between Russia and Byzantium in the first half of the tenth century. trade agreements were signed. In accordance with them, empty soldier barracks near Constantinople were allotted for merchants who came from Russia, from which the soldiers went to summer camps. In such a place, it was easier for the government of Constantinople to control the behavior of visitors. Here the merchants lived and received food from the Byzantine government. They were allowed into Constantinople through the same gates only accompanied by a state official, without weapons, in turns in groups of 50 people, taking into account everyone who entered the capital. In these orders, the fear of the Byzantine authorities in front of the often violent crowd of Russian merchant soldiers is noticeable. Trade with Byzantium was under the control of the Kyiv prince. Without his knowledge, not a single merchant could go to Constantinople. Merchants accompanied the embassies to Constantinople, they were considered inferior to the ambassadors, but usually greatly outnumbered them in each embassy. All military-trade expeditions to Byzantium were not private, but state-owned.

Byzantium has repeatedly become the object of robbery by the Slavic princes with their squads. Often, under the guise of merchants, soldiers entered Byzantium with the aim of robbery. Therefore, already in the tenth century. a procedure was introduced for the presentation by visitors from Russia to local authorities of gold or silver seals-rings - a kind of identity card. After the baptism of Russia in 988, relations between the two states acquired a much more peaceful character. From Byzantium, ancient Russian merchants exported luxury items - gold, silver, fine fabrics, vegetables, wines and jewelry. The Church needed to bring wine, olive oil, incense, dyes, non-ferrous metals to Russia. These goods were bought by a narrow circle of consumers, the top of the Slavic society. Slaves, wax and furs went from Russia to Byzantium as goods.

In the tenth century at the conclusion of treaties between Russia and Byzantium, they regulated the procedures for the trade of ancient Russian merchants on the territory of Byzantium and the passage of Byzantine merchants through the ancient Russian lands.

Merchants who arrived in Byzantium were sent by princes and boyars. Some of them were merchants of the prince, some were free guests. The treaties determined penalties for criminal offenses committed by visiting merchants. Russian merchants had to present to the Byzantine authorities a certificate from their prince indicating the number of ships sent to prove the peaceful nature of the trip. The soldiers' barracks in which they were settled were outside Constantinople. These barracks had simple furnishings and a large kitchen. They lived like this for several summer months, until autumn. The authorities gave them food for the entire duration of their stay.

Since ancient times, all peoples had a custom - "coastal law" - in accordance with which coastal residents robbed ships that were wrecked. The agreement between Russia and the Byzantines provided for mutual assistance in such cases: if the Greek ship was wrecked, the inhabitants of Russia must rescue the cargo and deliver it to a safe place.

In the XI-XII centuries. trips of merchants from Russia to Byzantium continued. People traveling along the Dnieper route were in danger in the form of nomads who followed the advancing caravan and attacked it at the opportunity. Merchants also suffered damage during strife between princes. Therefore, the Kyiv princes took care of the merchants - they sent their warriors to the most dangerous places to protect them.

Over time, the set of goods that were exported from Russia to Constantinople and further - into the depths of Byzantium grew. In addition to slaves, whose role as a commodity grew, Russian merchants brought dried fish, red and black caviar, wax, white hare fur.

From the middle of the XI century. gradually began to change the terms of trade. The conquests of various nomadic peoples cut Russia off from some of the southern states, making it difficult for Russia to connect with Byzantium. The influx of Arab silver coins - dirhams - to Russia stopped. From the end of the XI century. Crusades began from Western Europe to the Arab East. They paved new, shorter routes that linked Western Europe with the Byzantine markets. In the XII century. the value of the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” decreases, the trade of Kyiv weakens. The conquest of Constantinople by the crusaders at the beginning of the 13th century. finally paralyzed the Kiev-Byzantine trade.

Trade in the western direction. Since ancient times, merchants from Russia moved not only to southbound- to Byzantium, but also in the north, to the Baltic Sea, to coastal countries - Denmark, Sweden, Slavic Pomerania. Since the X century. contacts of the Slavs begin with Western Europe. At the beginning of the X century. merchants from Eastern Europe traveled up the Danube through the Bulgarian lands to Poland, the Czech Republic, and southern Germany (Bavaria). A significant flow of artistic works from the West began in the 12th century, where urban craft flourished at that time.

In the IX-XI centuries. through the northern part of Russia to the Baltic countries there was a stream of Arab silver. During this time, Northern Europe received approximately 800-1000 tons of silver from the Arabs through Russia. Slavic merchants delivered expensive furs (ermine, sable), wax, and honey to the Baltic countries and even to the more distant parts of Europe. Unlike Byzantium, the inhabitants of the northern Polish and southern Swedish lands also bought old Russian jewelry, dishes, tools, and other household items.

Since the second half of the IX century. from Kyiv, merchants traveled to the upper reaches of the Danube through Krakow and Prague, through Hungary to Bavaria. In the X-XI centuries. Prague, the capital of the Czech Republic, was the largest European center of the slave trade. Land roads led here, along which merchants moved in wagons and with pack horses. They brought slaves (men, women, children), wax, drove horses for sale. In the Bavarian capital, one of the richest German cities, Regensburg in the XI-XII centuries. even there were Russian gates, which speaks of the constant arrivals of merchants from Russia here.

Since the X century. swords were taken to Russia from German lands, silver, which was not mined in Russian lands. Amber was brought from the Southern Baltic. Russia received metals through the Baltic Sea (iron, copper, lead, and from the 11th century - silver), salt, cloth, wine, herring. Wonderful horses were brought from Hungary to Russia, which were especially valued by military people. Silver also came from here. Bronze and other goods were brought from German cities to Russia. In Kyiv, Novgorod, Smolensk there were colonies of foreign merchants. Temples were even built for them here.

Domestic trade. In ancient times, for a long time, internal trade was inferior to external trade in terms of development. Domestic trade becomes a noticeable phenomenon in the 11th century. At this time, in the ancient Russian cities appear tenements – handicraft and trading quarters located around the fortified city center. In the XII-XIII centuries. cities grew rapidly. Some of the artisans moved from working to order to working for the market. The role of internal trade has increased.

An important place in the city was bargaining - the city market, where they sold ordinary things necessary for the main part of the population of Russia: clothes, livestock, in particular, horses. On behalf of his master, his slave slave could trade in the market. At the beginning of the XI century. There were 8 markets in Kyiv. Later, their number grew to 12. In addition, 8 fairs were held in Kyiv.

Novgorod was a significant trading center. Over time, its commercial value grew. In Novgorod, bargaining occupied a vast place and was divided into rows of shops in accordance with the goods that were sold in these shops. So, wax was sold in Voshchny Ryad. The trade was usually located next to the church, the church square at the same time was a place of trade, as was the case in Western Europe. Cellars in a stone temple were often used as a room in which goods were stacked and stored. Behind the front door, in the vestibule of the temple, the goods were weighed.

Operated on the market mytnik – servant of the prince who collected one of the most important taxes - myt - toll. Along with this duty in Russia there were such duties as living tribute, transportation, osmnichee. In the conditions of the fragmentation of Russia, the number of customs houses increased.

Bargaining was a place that was most often visited by the entire population of the city. Handicraft products were sold within the rural district closest to the city (50-100 km). Pedlars carried goods from city markets to remote villages. Inside Russia, glass bracelets made in Kyiv, jewelry with enamel, dishes dispersed. From city to city, merchants carried imported salt by land or water. Imported bread was often sold in Novgorod, especially in famine years. In such times, the well-being of the inhabitants of Novgorod depended on the delivery of grain from the eastern and southern regions of Russia, even from German lands. In the years of famine, self-sale into slavery of adults and the sale of children into slave slaves grew. In general, the slave trade was developed in Russia.

Money. International and domestic exchange facilitated the development of money and money circulation. In Russia there was a variety of money. Initially, barter trade prevailed: goods were exchanged for goods. Then commodity-money appeared, their role was played by the most common and highly valued goods on the market. When making settlements with foreign merchants, ancient Russian people used full-fledged high-quality furs. Oriental silver coins were in use - durhems and Western European denarii. Although the princes of Kyiv Vladimir and later his son Yaroslav minted their own coin, it did not play a prominent role in the market. The role of money for domestic trade was played by animal skins - squirrels, martens. From the ancient Slavic name of the squirrel "veveritsa" came the name of money - "veksha", from "marten" - "kuna". Coons in Russia were called money in general. In one or another territory of Russia, money was in circulation in the form of bundles of furs (in particular, 18 skins in a bundle).

The underdevelopment of commodity-money circulation is evidenced by the treasures of oriental coins, which are found during excavations of ancient Russian settlements. Money buried in the ground went out of circulation. In addition, they were often used not as a means of exchange, but as raw materials for handicrafts - jewelry and utensils, used as pendants for necklaces.

Importance of trade in ancient Russia. Speaking about the importance of trade in the life of the Eastern Slavs, it must be remembered that the Slavic society lived in a subsistence economy. It was aimed at consumption, not at the production of goods for sale. Opportunities for the development of trade were small. Trade almost did not concern the broad masses of the population. Existing in Russia such economic phenomena as the accumulation of money as a treasure, natural exchange were an indicator of the weakness of commodity-money circulation. Craftsmen worked to order, not for market sales. Their products were not intended for the mass buyer. Trade links between isolated settlements were limited and irregular.

Nevertheless, trade had a noticeable impact on various aspects of the life of the population of Eastern Europe. She influenced the composition of society. Trade contributed to the stratification of ancient Russian society. The nobility celebrated their position by decorating themselves with imported things, and thus towered over the rest of the population. Imports introduced the nobility to previously unknown jewelry, fine crafts, and high-quality household items. Imported things caused the development of the need for luxury, in an appropriate lifestyle. The taxes that the merchants gave to the princes enriched the princely-druzhina elite of society. Trade stimulated the development of the trade and handicraft population in the cities. It was the basis for the formation and development of such a social stratum as the merchant class.

Trade stimulated the formation and growth of cities, created income and new employment for the population of the country. On trade routes, special settlements arose - settlements of warriors, merchants and artisans. The composition of the population of such points was unstable, closely connected with foreign trade. The most ancient cities of Russia were on the way "from the Varangians to the Greeks." Trade stimulated their growth. People who were strangers to each other came to live in shopping centers, breaking the old blood-kinship and communal ties, they were the forerunners of medieval townspeople. In places where passing merchants had to drag their ships from the basin of one river to the basin of another, settlements arose. Control over portages was carried out by princely combatants. The local population served merchants moving along difficult sections of the rivers, provided equipment for the movement of boats on dry land in the portage areas. Trade influenced the development of Slavic crafts. Oriental and Byzantine fabrics and works of artistic craft brought to Russia served as models for Slavic craftsmen.

The oldest information about trade among the Slavs. The Slavs, the ancestors of the modern peoples of Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, came from Central Europe to Eastern Europe in the 5th century. Since that time, they began their centuries-old settlement in Eastern Europe and the economic development of its natural resources. The economy of the Slavic society was based on gathering, hunting, fishing, farming, mining, which were not deep from the surface of the earth. Subsistence farming dominated the country, that is, the Slavs produced everything necessary for life in their place of residence. Therefore, it was not essential products that were exchanged, but only especially valuable and rare items- jewelry, weapons, metals, salt, etc. This feature of the exchange in all ancient societies - dominance of foreign trade over domestic- remained in Russia for many centuries.

Already in antiquity, some kind of exchange existed among the Eastern Slavic tribes. Thanks to transit trade and other types of exchange, different things got from one region to another. So, items made in the Black Sea region ended up in the Dnieper region, and from there they were transported to the north of Europe. Things brought from Central Asia and Iran (Persia) are found during excavations in the Middle Dnieper region, where the Kievan state was later formed. Perhaps in the VII-VIII centuries. the slave trade was born, which at a later time played a very important role in Russia and in its trade with other countries.

This contributed to trade along the Caspian Sea and the Volga. The main trade of the Arabs was in Volga Bulgaria, in the small town of Bulgar (not far from modern Kazan).

Merchants in RussiaIX- XIIIcenturies At this time, it is already possible to speak of the emergence of the merchant class as a special social group whose main income was trade. The merchant was not just a seller or buyer of goods. Urban and rural artisans who sold their products and bought raw materials, the clergy, who managed the boyar economy, and peasants who sold the products of their agricultural economy and crafts in the nearest cities and at rural markets, were involved in market operations. For all these people, trading was not a professional occupation. They belonged to different classes and class groups. The merchant is a professional merchant engaged in the purchase, delivery, resale of consignments of goods and belonged to the merchant class. Already in Kievan Rus, a layer of people was taking shape, who, according to their professional occupations, can be attributed to merchants.

In the IX-X centuries. the process of formation of the merchant class was just beginning. Important conditions for education layer of professional traders In Slavic society, there was the accumulation in the hands of the local nobility of significant reserves of forestry and agricultural products, the acquaintance of this nobility with such luxury and household items that were not produced or mined in the land subject to it, the separation of craft from agriculture, the emergence of more or less permanent trade - handicraft settlements.

H Starting from the first centuries in the history of Russian trade and for a very long time, the merchant was a military man. Trade caravans resembled armed expeditions, as merchants had to face various dangers on a long journey and defend their goods with weapons in their hands. On the way, the merchant could also go on a robbery for the sake of valuable booty. At this time, trading operations sometimes turned into raids. In ancient times trade and plunder accompanied each other everywhere.

Varangians

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At that time, merchants traveled to Byzantium on the way "from the Varangians to the Greeks", to Khazaria - along the Don, through the Caspian Sea - to Baghdad. Their ships plowed the waters of four seas - the Black, Baltic, Azov and Caspian. Clay vessels served as containers for storage and transportation of some goods. Since the ninth century merchants had miniature folding scales with weights. When folded, they easily fit into a small pouch or case and attached to the belt. On such small scales, only precious goods, usually silver, could be weighed.

Scales and weights of an ancient Russian merchant

In the XII century. Russia was divided into different lands-principalities. In the XII century, when the former commercial importance of Kyiv began to fall, the commercial role of such cities as Novgorod, Smolensk, Polotsk, Vladimir-on-Klyazma began to grow rapidly. At this time, the Russian lands finally got rid of dependence on Kyiv, stopped sending the Kyiv prince an annual tribute in silver. The craft developed. At the same time, the stratum of the merchant class grew. There was a further development of trade. Trade-related operations became more diversified. In the XII century. among the merchants, mutual money loans are spreading - lending. Merchants also took other people's goods for sale on a trading trip. One merchant received goods from another for storage. At the same time, the first merchant associations were formed in Novgorod, which indicates a high degree of development of trade. The growth of trade and merchants' incomes also causes sharply negative consequences. From the 30s. 12th century princes constantly attacked merchant caravans, intercepted trade routes, took trading centers from battle, and arrested merchants. According to the collection of laws - Russkaya Pravda - for the murder of a merchant, the same fine was imposed on the guilty as for the prince's combatant - 40 hryvnias.

Merchant people were used as warriors by the princes in case of military danger or even as participants in a military campaign. Even more often, the princes used their knowledge, experience, and opportunities in the field of diplomacy and intelligence. Knowing foreign languages, they acted as translators. Messages were passed with reliable merchants. The princes forced merchants to transport princely people and goods at their own expense.

Foreign trade of Ancient Russia. Trade with Byzantium and Eastern countries. Around the 11th century . Kyiv has become one of the most important international trade centers in Eastern Europe. He was considered a rival of Constantinople. To some extent, the commercial role of Kyiv was similar to that of the Byzantine capital. Just like Constantinople, Kyiv was the center through which Europe received goods from Asia. In the Kyiv markets one could meet merchants from different countries. Lively trade routes crossed here. Southern Russia was a region of Europe through which goods from the east of the continent moved to the west and from west to east. So from the Russian lands silk fabrics of Arab production went to Poland, the Czech Republic, Germany, France. The path "from the Varangians to the Greeks" was actively used until the 12th century.

Trade in the western direction. Since ancient times, merchants from Russia moved not only in a southerly direction - to Byzantium, but also in a northerly direction, to the Baltic Sea, to coastal countries - Denmark, Sweden, Slavic Pomerania. Since the X century. contacts of the Slavs with Western Europe begin. At the beginning of the X century. merchants from Eastern Europe traveled up the Danube through the Bulgarian lands to Poland, the Czech Republic, and southern Germany (Bavaria). A significant flow of artistic works from the West began in the 12th century, where urban craft flourished at that time.

Introduction

By the VIII-IX centuries. Slavs occupied half of the European continent - from the Adriatic to the Upper Volga and from the Elbe to the upper reaches of the Don. The eastern branch of Slavism spread over a significant part of the great Russian Plain, almost to the Gulf of Finland in the north, and in the south to the Black Sea in the lower reaches of such rivers as the Danube, Dniester and Dnieper. The center of the settlement of the Eastern Slavs was the Middle Dnieper.

The Eastern Slavs inhabited an area of approximately 700 thousand square meters. km. Natural conditions differ from the rest of Europe in flat relief, colder and relatively uniform climate, strong winds, and a large difference in winter and summer temperatures. The forest that covered the Central Russian Plain in the early period, on the one hand, made it difficult to farm, on the other hand, ensured soil fertility. For a long time it also made it possible to maintain the self-sufficiency of economic life, being a source of satisfaction of almost all basic vital needs: food, clothing, shelter, protection from enemies. Having settled in the Dnieper territories, the Slavs became involved in international trade, which contributed to the wider development of rich forest resources.

The rivers were the centers of economic life. The river systems were located relatively close and exceptionally favorable. They served as the most important transport arteries both in summer and in winter. The rivers provided food and contributed to the development of agriculture and cattle breeding, and their banks were attractive places for settlements. The powerful river systems of the Central Russian Plain have long been considered a convenient route of communication between north and south, west and east.

The steppe was a hostile macro environment. Being the gateway to Asia, it carried the threat of nomadic raids. For their protection, the Eastern Slavs were forced to create military settlements. At the same time, the steppe partly replaced the sea: nomadic peoples connected with each other the scattered centers of a settled civilization, not only destroying, but also spreading the material culture of various peoples.

All these conditions left a significant imprint on the nature of the work of the Eastern Slavs. The tasks of survival and development in difficult climatic conditions have necessitated intense joint work.

Having adapted to life in large undeveloped territories, the Russians became the owners of huge natural resources, which had a strong influence both on the nature of their work and on the whole subsequent history. The wealth of forests, rivers, earth's interior formed such a character trait as negligence, bordering on wastefulness. At the same time, Russia's natural resources often became the object of claims from other peoples, which gave rise to military conflicts. Vast uninhabited spaces and a cold climate developed an entrepreneurial spirit and a propensity for colonization.

Chapter 1.The formation of entrepreneurship in Ancient Russia.

The birth of entrepreneurship

The origins of domestic entrepreneurship were largely associated with the interweaving of geographical, economic and political factors.

The short period suitable for field work, which was a consequence of the location of the Old Russian state, made it difficult to produce a sufficient amount of surplus.

The lack of reliable markets also explained the low productivity of agriculture.

Thus, a kind of vicious circle developed: adverse weather conditions led to low yields; low harvests breed poverty; due to poverty, there were not enough buyers of agricultural products; the lack of buyers did not allow to increase the yield. Breaking the vicious circle could be achieved by supplementing income from agriculture with various crafts: fishing, leather tanning and weaving. At the same time, the results of the crafts were exchanged for goods brought from other lands of Russia or from abroad. Thus, the prerequisites were created for the emergence of the sprouts of entrepreneurship in the Old Russian state.

To understand the specifics of the development of business relations, one should also take into account the enormous efforts to defend a vast territory and develop new lands. A strong state has mobilized scarce resources to meet these challenges. Hence the need for heavy financial and tax oppression. Without strengthening serfdom, it became problematic to maintain a large army. All this could not but restrain positive trends in the development of entrepreneurship.

At the end of the ninth century Along with the exchange of goods, monetary relations arose. The main merchants were the Kiev government, the prince and the boyars. Merchant boats were assigned to the merchant caravan of the prince's and boyars' ships, the owners of which sought to enlist the armed forces and ensure the safety of goods.

Foreign policy activities of the Kyiv princes of the 9th - 10th centuries. largely driven by economic interests. According to V.O. Klyuchevsky, it had two goals: to acquire overseas markets and to ensure the protection of trade routes. Trade relations of the ancient Russian merchants were most developed in relations with Byzantium. Furs, forestry products, and wax were in demand abroad. In turn, silk fabrics, gold, wine, canvas, and ropes arrived in the Russian lands. The significance of strengthening foreign economic prestige was evidenced by trade agreements concluded by the Kyiv princes with Byzantium in the 10th century, which were the first examples of international law norms known to our compatriots. The geography of trade relations expanded. Russian merchants brought especially valuable goods (furs) to the Khazar capital Itil (near modern Astrakhan), overcoming large spaces - from Kyiv to the Don, then dragging ships overland by dragging them to the Volga. The Volga Bulgars played an intermediary role in establishing trade with neighboring peoples in the northeast and northwest.

The complication of the economic organism of Kievan Rus is also evidenced by the inclusion in the outstanding monument of law of the 11th century. - Russian Pravda - provisions on sale and purchase, personal hiring, storage, assignment. This document determined the procedure for collecting debts from an insolvent debtor. The types of credit turnover also differed quite clearly. With regard to entrepreneurial credit, it should be noted that it caused an ambiguous attitude from the urban lower classes. In 1113, an uprising broke out in Kyiv against usurers, who charged huge interest and were engaged in buying and reselling consumer goods at speculative prices.

Chapter 2

The notes of the Byzantine emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus tell about the activities of Russian merchants in the first half of the 10th century. According to him, since November, as soon as the road froze up and the sledge track was established, Russian merchants left the cities and headed inland. Throughout the winter, they bought goods from the graveyards, and also collected tribute from the inhabitants in payment for the protection that the city gave them. In the spring, already along the Dnieper with hollow water, the merchants returned to Kyiv and, on ships prepared by that time, went to Constantinople. This path was difficult and dangerous. And only a large guard saved the caravan of Smolensk, Lyubech, Chernigov, Novgorod, Vyshegorodsky merchants from numerous robbers. Having sailed the Dnieper, they went out to sea, holding on to the shore, since at any moment the fragile boats could die from a steep wave.

In Tsargrad, Russian merchants traded for six months. According to the contract, they could not stay for the winter. They were placed not in the city itself, but at the "Holy Mama" (the monastery of St. Mamant). During their stay in Constantinople, Russian merchants enjoyed various benefits granted to them by the Greek emperor. In particular, they sold their goods and bought Greek ones without paying duties; in addition, they were given free food and allowed to use the bathhouse. At the end of the auction, the Greek authorities provided our merchants with edible goods and ship gear. They returned home no earlier than October, and there it was already November again, and it was necessary to go inland, to graveyards, selling what was brought from Byzantium, and buying up goods for foreign trade for the next year. Such entrepreneurial activity was carried out by Russia for more than one century. The cycle of trading life played a huge role in the development and unification of Russian lands. More and more people were involved in this economic activity, becoming vitally interested in its results.

However, Russian merchants traded not only with Constantinople, from where they exported silk fabrics, gold, lace, wine, soap, sponges, and various delicacies. Large trade was carried out with the Varangians, from whom they bought bronze and iron products (especially swords and axes), tin and lead, as well as with the Arabs, from where beads, precious stones, carpets, morocco, sabers, and spices came to the country.

The fact that trade was very large is evidenced by the nature of the treasures of that time, which are still found in abundance near ancient cities, on the banks of large rivers, on portages, near former churchyards. These hoards often contain Arabic, Byzantine, Roman and Western European coins, including even those minted in the 8th century.

Around Russian cities, many trading and fishing settlements arose. Merchants, beaver farmers, beekeepers, trappers, tar miners, lykoders and other "industrialists" of that time converged here for trade, or, as they called it then, "guests". These places were called churchyards (from the word "guest"). Later, after the adoption of Christianity, in these places, as the most visited, churches were built and cemeteries were located. Here transactions were made, contracts were concluded, hence the tradition of fair trade began. In the cellars of churches, the inventory necessary for trade (scales, measures) was stored, goods were stacked, and trade agreements were also kept. For this, the clergy charged merchants a special fee.

The first Russian code of laws "Russian Truth" was permeated with the spirit of the merchants. When you read his articles, you are convinced that he could have arisen in a society where trade was the most important occupation, and the interests of the inhabitants are closely connected with the result of trade operations.

“True,” writes historian V.O. Klyuchevsky, - strictly distinguishes the return of property for storage - "loan" from "loan", a simple loan, a friendly loan from the return of money in growth from a certain agreed percentage, a short-term interest loan - from a long-term one, and, finally, a loan - from a trading commission and contribution to a trading company from an unspecified profit or dividend. Pravda further gives a definite procedure for collecting debts from an insolvent debtor during the liquidation of his affairs, and is able to distinguish between malicious and unfortunate insolvency. What is a trade credit and operations on credit is well known to Russkaya Pravda. Guests, out-of-town or foreign merchants, “launched goods” for native merchants, i.e. sold them on credit. The merchant gave the guest, a merchant-countryman who traded with other cities or lands, “kuns for purchase”, for a commission for buying goods for him on the side; the capitalist entrusted the merchant with "kuns as a guest", for turnover from the profit.

City entrepreneurs, rightly notes Klyuchevsky, were sometimes employees, sometimes rivals of the princely power, which reflected their great role in society. Russian legislation valued the life of a merchant, his head was fined twice as much as the head of an ordinary person (12 hryvnias and 5–6 hryvnias).

The successful growth of merchant activity in Ancient Russia was confirmed by the development of credit relations. The Novgorod merchant Klimyata (Clement), who lived at the end of the 12th - n. XIII century, combined its extensive trading activities with the provision of loans (the return of money in growth). Klimyata was a member of the “merchant hundred” (the union of Novgorod entrepreneurs), he was mainly engaged in airborne fishing and cattle breeding. By the end of his life, he owned four villages with vegetable gardens. Before his death, he compiled a spiritual, in which he listed over a dozen different kinds of people associated with him by entrepreneurial activities. It can be seen from the list of debtors of Klimyata that he also gave out "poral silver", for which interest was charged in the form of an invoice. Klimyata's activity was such that he not only provided loans, but also took them. So, he bequeathed two villages to his creditors Danila and Voin in payment of a debt. Klimyata bequeathed his entire fortune to the Novgorod Yuryev Monastery - a typical case for that time.

Novgorod the Great was one of the most characteristic merchant cities. Most of the population lived here by trade, and the merchant was considered the main figure about whom fairy tales and legends were formed. A typical example is the Novgorod epic about the merchant Sadko.

Novgorod merchants conducted their trade and fishing activities in artels, or companies, which were well-armed detachments. There were dozens of merchant artels in Novgorod, depending on the goods they traded, or the area where they went to trade. There were, for example, Pomeranian merchants who traded on the Baltic or White Seas, Nizov merchants who had business in the Suzdal region, and so on.

The most solid Novgorod merchants united in a commercial and industrial "association", then called "Ivanovo Sto", which had its center near the church of St. John the Baptist in Opoki. There was a public guest yard where merchants stored their goods, and there was also a “gridnitsa” (large chamber), a kind of hall for business meetings. At the general meeting of "Ivanovo hundred" the merchants elected the headman, who managed the affairs of this "association", supervised the public cash desk and the execution of business documents.

Bargaining took place near the church, there were special scales, at which there were elected jurors who observed the correctness of weight and trade. For weighing, as well as for the sale of goods, a special fee was levied. In addition to large scales, there were also small scales near the church, which served to weigh precious metals, the ingots of which replaced coins.

The contradictions that arose between merchants and buyers were resolved in a special commercial court, the chairman of which was the thousand.

The merchants who were part of the Ivanovo Sto had great privileges. In case of financial difficulties, they were provided with a loan or even gratuitous assistance. During dangerous trading operations, it was possible to get an armed detachment for protection from Ivanovo Sto.

However, only a very wealthy merchant could join Ivanovo Sto. To do this, it was necessary to make a large contribution to the cash desk of the “association” - 50 hryvnias - and, in addition, donate free of charge to the church of St. John in Opoki for almost 30 more hryvnias (with this money you could buy a herd of 80 oxen). On the other hand, having joined Ivanovo Sto, the merchant and his children (participation was hereditary) immediately occupied an honorary position in the city and received all the privileges associated with this.

Novgorod merchants carried on a great mutually beneficial trade with the Hanseatic League. Novgorod merchants bought and sold linen fabrics, dressed leather, high quality resin and wax, hops, timber, honey, furs, and bread to the Hanseatic people throughout Russia. From the Hanseatics, Novgorod merchants received wine, metals, salt, morocco, gloves, dyed yarn and various luxury items.

The Old Russian state was naturally accompanied by the formation Old Russian feudal law. If ... the customs of the trade turnover developed. Meaning merchants in the life of the state forced the legislator to take into account ...

Old Russian literature. Answers

Cheat sheet >> Literature and Russian language

... is a kind of genre Old Russian eloquence. An example of political variety Old Russian eloquence is “The word ... the merchant’s son becomes the story, because. exactly merchants the most mobile layer (wander, communicate ...

Old Russian culture (4)

Abstract >> Culture and art

Russian culture………………………………………………………………………7 Chapter 2. Writing and Old Russian architecture…………………...………..8 2.1. Education ………………………………………………………………… 8 2.2. Slavic alphabet ... townspeople, princely-boyar elite, merchants, wealthy artisans. In rural...

Origin and development Old Russian states of the IX - the beginning of the XII century.

Abstract >> History

Trade and craft. Local merchants was a full participant in trade ... came from the nobility, merchants, peasantry, officials. Economic ... incompatible. Later there was a passion Old Russian architecture, gothic, neoclassicism. ...

7. Ivanskoye hundred and other merchant associations

It is difficult to imagine a medieval city without the existence of merchant and craft organizations, since the development of trade and craft in times of feudal fragmentation imperiously demanded unification from artisans and merchants. As for merchant organizations, the question of their existence is undeniably resolved in a positive direction, since the charter of the merchant association at the Church of Ivan the Baptist on Opoki has been preserved. The situation is much more difficult with regard to the question of handicraft associations, to which we have no direct indications in our sources. Therefore, we will first consider merchant corporations.

The oldest merchant association was the Ivan Sto, which arose at the Church of Ivan the Baptist on Opoki in Novgorod. Much has been said about him in our historical literature; the most valuable in terms of conclusions and collected material is the article by A. Nikitsky ( A. I. Nikitsky, Sketches from the life of Veliky Novgorod (ZhMNP, No. 8, 1870)).

At present, we know of two editions of the "Manuscript", or charter, given to the Ivan St and the Church of Ivan the Baptist on Opoki by Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich. The first edition is known in the lists of the 15th century, the second was preserved as part of the Trinity Chronicle, rewritten in the middle of the 16th century ( "Additions to the Historical Acts", vol. I, pp. 2--5. See also Novgorod. years., pp. 558-560).

The second edition, undoubtedly, belongs to a relatively late time and arose not earlier than the 15th century, and possibly later - in the 16th century, since in it we find an indication of the gifts to the lord and "the prince of the great governor." The governors of the Grand Duke appear in Novgorod only from the 14th century, and rule Novgorod after its annexation to Moscow. In this edition, there is no indication of a merchant court at the Church of Ivan the Baptist on Opoki. This omission is not accidental, but indicates the time when the trading court was destroyed, as a result of which the second edition should be attributed to the times when Novgorod lost its independence.

The first edition does not have these features and, therefore, is more ancient, although it was preserved only in a copy of the 15th century, moreover, in an updated form. Therefore, one publisher of the charter writes that "the charter has come down to us only in late lists and, no doubt, with some alterations" ( "Monuments of the history of Veliky Novgorod and Pskov", editor. to press G. E. Kochin, L. - M. 1935, p. 40).

The most important inconsistency of some parts of the charter with the conditions of the beginning of the 12th century. is available in the words: “imati from the merchant this antiquity and forever: from the Tver guest and from Novgorod and from Bezhitsky and from the village and from all Pomostye”. The mysterious word "Pomostye" should be understood as "Pomstye" (perhaps originally in the form of Pomstye), that is, the area along the Msta River, which flows into Lake Ilmen. One can doubt the existence of Tver in the XII century, since even in the news of the beginning of the XIII century. we have no indications of the city of Tver, but only at the mouth of the river. Tvertsy, where he was later founded.

Recently, A. A. Zimin has generally questioned the authenticity of the charter, attributing its compilation to the 14th century. At the same time, for some reason, he took the second edition of the charter, known from the Trinity Chronicle, for a more original text. In the Introduction to his edition of the charter, A. A. Zimin already directly states: “The “manuscript” was compiled on behalf of Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich (XII century), although in its content, undoubtedly, it is a monument of the end of the XIV century.” ( "Monuments of Russian law", vol. 2, comp. A. A. Zimin, M. 1953, project 174). However, this categorical remark is confirmed by such a comment, which inspires a lot of doubts. Thus, the author assures that the Church of Ivan the Baptist on Opoki completely burned down in 1299, and the current church was erected in 1359, in connection with which the charter of the Ivan hundred itself was forged. But the Church of Ivan the Baptist on Opoki stands even now, and no one doubts that it is a building of the XII century.

A. A. Zimin notes further that Vsevolod speaks of himself as “ruling all the Russian land”, but he was never a Kyiv prince. But Vsevolod was sitting in Pereyaslavl Yuzhny, where his uncle Yaropolk put him after the death of his father Mstislav (“bring Vsevolod Mstislavich from Novgorod”) ( Ipat. years., page 212). The words about dominion over the Russian land well characterize the claims of Vsevolod, who, like his father Mstislav, wanted to "keep" the Russian land, that is, the Kievan and Pereyaslavl principalities.

A. A. Zimin considers an anachronism the reference to the Cathedral of the Savior in Torzhok, which was allegedly built only in 1364. But in the annals under this year there is talk of building a stone cathedral in Torzhok. Previously, a wooden cathedral had to exist in it, as in any significant city. The Cathedral of the Savior in Torzhok is also mentioned in one chronicle passage under 1329, and mention is made of the “pretenders” of St. Savior, who kept the relic brought from Jerusalem ( V. Miller, Essays on Russian folk literature, vol. II, M. 1910, p. 243).

In the same spirit, the further commentary on the text of the Manuscript is composed, replete with categorical judgments, sometimes in sharp contradiction with historical evidence. So, it is completely incomprehensible how Petryatino dvorishche in the commentary of A. A. Zimin is associated with catholic church St. Peter, who was completely apart from the church of Ivan on Opoki, etc.

The main mistake of A. A. Zimin, whose merit lies in the fact that he first drew attention to a number of lists of the charter, is that he did not give an analysis of the Vsevolod Manuscript as a whole, but drew attention only to anachronisms in its text. But the existence of two editions of the Manuscript already shows that the text of this document was revised, changes and additions were made to it. The texts of Russian Pravda were subjected to the same processing, but does this mean that the text of Pravda was forged at a later time.

Transferring the drafting of the charter of the Ivan hundred to the XIV century, A. .A. Zimin did not even pay attention to the fact that the trading court “in the courtyard of St. Ivan in front of the mayor, thousand and merchants” already existed in 1269 ( "Charters of Veliky Novgorod and Pskov", M. - L. 1949, p. 60 (hereinafter - "Charters of Veliky Novgorod")), therefore, long before the XIV century. and the alleged construction of the church in 1364. A. A. Zimin did not pay attention to the fact that the text of the charter is in the closest connection with the charter of the same Vsevolod on merchant ships, that the very appearance of the Manuscript is inexplicable in the XIV century and is perfectly explained by the events of the beginning of the XII in. And the anachronisms themselves, indicated by A. A. Zimin, still require verification whether they were really anachronisms (“muzzles”, the Tver guest, etc.) or only they appear to be such from an insufficient number of sources. Separate renewals of the charter, therefore, do not prevent us from seeing in it a genuine document of the beginning of the 12th century.

In the hands of the Ivan hundred was the so-called Ivan weight, that is, the monopoly right to hang wax and collect the appropriate duty from local and visiting merchants who traded this product. The size and importance of the wax trade is measured by the fact that merchants from Polotsk, Smolensk, Novotorzh and Nizov, that is, Suzdal, are named among the "guests" - waxers. But the competence of the Ivan Hundred from the very beginning took on broader dimensions than the collection of duties for weighing wax.

From the charter of Vsevolod about church courts It can be concluded that the Ivanskoye Hundred, together with the Novgorod Bishop, kept in their charge "the measure of the merchant, waxed skalva, a pood of honey, and a hryvnia ruble, and an Evan elbow." The charter everywhere speaks of the joint management of the trading standards of both the lord and the Ivan elders, which, apparently, was an innovation of the 12th century, since a reference to the church charter of Vladimir was needed: belittle, or multiply, but weigh every year.

At the head of the Ivan hundred were the elders. In the lists of the charter of the Church of Ivan the Baptist on Opoki that have come down to us, there is an obscure phrase that does not make it possible to accurately judge the number of elders: “three elders from living people and from the black thousand, and from merchants two elders.” Usually this text is understood in the spirit that 6 elders were at the head of the Ivan hundred: 3 elders from living people, a thousand from black people and 2 elders from merchants. But V. O. Klyuchevsky, in our opinion, correctly understood this text in such a way that he counted only three elders, of which the thousand elder represented black and living people, and 2 elders were elected from merchants ( V. O. Klyuchevsky, Boyar Duma of Ancient Russia, pp. 540-541). However, this order, perhaps, was not the original one, since in the charter of Vsevolod only one Ivan Vasyata headman is mentioned about the measures of trade, while in the same charter the headman Boleslav is named a little higher without any definition, then it is said about 10 sotsky and headmen without indicating per thousandth. In any case, one conclusion can be drawn: at the head of the Ivan hundred were elected elders who had great importance in Novgorod political life.

Ivan's Sto was located at the Church of Ivan the Baptist on Opoki, the powerful building of which has been preserved until recently. In the house of St. Ivan was forbidden to hold any objects other than candles and incense; the sub-church was a storage place, and wax was weighed in the vestibule. The wealth of the merchant association of waxers is emphasized by the arrangement in the church of Ivan the Baptist of the universal, that is, everyday, service, which was a rare occurrence in a medieval Russian city and gave the church of Ivan on Opoki the significance of a cathedral. In addition, the temple feast of the Nativity of Ivan the Baptist (June 24), celebrated during three days. The solemn service was performed in the church on the first day by the bishop, on the second day by the Yuryev archimandrite, and on the third day by the abbot of the Antoniev Monastery. It must be assumed that the celebration of the patronal feast was accompanied by "brotherhood", that is, large feasts, the memory of which was preserved in folk epics. It is known that brotherhoods were performed for a long time in the Pomor counties of the Russian state, where they were generally well preserved in the 17th century. some archaic customs of an earlier time. Wax merchants also performed some public functions. So, they paved at their own expense a part of the Novgorod territory adjacent to the court of Ivan the Baptist (“to the thousandth to the voshchnik, from the voshchnik to the posadnik to the Great Row”). In general, we have a very vivid picture of a medieval merchant association.

Ivanskoye hundred had the character of a closed merchant corporation. “And whoever wants to invest in the merchants in Ivanskoe, will give the merchants a vulgar contribution of fifty hryvnias of silver, and the thousandth of Ipian cloth, and other merchants will put half a third hryvnias of silver in St. Ivan; but no one will invest in the merchant class, will not give fifty hryvnias of silver, otherwise it is not a vulgar merchant, but a vulgar merchant to give them a fatherland and a contribution. This place of the statute raises an involuntary question, where did the 25 (half-thirty) hryvnias of silver go, which did not remain in the house of St. Ivan. Apparently, they constituted a special fund of the merchant association, which went to the maintenance of the patronal church and other expenses. The high amount of the deposit is explained by the fact that the depositor was made hereditary - a "vulgar merchant", that is, he received privileges not only for himself, but also for posterity.

It should be noted that the charter of the merchant association at the Church of Ivan the Baptist on Opoki in Novgorod is one of the oldest charters of medieval guilds in northern Europe. In this sense, it is interesting to provide information based on the work of Dorin about the time of the emergence of merchant guilds in the Middle Ages ( A. Doren, Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der Kaufmannsgilden des Mittelalters, Leipzig 1893). The cities of Northern France (S. Omer, Valenciennes, Paris, Rouen) and Germany (Cologne, Dortmund, Goslar, Stendal, Göttingen, Kassel) were in Doren's field of attention. Basically, the statutes of merchant guilds in these cities arose in the 11th-12th centuries, and more in the last than in the first century. The earliest development of guilds is found in Flanders; so, in S. Omer, the guild statute arose between 1083-1097, and in Valenciennes - in 1067. In German cities, guild statutes arose much later, for example, in Goslar only in 1200. Thus, the ancient Russian guild statute appeared no later than statutes of neighboring German cities, and in relation to some of the latter much earlier. This fact is a rather vivid illustration of the idea that large cities in Russia in the 9th-13th centuries. did not concede to their German neighbors in political and cultural development, equaling rather not to them, but to the cities of Flanders.

From the beginning of its inception, the Ivan Sto was a typical merchant guild in the definition given by Doren: “Merchant guilds are all those strong comradely organizations in which merchants unite primarily to protect their special merchant goals; in them, the purpose of the association is the comradely regulation and promotion of trade, and not the actual comradely capitalist turnovers and the percentage participation of individual members in the common profit; a single person remains an independent merchant and, as before, conducts business at his own expense. The same Doren notes that the distribution of merchant guilds in the indicated sense of the word is limited only to Northern Germany (Niederdeutschland), Northern France, England and Scotland, while the Northern, Danish and Norwegian guilds are "protective" (Schutzgilden), without actually specific merchant goals.

The Ivan Sto was basically the most powerful association among the Novgorod merchants, but it is appropriate to raise the question of whether there were any other merchant associations in the same Novgorod. Chronicles give direct indications of the existence of other similar associations. In 1156, "overseas merchants" built the Church of Pyatnitsa at the market; for the second time, the creation of this church by overseas merchants is mentioned in 1207 ( Novgorod. years., pp. 30, 50. One must think that the building of 1156 was fragile and collapsed in 1191. The Church of Pyatnitsa, judging by the text of the chronicle, was wooden, since it is mentioned after the churches, which are said to be wooden ("cut down")). After several restorations, this church is still in Novgorod in a badly damaged form. It is natural to see in overseas merchants an association of Novgorod merchants who traveled and traded overseas, but it is completely impossible to assume that the overseas merchants of the annalistic news of the Germans or other foreigners, since the Church of Pyatnitsa stands at the market, next to the Nikolo-Dvorishchensky Cathedral, near Veche Square, in other words, in the center of the administrative and political life of Veliky Novgorod.

I saw a possible indication of the association of merchants who traded with a certain city in the annalistic news of 1165: “Establish the Church of the Holy Trinity Shetitsinitsi” (option “Shetinitsi”) ( Novgorod chronicle according to the Synodal Harate list, St. Petersburg 1888, p. 146; Novgorod Chronicles, ed. Archaeographic Commission, St. Petersburg 1879, index, p. 54 (Shitnaya Street)). Gideonov also saw merchants who traded with the Slavic Shchetin (Shtetin) in the "bristles". But now this guess does not seem convincing enough to me, since it is based only on the consonance of two words.

In addition, the text of the Synodal parchment list in this place is badly damaged, and the variants from other later lists do not allow correcting the damaged text of the Synodal list ( See M.N. Tikhomirov, Peasant and urban uprisings in Russia in the 11th-13th centuries, Gospolitizdat, 1955, pp. 258-259).

Novgorod merchants who traded abroad naturally needed associations, and, indeed, the existence of associations of Novgorod merchants who traded with other Russian principalities and foreign countries is proved by news of churches belonging to Novgorodians in some Russian and foreign cities. Such a church was supposed to be not so much a place for pilgrimage for visiting merchants, but a storage place, a kind of living room. Therefore, the post of "watchman", modest by modern standards, was of such great importance in Ivansky St that it is mentioned in its charter. Vsevolod invites the Ivan the elders to take care (“guardian”) along with the church clergy about the watchmen at the Church of Ivan the Baptist on Opoki.

We have the right to talk about the existence of Novgorod gostiny yards, similar in purpose to the Goth and German courts in Novgorod itself. In this regard, the news about the Novgorod church in Kyiv is valuable, moreover, it has been preserved in two editions. Having told about the murder of Igor during the Kyiv uprising in 1147, the Laurentian Chronicle says that the Kyiv thousand Lazar ordered “to take Igor and carry him to the church of St. and lying down that night" ( Lavrent. years., page 302). In the Ipatiev Chronicle, after the words about the order of the thousandth to lay the body of Igor in the church of St. Michael, it is noted: “On that night, God showed a great sign over him: candles were all lit over him in that church; The next morning, the Novgorodians went and told the metropolitan ”( Ipat.years., page 249). Thus, the church of Mikhail was a Novgorod goddess, located on Podil near the merchant. Novgorodians lived near the church, otherwise they would not have been able to tell about the sign that happened at night. So, we have the right to talk about the existence of the Novgorod court at the Church of Michael in Kyiv.

Similar courtyards also existed in large foreign centers with which Russian merchants traded. For later times, one can speak with certainty about the Russian courts in Yuryev (Derpt) and Kolyvan (Revel). At the courts there were Russian churches, which at the same time, with their sub-churches, were warehouses for goods. The grant by Frederick II (in 1187) to Russian merchants of the duty-free trade in Lübeck also suggests a permanent Russian colony in Lübeck ( N. Aristov, Industry of Ancient Russia, St. Petersburg 1866, p. 199). In the city of Visby on Gotland, Russian merchants had a courtyard and a church attached to it.

The interest of Novgorod merchants in the existence of their living quarters in foreign cities is vividly reflected in the legend of the Varangian goddess in Novgorod. According to legend, the Germans "from all seventy cities" (that is, from the Hanseatic League) asked to give them a place in the middle of Novgorod, where they could put a goddess. Having been refused by the Novgorodians, the German ambassadors bribed the posadnik Dobrynya, who ordered the Germans to tell the elders of the merchants and merchants: “only our goddess, the church of the holy apostles Peter and Paul, will not be with you in Veliky Novgorod, and then your churches in our cities will not be the same." The elders and "all the guests of Novogorod" procured the Germans the right to put a "ropata" ( N. M. Karamzin, History of the Russian State, vol. III, St. Petersburg 1892, p. 191, note 244; "Monuments of ancient Russian literature", ed. Kushelev-Bezborodko, no. 1, St. Petersburg 1860, pp. 251-253).

The narrated tradition has come down to us in a later processing, hardly earlier than the 16th century, but its basis is ancient and rests not only on an oral legend, but also on a written source. In Novgorod, two posadniks with the name of Dobrynya were known: the first - the uncle of Vladimir Svyatoslavich - clearly does not fit our story; another Dobrynya died in 1117 ( Novgorod. years., page 20). This legend can only have in mind the second Dobrynya and tells an episode from the beginning of the 12th century. Perhaps the most characteristic thing in the whole story is the fear of the Novgorodians to lose their church-yards in foreign cities.

The order of life in Russian courts abroad is not known to us, but basically it should have resembled the orders of the Gothic or German court in Novgorod itself. In the agreement between Smolensk and the Germans in 1229, we really find an indication of the existence of elders in Russian foreign courts ( “Rusin cannot be assigned a child (warrior) on him-chicha in Smolensk, but first informing him of the elder; If the elder does not persuade him, then he can give him a child. Also, the Germans in Riga and on the Goth coast, you can’t put a child on him on a Rusin ”(“ Russian-Livonian Acts, p. 435; the most serviceable version was taken)).

The existence of merchant associations in Russian cities other than Novgorod is much more difficult to say, although in large cities like Kyiv and Polotsk, their existence is not only probable, but almost inevitable. However, the historian cannot confine himself to speculation, but is forced to provide at least some evidence in defense of his point of view, no matter how scattered and difficult the evidence may be to draw conclusions from it.

We find some hints of the existence of merchant associations in Kyiv in the news about merchants "Greeks". The chronicle reports about the "Greeks" leave no doubt that we are talking about merchants who went from Greece with goods to Russia. It remains unclear who was called the Greeks - Russian or Greek merchants, although Prince Mstislav calls the Greeks ours ("our Greek") ( “Behold, having seen the Polovtsy, the princes do not live in love, going into the rapids, the Greek began to dirty tricks; and the ambassador Rostislav Volodislav Lyakh with howls, and brought the Greeks ”(Ipat. let., p. 360; see ibid., p. 361, 370)); the very term "Greek" is made up like such words as a martyr, a breadmaker, a waxer, in the meaning of a merchant of a certain commodity.

Nicknames of merchants who traded with certain lands abroad were created according to a similar pattern. V. Vasilevsky rightly compares the term "Greek" with the "Rusaria" in Regensburg, i.e. merchants who traded with Russia ( “The word “ruzaria” draws attention to itself - it is used as a term, reminiscent of the Greeks of the Russian chronicle” (V. Vasilevsky, Ancient Trade of Kyiv with Regensburg, ZhMNP, 1888, July, p. 145)).

Unfortunately, there are certain disagreements in the use of the word "Greeks" in the annals. “In the same summer (1084) Davyd zaya greeted in Oleshya and zaya they had an estate,” we read in the Laurentian Chronicle. In the Ipatiev, Radzivilov and Trinity lists, in place of the Greeks, we find "Greeks". Since the word "Greeks" is found in the annals much less frequently than the term "Greeks", it is more likely to assume that the Greeks replaced the original Greeks than vice versa. "Grechnikov" is also found in the Moscow vault of the end of the 15th century, which used an older source than the Ipatiev Chronicle ( PSRL, vol. I, St. Petersburg 1846, p. 88; vol. XXV, p. 13).

In addition, Russian merchants really traded in Constantinople and even had a permanent colony there. Since the history of the Russian colony in Constantinople is not actually covered in our literature, we will dwell on this topic in more detail, which explains a lot about the nature of the trade of Russian merchants abroad.

The original residence of Russian merchants, according to the agreements between Russia and the Greeks, was the area near the church, see Mom. In Constantinople there were two churches of St. Moms: one in the city, the other - outside the city walls, on the European shore of the Bosphorus. Princess Olga stayed here when she arrived in Tsargrad and was dissatisfied with her long stay outside the city ( "Proceedings of the Russian Archaeological Institute in Constantinople", vol. III, no. 1-2, Sofia 1909, pp. 261-316).

No mention of the church of St. The mothers of Russian pilgrims may be explained by the fact that they stayed in the city itself. The residence of the Russians in Constantinople itself moved from the unfortified environs into the city in the 11th-13th centuries. When this change took place is not exactly known, but that it took place there is no doubt about it. Probably, the movement of the Russian colony was connected with the baptism of Russia and Vladimir's treaty with the Byzantine emperors, when the Russians became allies of Byzantium from a hostile people.

The location of the Russian quarter in Constantinople can be judged from the story of the Novgorod archbishop Anthony, who visited the Byzantine capital around 1200, a little earlier or later, in any case before the capture of the city by the crusaders. In the list of Antoniev's walks, published by Savvaitov, we read: “and from there on the Ubol of St. George, St. Leontey the pop Rusyn lies in the body, a great man; that Leonty 3 times went to Jerusalem on foot ... The end of the Ruskago was stung by the church 40 martyr ”( P. Savvaitov, Journey of Archbishop Anthony of Novgorod to Tsargrad at the end of the 12th century, St. Petersburg 1872, pp. 152-154; amendment according to the list of A. I. Yatsimirsky (“Proceedings of the Department of the Russian Language and Literature of the Academy of Sciences”, vol. IV, book 1, St. Petersburg 1899, pp. 223-264)). In another list, after the words about the church of St. Plato, it is added: “and that relic of him, and St. John the Merciful, and that Boris lies in the body.”

The word "ubol" is a corruption of the Greek embolos. Anthony did not accidentally leave this word without translation, since “ubol” meant not just a Russian street, but a special type of city street in Constantinople. Geid, a researcher of the Levant trade, characterizes the Byzantine quarters as follows: “In Byzantine Constantinople, many streets, especially in the busiest parts of the city, were equipped with arcades, so that on both sides passers-by had shelter to protect from rain and sunlight. Houses adjoined the arcades directly. Such streets with arcades were called embolos. Since they were especially suitable for trading premises, the emperors used to give such an embolos or even a couple of their trading nation, so that the shops and houses of merchants were partly adjacent to them directly, partly grouped around them. The whole quarter also received from this the name embolos, lat. embolum, even if he possessed a large group of houses" ( W. Heyd, Geschichte des Levantenhandels im Mittelalter, erster Band, Stuttgart 1879).

Thus, the name “Russian Ubol” by Antony means not just a Russian colony that lived on a certain street, but a whole quarter inhabited by Russian merchants. The Russian Quarter was located in the area of the Church of George, whose veneration was widespread in Russia. The mention of two locally venerated coffins, that is, of Leonty and Boris, shows that the Russians settled firmly in Constantinople and began to acquire their own saints. It is known about Leonty that he was Russian. Boris is a Russian and Bulgarian name. It is possible that Boris, who was lying "in the body", i.e., whose relics were considered intact, was not even Russian, but Bulgarian. Lived in Constantinople in the 10th century. the deposed Bulgarian Tsar Boris II, whom the Slavs could revere. Anthony, in any case, knew what kind of Boris he was talking about, and left the text without explanation.

Savvaitov cites several more topographical names of Constantinople associated with the Russians. So, the Golden Gate was called Russian. Is it not with these gates that the legend of Oleg, who nailed the shield to the gates of Constantinople, is connected. The eastern turn for chariots at the hippodrome was also called Russian ( P. Savvaitov, Journey of Archbishop Anthony of Novgorod to Tsargrad, pp. 154-155, note. 205).

We don’t have any details about the life of the “Russian Ubol” in Constantinople, but the organized nature of this “Ubol” remains beyond doubt, and at the same time, the assumption of the existence in Kyiv of a corporation of Greek merchants who traded with Byzantium is more likely.

The existence of merchant organizations in other cities, except for Kyiv and Novgorod, can be traced with great difficulty. A hint of a merchant association in Polotsk can be considered the news of the bratchina (“bratshchina”), which gathered at the old Church of the Mother of God in Polotsk on Peter's Day. Bratchina in Polotsk is mentioned under 1159, moreover, with such details that allow us to draw some conclusions about its character. The Polotsk prince Rostislav was invited by the Polotsk people to "brotherhood to the holy Mother of God to the old one, on Peter's day." Having received a warning about a conspiracy being prepared against him, Rostislav went to the brotherhood in armor under outerwear, and therefore they did not dare to attack him.

From this story it becomes clear that the brethren in Polotsk gathered at a certain patronal church - in this case, "at the old Mother of God", probably at the old city cathedral. Peter's day (June 28) was chosen as the time for the brotherhood's meeting, as one of the big church holidays. Bratchina was not an ordinary feast. This can be seen from the appeal of the Polotsk to the prince and his answer the next day after the brotherhood: “Prince, come to us, we have speeches for you” ... And Rostislav said to the ambassadors: “Yesterday I was with you, so why didn’t you told me what your speeches were? ( Ipat. years., page 340) Consequently, prominent representatives of Polotsk were present at the brotherhood, with whom the prince could negotiate. The commercial importance of Polotsk, its connections with the Baltic states make it possible for this city to have its own merchant association, similar to Ivan St in Novgorod.

Nothing is known about the existence of merchant corporations in other cities. However, the absence of indications of merchant associations in other cities means absolutely nothing. After all, the scarcity of annalistic news about urban life in the XII-XIII centuries. well known. In any case, the presence of the Ivan Hundred is indisputable proof of the existence of merchant associations in Kievan Rus.

MERCHANTS

MERCHANTS, social stratum, estate. The first mention in Russia refers to the 10th century. In the Old Russian state, "merchants" (townspeople engaged in trade) and "guests" (merchants engaged in trade with other cities and countries) were known. The legal registration of the merchant class in Russia dates back to 1775 (registration of the guild capital); enjoyed personal and economic privileges, paid taxes to the treasury. Until 1898, the guild merchants enjoyed the pre-emptive right to engage in entrepreneurship. It was abolished by a decree of the Soviet government on November 10, 1917.

Source: Encyclopedia "Fatherland"

trading class. It has existed in Russia since ancient times. In the notes of the Byzantine imp. Constantine Porphyrogenitus tells about the activities of Russian merchants as early as the 1st half. 10th century According to him, since November, as soon as the road froze up and the sledge track was established, Russian merchants left the cities and headed inland. Throughout the winter, they bought goods from the graveyards, and also collected tribute from the inhabitants in payment for the protection that the city gave them. In the spring, already along the Dnieper with hollow water, the merchants returned to Kyiv and, on ships prepared by that time, went to Constantinople. This path was difficult and dangerous. And only a large guard saved the caravan of Smolensk, Lyubech, Chernigov, Novgorod, Vyshegorodsky merchants from numerous robbers. Having sailed the Dnieper, they went out to sea, holding on to the shore, since at any moment the fragile boats could die from a steep wave.
In Tsargrad, Russian merchants traded for six months. According to the contract, they could not stay for the winter. They were placed not in the city itself, but at the “Holy Mother” (the monastery of St. Mamant). During their stay in Constantinople, Russian merchants enjoyed various benefits granted to them by the Greek emperor. In particular, they sold their goods and bought Greek ones without paying duties; in addition, they were given free food and allowed to use the bathhouse. At the end of the auction, the Greek authorities provided our merchants with edible goods and ship gear. They returned home no earlier than October, and there it was already November again, and they had to go deep into the country, to graveyards, selling what was brought from Byzantium, and buying up goods for foreign trade for the next year. Such entrepreneurial activity was carried out by Russia for more than one century. The cycle of trading life played a huge role in the development and unification of Russian lands. More and more people were involved in this economic activity, becoming vitally interested in its results. However, Russian merchants traded not only with Tsar-grad, from where they exported silk fabrics, gold, lace, wine, soap, sponges, and various delicacies. A lot of trade was carried out with the Varangians, from whom they bought bronze and iron products (especially swords and axes), tin and lead, as well as with the Arabs - from where beads, precious stones, carpets, morocco, sabers, spices came to the country.
The fact that trade was very large is evidenced by the nature of the treasures of that time, which are still found in abundance near ancient cities, on the banks of large rivers, on portages, near former churchyards. These hoards often contain Arabic, Byzantine, Roman and Western European coins, including even those minted in the 8th century.
Around Russian cities, many trading and fishing settlements arose. Merchants, beaver farmers, beekeepers, trappers, tar miners, lykoders and other "industrialists" of that time converged here for trade, or, as they called it then, "guests". These places were called churchyards (from the word "guest"). Later, after the adoption of Christianity, in these places, as the most visited, churches were built and cemeteries were located. Here transactions were made, contracts were concluded, hence the tradition of fair trade began. In the cellars of churches, the inventory necessary for trade (scales, measures) was stored, goods were stacked, and trade agreements were also kept. For this, the clergy charged merchants a special fee.
The first Russian code of laws Russkaya Pravda was imbued with the spirit of the merchants. When you read his articles, you are convinced that he could have arisen in a society where trade was the most important occupation, and the interests of the inhabitants are closely connected with the result of trade operations.
“True,” writes historian V.O. Klyuchevsky, - strictly distinguishes the return of property for storage - "luggage" from "loan", a simple loan, a friendly loan from the return of money in growth from a certain agreed percentage, a short-term interest loan - from a long-term one, and, finally, a loan - from a trading commission and contribution to a trading company from an unspecified profit or dividend. Pravda further gives a definite procedure for collecting debts from an insolvent debtor during the liquidation of his affairs, and is able to distinguish between malicious and unfortunate insolvency. What is a trade credit and operations on credit is well known to Russkaya Pravda. Guests, out-of-town or foreign merchants, “launched goods” for native merchants, i.e. sold them on credit. The merchant gave the guest, a merchant-countryman who traded with other cities or lands, “kuns for purchase”, for a commission for buying goods for him on the side; the capitalist entrusted the merchant with "kuns as a guest", for turnover from the profit.
City entrepreneurs, rightly notes Klyuchevsky, were sometimes employees, sometimes rivals of the princely power, which reflected their great role in society. Russian legislation valued the life of a merchant, his head was fined twice as much as for the head of an ordinary person (12 hryvnias and 5-6 hryvnias).
The successful growth of merchant activity in Ancient Russia was confirmed by the development of credit relations. Novgorod merchant Klimyata (Clement), who lived in XII - n. XIII century, combined its extensive trading activities with the provision of loans (the return of money in growth). Klimyata was a member of the “merchant hundred” (the union of Novgorod entrepreneurs), he was mainly engaged in airborne fishing and cattle breeding. By the end of his life, he owned four villages with vegetable gardens. Before his death, he compiled a spiritual, in which he listed over a dozen different kinds of people associated with him by entrepreneurial activities. It can be seen from the list of debtors of Klimyata that he also gave out "poral silver", for which interest was charged in the form of an invoice. Klimyata's activity was such that he not only provided loans, but also took them. So, he bequeathed two villages to his creditors Danila and Voin in payment of a debt. Klimyata bequeathed all his fortune to the Novgorod Yuryev Monastery - a typical case for that time.
Novgorod the Great was one of the most characteristic merchant cities. Most of the population lived here by trade, and the merchant was considered the main figure about whom fairy tales and legends were formed. A typical example is the Novgorod epic about the merchant Sadko.
Novgorod merchants conducted their trade and fishing activities in artels, or companies, which were well-armed detachments. There were dozens of merchant artels in Novgorod, depending on the goods they traded, or the area where they went to trade. There were, for example, Pomeranian merchants who traded on the Baltic or White Seas, Nizov merchants who had business in the Suzdal region, and so on.
The most solid Novgorod merchants united in a commercial and industrial "association", then called "Ivanovo Sto", which had its center near the church of St. John the Baptist in Opoki. There was a public guest yard where merchants stored their goods, and there was also a “gridnitsa” (large chamber), a kind of hall for business meetings. At the general meeting of "Ivanovo hundred" the merchants elected the headman, who managed the affairs of this "association", supervised the public cash desk and the execution of business documents.
Bargaining took place near the church, there were special scales, at which there were elected jurors who observed the correctness of weight and trade. For weighing, as well as for the sale of goods, a special fee was levied. In addition to large scales, there were also small scales near the church, which served to weigh precious metals, the ingots of which replaced coins.
The contradictions that arose between merchants and buyers were resolved in a special commercial court, the chairman of which was the thousand.
The merchants who were part of the Ivanovo Sto had great privileges. In case of financial difficulties, they were provided with a loan or even gratuitous assistance. During dangerous trading operations, it was possible to get an armed detachment for protection from Ivanovo Sto.
However, only a very wealthy merchant could join Ivanovo Sto. To do this, it was necessary to make a large contribution to the cash desk of the “association” - 50 hryvnias - and, in addition, donate free of charge to the church of St. John in Opoki for almost 30 more hryvnias (with this money you could buy a herd of 80 oxen). But, having joined the Ivanovo hundred, the merchant and his children (participation was hereditary) immediately occupied honorary position in the city and received all the privileges associated with it.
Novgorod merchants carried on a great mutually beneficial trade with the Hanseatic League. Novgorod merchants bought and sold linen fabrics, dressed leather, high quality resin and wax, hops, timber, honey, furs, and bread to the Hanseatic people throughout Russia. From the Hanseatics, Novgorod merchants received wine, metals, salt, morocco, gloves, dyed yarn and various luxury items.
A highly developed system of merchant entrepreneurship, coupled with people's self-government, were the main conditions for the economic prosperity of Ancient Novgorod, which was repeatedly noted by foreign merchants and travelers.
In addition to Ivanovo Sto, other professional associations of merchants existed in Russian cities. In the XIV - XVI centuries. trade entrepreneurs who had shops in the city market (“rows”) united in self-governing organizations, whose members were called “ryadovichi”.
The riadovichi jointly owned the territory allotted for shops, had their own elected elders, and had special rights to sell their goods. Most often, their center was the patronal church (goods were stored in its cellars), often they were also given even judicial functions. The property status of the merchants was unequal. The richest were the "Guests-Surozhians" - merchants who traded with Surozh and other cities of the Black Sea region. Wealthy were also the merchants of the cloth row - "clothesmen", who traded cloth imported from the West. In Moscow, the church of St. John Chrysostom was the patronal church of the “Guests-Surozhians”. Belonging to the corporation of Moscow guests was furnished with approximately the same rules as in the Novgorod "Ivanovo Sto". The position in this corporation was also hereditary. The guests led the merchant caravans going to the Crimea.
Already in the XV century. Russian merchants trade with Persia and India. The Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin visits India in 1469 and, in fact, opens it for Russia.
In the era of Ivan the Terrible, the vigorous activity of the merchants Stroganovs became a symbol of the Russian merchants, through the efforts of which the active development of the Urals and Siberia by the Russians began. Kielburger, who visited Moscow during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich as part of the Swedish embassy, noted that all Muscovites “from the most noble to the simplest love merchants, which is due to the fact that there are more trading shops in Moscow than in Amsterdam or at least another whole principality".
Some cities looked like colorful trade fairs. The wide development of trade was noted in earlier times. Foreigners who visited Moscow in the 15th century pay special attention to the abundance of edible marketable products, which testified to the broad development of commodity relations among the peasants, and by no means to the dominance of subsistence farming.
According to the description of the Venetian Josaphat Barbaro, “in winter they bring to Moscow so many bulls, pigs and other animals, completely skinned and frozen, that you can buy up to two hundred pieces at a time ... Abundance in bread and meat is so great here that they sell beef not by weight, but by eye. Another Venetian, Ambrose Contarini, also testifies that Moscow "abundant with all kinds of bread" and "living provisions are cheap in it." Contarini says that every year at the end of October, when the Moscow River is covered with strong ice, merchants set up “their shops with various goods” on this ice and, having thus arranged a whole market, almost completely stop their trade in the city. Merchants and peasants “every day, throughout the winter, bring bread, meat, pigs, firewood, hay and other necessary supplies” to the market located on the Moscow River. At the end of November, usually "all the local residents kill their cows and pigs and take them to the city for sale ... It's nice to look at this huge amount of frozen cattle, completely skinned and standing on the ice on their hind legs."
Handicrafts were traded in shops, markets and workshops. Already in ancient times, a number of cheap mass goods made by urban artisans (beads, glass bracelets, crosses, whorls) were distributed by peddler merchants throughout the country.
Russian merchants carried on extensive trade with other countries. Their trips to Lithuania, Persia, Khiva, Bukhara, Crimea, Kafa, Azov, etc. are known. The subject of trade was not only raw materials and products of extractive industries exported from Russia (furs, timber, wax), but also products of Russian artisans (yufti, single rows, fur coats, canvases, saddles, arrows, saadaks, knives, dishes, etc.). In 1493 Mengli-Giray asks Ivan III to send him 20,000 arrows. Crimean princes and princes turned to Moscow with a request to send shells and other armor. Later, in the 17th century, a huge trade in Russian goods went through Arkhangelsk - in 1653 the amount of export through the port of the city abroad amounted to over 17 million rubles. gold (in prices of the beginning of the 20th century).
The scale of Russian trade amazed foreigners who visited our country. “Russia,” he wrote at the very beginning of the 17th century. Frenchman Margeret, is a very rich country, since money is not exported from it at all, but they are imported there annually in large quantities, since they make all calculations with goods that they have in abundance, namely: various furs, wax, lard, cow and horse skin. Other leathers dyed red, linen, hemp, all kinds of ropes, caviar, i.e. salted fish caviar, they export in large quantities to Italy, then salted salmon, a lot of fish oil and other goods. As for bread, although there is a lot of it, they do not risk taking it out of the country towards Livonia. Moreover, they have a lot of potash, linseed, yarn and other goods that they exchange or sell without buying foreign goods with cash, and even the emperor ... orders to pay with bread or wax.
In the 17th century in Moscow, the trading, merchant class from the category of hard people stands out in special group urban, or townspeople, which, in turn, was divided into guests, living room and cloth hundreds and settlements. The highest and most honorable place belonged to the guests (there were no more than 30 of them in the 15th century).
The title of a guest was received by the largest entrepreneurs, with a trade turnover of at least 20 thousand a year - a huge amount for those times. All of them were close to the king, free from paying duties paid by merchants of a lower rank, occupied the highest financial positions, and also had the right to buy estates into their possession.
Members of the drawing room and cloth shop (in the 17th century there were about 400 of them) also enjoyed great privileges, occupied a prominent place in the financial hierarchy, but were inferior to the guests in "honor". Living rooms and cloth hundreds had self-government, their common affairs were managed by elected heads and foremen.
The lowest rank of the merchant class was represented by the inhabitants of the Black Hundreds and settlements. These were predominantly handicraft self-governing organizations that themselves produced goods, which they then sold. This category, relatively speaking, of non-professional merchants was in strong competition with professional merchants of the highest ranks, since the "black hundreds", trading in their own products, could sell them cheaper.
In large cities, townspeople who had the right to trade were divided into the best, middle and young. The sphere of activity of Russian merchants of the XVII century. was wide, reflecting the entire geography of the economic development of Russia. Six main trade routes originated from Moscow - Belomorsky (Vologda), Novgorod, Volga, Siberian, Smolensk and Ukrainian.
The Belomorsky (Vologda) route went through Vologda along the Sukhona and the Northern Dvina to Arkhangelsk (formerly to Kholmogory) and the White Sea, and from there to foreign countries. Famous centers of Russian entrepreneurship gravitated towards this path: Veliky Ustyug, Totma, Solchevygodsk, Yarensk, Ust-Sysolsk, which gave Russia thousands of merchants.
All R. 16th century Russian entrepreneurs received the right to trade duty-free with England (it went along the White Sea route), they had several buildings in London for their needs. Russians brought furs, flax, hemp, beef lard, yuft, blubber, resin, tar to England, and received fabrics, sugar, paper, and luxury goods.
The most important transshipment center on this route was Vologda, where goods were brought from Moscow, Yaroslavl, Kostroma and other cities throughout the winter, and then they were sent by water to Arkhangelsk, from where, in turn, goods arrived in autumn to be sent to Moscow by sledge.
The Novgorod (Baltic) trade route went from Moscow to Tver, Torzhok, Vyshny Volochek, Valdai, Pskov, then to the Baltic Sea. Russian flax, hemp, lard, leather and red yuft went this way to Germany. The Volga route passed along the Moscow River, Oka and Volga, and then through the Caspian Sea to Persia, Khiva and Bukhara.
The main business center along this path was Nizhny Novgorod, with the Makarievskaya fair located next to it. The way from Nizhny Novgorod to Astrakhan was overcome by Russian merchants in about a month. They went in caravans of 500 or more ships with a large guard. And even such caravans were attacked from time to time. Merchants sailed and stopped in local business centers - Cheboksary, Sviyazhsk, Kazan, Samara, Saratov.
Trade with Khiva and Bukhara was carried out in the Karagan refuge, where merchant ships came from Astrakhan under guard, and local merchants with their goods came to meet them. The trade went on for about a month. After that, part of the Russian ships returned to Astrakhan, and the other went to Derbent and Baku, from where the merchants already reached Shamakhi by land and traded with the Persians.
The Siberian route went by water from Moscow to Nizhny Novgorod and to Solikamsk. From Solikamsk, the merchants moved by drag to Verkhoturye, where there was a big bargain with the Voguls, and then again by water to Tobolsk, through Turinsk and Tyumen. Then the road went to Yeniseisk past Surgut, Narym. In Yeniseisk, a large guest yard was arranged.
From Yeniseisk, the path ran towards the Ilim prison along Tunguska and Ilim. Part of the merchants followed further, reaching Yakutsk and Okhotsk, penetrating even the Amur.
The main business center of Russia for trade with China was Nerchinsk, where a special guest house was built.
The main goods that were bought or bartered along the way were furs and animal skins, from Central Russia iron, weapons, fabrics were brought to Siberia.
The Smolensk (Lithuanian) route went from Moscow through Smolensk to Poland, but due to constant wars, this route was relatively little used for wide trade. Moreover, Polish and Jewish merchants who had a bad reputation were very reluctantly welcomed in Moscow, and Russian merchants avoided relations with merchants in shtetl Poland.
The steppe Little Russian (Crimean) path ran through the Ryazan, Tambov, Voronezh regions, went to the Don steppes, and from there to the Crimea. Lebedyan, Putivl, Yelets, Kozlov, Korotoyak, Ostrogozhsk, Belgorod, Valuyki were the main business centers that gravitated towards this path.
The wide scope of the main ways of trade and entrepreneurial activity clearly testified to the gigantic efforts invested in the economic development of the vast territory of Russia. In Ancient Russia, this activity was also associated with travel difficulties. By trading in certain goods, Russian merchants often took part in organizing their production, especially in the production of wax, lard, resin, tar, salt, yuft, leather, as well as the extraction and smelting of metals and the production of various products from them.
A Russian merchant from the townspeople of Yaroslavl, Grigory Leontievich Nikitnikov, conducted large-scale trade in European Russia, Siberia, Central Asia and Iran. But the basis of his wealth was the trade in Siberian furs. He built boats and ships carrying various goods, bread and salt. In 1614 he received the title of guest. From 1632 Nikitnikov invested in the salt industry. In the late 1630s, in the Solikamsk district, Nikitnikov owned 30 breweries, where, in addition to dependent people, more than 600 hired workers worked. Nikitnikov holds a whole row for the sale of salt in different cities located along the Volga and Oka and related rivers: in Vologda, Yaroslavl, Kazan, Nizhny Novgorod, Kolomna, Moscow and Astrakhan.
For a long time, the center of Nikitnikov's trading activities was his native city of Yaroslavl with a vast courtyard that belonged to his ancestors. According to old descriptions, the estate of the merchant Nikitnikov turns into a real shopping center of Yaroslavl, becomes a nodal trading point where Volga and Eastern goods coming from Astrakhan crossed with Western goods brought from Arkhangelsk and Vologda. Here Nikitnikov built in 1613 a wooden church of the Nativity of the Virgin. Not far from the estate stood the famous Spassky Monastery, next to which there was a market. The salt and fish barns of the Nikitnikovs were located closer to the Kotorosl River. In 1622, Nikitnikov, by order of the tsar, moved to Moscow, and his shopping center also moved there. In Kitay-Gorod, Nikitnikov builds rich chambers and the most beautiful Trinity Church in Nikitniki (it has survived to this day). On Red Square, Nikitnikov acquires his own shops in the Cloth, Surozh, Hat and Silver rows. Nikitnikov builds large warehouses for wholesale trade. His house becomes a meeting place for wealthy merchants and deals. The names of major Moscow guests of the 17th century, who were in personal and family relationships with the host, are inscribed in the Synodicon of the Trinity Church.
The merchant Nikitnikov became famous not only for his business, but also for his social and patriotic activities. In n. 17th century he is a young zemstvo headman, his signature is on the lists of participants in the first and second zemstvo militias created in Yaroslavl to fight the Polish and Swedish invaders. Nikitnikov constantly participated in the performance of state elective services, represented at zemstvo councils, participated in the preparation of petitions to the tsar from guests and merchants who sought to protect the interests of Russian trade and limit the privileges of foreign merchants. He was bold and self-confident, thrifty and careful in payments, did not like to owe, but did not like to lend, although he had to lend quite often, even to the tsar himself, who rewarded him with silver ladles and expensive damask. Grigory Nikitnikov, a life researcher, testifies to him as “a businesslike and practical man, of a deep penetrating mind, strong memory and will, with a strong decisive character and great life experience. Through all his instructions, the requirement to preserve the family and economic order as it was under him invariably passes. The same businesslike tone sounds in orders to maintain splendor in the churches built by him and in the order for accurate contributions to the treasury for salt pans.
Nikitnikov bequeathed all his capital not to be split up, but transferred to the joint and indivisible possession of two grandchildren: “... both my grandson Boris and my grandson Grigory live in the council and work together, and which of them will live furiously and money and others he will distribute his belongings to his relatives and outsiders, alone without the advice of his brother, and he is deprived of my blessing and order, he does not care about my house and belongings. Dying (in 1651), the merchant Nikitnikov bequeathed: “... and decorate the Church of God with all sorts of charms, and incense, and candles, and church wine, and give a friend to the priest and other churchmen together, so that the Church of God without singing would not be and not for what it didn’t become, as it was with me, George. In addition to his Moscow church, he asked to take care of the churches he built in Salt Kama and Yaroslavl.
One of the characteristic entrepreneurs of the XVII century. was a merchant Gavrila Romanovich Nikitin, by origin from the black-eared peasants of the Russian Pomorie. Nikitin began his trading activities as a clerk of the guest O.I. Filatiev. In 1679 he became a member of the living room hundreds of Moscow, and in 1681 received the title of guest. After the death of the brothers, Nikitin concentrated in his hands a large trade, doing business with Siberia and China, his capital in 1697 amounted to a huge amount for those times - 20 thousand rubles. Like other merchants, Nikitin is building his own church.
In the 17th century a church is being built in Moscow, which has become a shrine for the merchants of all Russia. This is Nikola the Great Cross, erected in 1680 by the Arkhangelsk guests Filatiev. The church was one of the most beautiful in Moscow, and indeed in all of Russia. It was blown up in the 1930s.
Russian merchants who traded with foreign countries, offered them not only raw materials, but also products of high technology for those times, in particular metal devices. So, in the inventory of one of the Czech monasteries under 1394, “three iron castles, colloquially called Russian” are documented. In Bohemia, of course, there were quite a few of their famous metal craftsmen from the richest Ore Mountains and the Sudetenland. But, obviously, the products of Russian industry were no worse if they enjoyed fame and success so far abroad. This is a message from the 14th century. confirmed by later sources. So, from “Memory, how to sell Russian goods in the Germans”, known from the text of the “Trade Book” of 1570 - 1610, it is clear that the sale of the Russian “way of life” and other metal products “in the Germans” was a common thing in the 16th - 17th centuries . They also traded weapons. For example, in 1646 600 cannons were taken to Holland.
Talking about the famous Russian merchants of the 17th century, one cannot fail to mention the Bosov brothers, as well as the guests Nadia Sveteshnikov and the Guryevs. The Bosovs traded with Arkhangelsk and Yaroslavl, bought goods in the local markets of Primorye, also bought villages in order to get a large amount of bread for sale, engaged in usury, but Siberian trade was the basis of their enterprise. Bosovs sent carts of 50-70 horses to Siberia, loaded with both foreign goods and Russian homespun cloth, canvas, and iron products. They exported furs from Siberia. So, in 1649-50, 169 magpies and 7 pieces of sables (6,767 skins) were exported; purchased in large quantities and other furs. In the service of the Bosovs there were 25 clerks. They organized their own gangs in Siberia, i.e. industrial expeditions to places rich in sable, and also acquired them from local residents and from service people who collected yasak in Siberia. The sale of foreign and Russian products in Siberia also gave a high profit.
The richest merchants carried the state financial service as guests, which gave them a number of advantages and provided ample opportunities for further enrichment. Nadia Sveteshnikova and Guryev's methods of creating enterprises also had the character of "initial accumulation". Sveteshnikov came from the Yaroslavl townspeople. Services to the new Romanov dynasty brought him an award to visit. He ran large fur trading operations, owned villages with peasants, but also invested in the salt industry. His wealth was estimated in ser. 17th century at 35.5 thousand rubles. (i.e. about 500 thousand rubles for gold money of the beginning of the 20th century). This is an example of large commercial capital and its development into industrial capital. Land grants were of paramount importance for the enrichment of Sveteshnikov and the development of his enterprises. In 1631, he was given huge land holdings along both banks of the Volga and along the Usa River to the later Stavropol. Here Sveteshnikov put 10 varnits. By 1660, there were 112 peasant households in Nadein Usolye. Along with hired people, he used the labor of serfs. Sveteshnikov built a fortress to protect against nomads, started a brick factory.
The Guryevs also came from the rich elite of the Yaroslavl Posad. In 1640, they started fishing at the mouth of the Yaik River, set up a wooden prison here, then replaced it with a stone fortress (the city of Guryev).
The development of entrepreneurship in Russia was largely successive. A study of the merchant families of the Upper Volga region, conducted by the researcher A. Demkin, showed that 43% of all merchant families were engaged in merchant activity from 100 to 200 years, and almost a quarter - 200 years or more. Three quarters of merchant families, numbering less than 100 years, arose in the middle - 2nd floor. 18th century and continued until the end of the century. All these surnames passed in the 19th century.
In 1785, Russian merchants receive a charter from Catherine II, which greatly elevated their position. According to this charter, all merchants were divided into three guilds.
The first guild included merchants who owned a capital of at least 10 thousand rubles. They received the right to wholesale trade in Russia and abroad, as well as the right to start factories and factories. Merchants with capital from 5 to 10 thousand rubles belonged to the second guild. They received the right to wholesale and retail trade in Russia. The third guild consisted of merchants with a capital of 1 to 5 thousand rubles. This category of merchants had the right only to retail trade. Merchants of all guilds were exempted from the poll tax (instead of it, they paid 1% of the declared capital), as well as from personal recruitment duty.
In addition to merchants of various guilds, the concept of "eminent citizen" was introduced. In status, he was higher than the merchant of the first guild, because he had to have a capital of at least 100 thousand rubles. "Eminent citizens" received the right to have country cottages, gardens, plants and factories.
A significant part of the Russian intelligentsia of the XVIII-XIX centuries. she did not like the Russian merchants, she despised them, abhorred them. She represented the merchants as inveterate rogues and swindlers, dishonest, greedy like a wolf. With her light hand, a myth is created in society about the dirty and vile "Tit Titychi", which had nothing to do with reality. “If the trading class in the former Muscovy, and in recent Russia,” noted P.A. Buryshkin, - it would actually be a bunch of rogues and swindlers who have neither honor nor conscience, then how to explain the enormous successes that accompanied the development of the Russian national economy and the rise of the country's productive forces. Russian industry was created not by state efforts and, with rare exceptions, not by the hands of persons of the nobility. Russian factories were built and equipped by Russian merchants. Industry in Russia withdrew from trade. You can't build a healthy business on an unhealthy foundation. And if the results speak for themselves, the merchant class was in its mass healthy, and not so vicious.
“In the Moscow unwritten merchant hierarchy,” wrote V.I. Ryabushinsky, - at the top of respect stood an industrialist-manufacturer, then a merchant-merchant walked, and at the bottom stood a man who gave money on interest, accounted for bills, forced capital to work. He was not very respected, no matter how cheap his money was and no matter how decent he himself was. Interest-bearer."
The attitude towards this category of the first two was extremely negative, as a rule, they were not allowed on the threshold and, if possible, they tried to punish them in every possible way. Most of the businessmen of the third group came from the western and southern provinces of Russia.
Before the revolution, the title of a merchant was acquired by paying for a guild certificate. Until 1898, a guild certificate was mandatory for the right to trade. Later - optional and existed only for persons wishing to enjoy some of the benefits assigned to the merchant rank, or participate in estate management. Advantages: exemption from corporal punishment (very important for merchants of the peasant class), the right, under certain conditions, to receive the title of honorary and hereditary honorary citizen (granting the advantages of a merchant title without choice and a guild certificate), the opportunity to receive the title of commerce adviser (a rank with the title of excellency), certain rights for the education of children, the right to participate in city self-government (regardless of the possession of immovable property), participation in class self-government. Class merchant self-government consisted in the management of merchant charitable institutions, in the distribution of certain fees, in the management of merchant capital, banks, cash desks, in the choice officials(merchant elders, merchant foremen, merchant councils, members of the orphan's court from the merchant class).
O. Platonov