Beginning and end of the Livonian war. Causes of the Livonian War - abstract

In January 1582, a ten-year truce with the Commonwealth was concluded in Yama-Zapolsky (not far from Pskov). Under this agreement, Russia renounced Livonia and Belarusian lands, but some border Russian lands, captured during the hostilities by the Polish king, were returned to it.

The defeat of the Russian troops in the simultaneously ongoing war with Poland, where the tsar was faced with the need to decide even on the concession of Pskov if the city was taken by storm, forced Ivan IV and his diplomats to negotiate with Sweden to conclude a humiliating peace for the Russian state of Plus . Negotiations in Plus took place from May to August 1583. Under this agreement:

ü The Russian state was deprived of all its acquisitions in Livonia. Behind him there was only a narrow section of access to the Baltic Sea in the Gulf of Finland from the Strelka River to the Sestra River (31.5 km).

ü The cities of Ivan-gorod, Yam, Koporye passed to the Swedes along with Narva (Rugodiv).

ü In Karelia, the Kexholm (Korela) fortress retreated to the Swedes along with a vast county and the coast of Lake Ladoga.

The Russian state was again cut off from the sea. The country was devastated, the central and northwestern regions were depopulated. Russia has lost a significant part of its territory.

Chapter 3. Domestic historians about the Livonian War

Domestic historiography reflects the problems of society in critical periods in the development of our country, which is accompanied by the formation of a new, modern society, then, according to time, the views of historians on certain historical events. views modern historians on the Livonian War are practically united and do not cause much disagreement. The views of Tatishchev, Karamzin, Pogodin on the Livonian War that dominated the 19th century are now perceived as archaic. In the works of N.I. Kostomarova, S.M. Solovieva, V.O. Klyuchevsky reveals a new vision of the problem.

Livonian War (1558-1583). The reasons. Move. Results

At the beginning of the twentieth century, another change in the social system took place. During this transitional period in the domestic historical science outstanding historians came - representatives of different historical schools: statesman S.F. Platonov, the creator of the "proletarian-internationalist" school M.N. Pokrovsky, a very original philosopher R.Yu. Vipper, who explained the events of the Livonian War from their own points of view. AT Soviet period historical schools successively succeeded each other: the “Pokrovsky school” in the mid-1930s. The 20th century was replaced by the “patriotic school”, which was replaced by the “new Soviet historical school” (since the late 1950s of the 20th century), among the adherents of which we can mention A.A. Zimina, V.B. Kobrin, R.G. Skrynnikov.

N.M. Karamzin (1766-1826) assessed the Livonian War as a whole as "ill-fated, but not inglorious for Russia." The historian places the responsibility for the defeat in the war on the king, whom he accuses of "cowardice" and "confusion of spirit."

According to N.I. Kostomarov (1817-1885) in 1558, before the start of the Livonian War, Ivan IV had an alternative - either "deal with the Crimea" or "take over Livonia." The historian explains the contradictory common sense the decision of Ivan IV to fight on two fronts "strife" between his advisers. In his writings, Kostomarov writes that the Livonian War exhausted the strength and labor of the Russian people. The historian explains the failure of the Russian troops in the confrontation with the Swedes and Poles by the complete demoralization of the domestic armed forces as a result of the actions of the oprichniks. According to Kostomarov, as a result of the peace with Poland and the truce with Sweden, "the western borders of the state shrank, the fruits of long-term efforts were lost."

The Livonian War, which began in 1559, S.M. Solovyov (1820-1879) explains the need for Russia to "assimilate the fruits of European civilization", the carriers of which were supposedly not allowed into Rus' by the Livonians, who owned the main Baltic ports. The loss of seemingly conquered Livonia by Ivan IV was the result of simultaneous actions against the Russian troops of the Poles and Swedes, as well as the result of the superiority of the regular (mercenary) troops and European military art over the Russian noble militia.

According to S.F. Platonov (1860-1933), Russia was drawn into the Livonian War. The historian believes that Russia could not evade what "was happening on her western borders", which "exploited her and oppressed her (unfavorable terms of trade)". The defeat of the troops of Ivan IV at the last stage of the Livonian War is explained by the fact that then there were "signs of a clear depletion of means for the struggle." The historian also notes, referring to the economic crisis that befell the Russian state, that Stefan Batory "beat the already lying enemy, not defeated by him, but who had lost his strength before the fight against him."

M.N. Pokrovsky (1868-1932) claims that the Livonian War was allegedly started by Ivan IV on the recommendation of some advisers - no doubt who came out of the ranks of the "army". The historian notes both "a very good moment" for the invasion, and the absence of "almost any formal reason" for this. Pokrovsky explains the intervention of the Swedes and Poles in the war by the fact that they could not allow the transfer of "the entire southeastern coast of the Baltic" with trading ports under Russian rule. Pokrovsky considers the unsuccessful sieges of Revel and the loss of Narva and Ivangorod to be the main defeats of the Livonian War. He also notes the great influence on the outcome of the war of the Crimean invasion of 1571.

According to R.Yu. Vipper (1859-1954), the Livonian War was being prepared long before 1558 by the leaders of the Chosen Rada and could have been won - in the event of an earlier action by Russia. The historian considers the battles for the Eastern Baltic the largest of all the wars waged by Russia, as well as "the most important event in European history." Vipper explains the defeat of Russia by the fact that by the end of the war, "the military structure of Russia" was in disintegration, and "the ingenuity, flexibility and adaptability of Grozny were over."

A.A. Zimin (1920-1980) connects the decision of the Moscow government to "raise the question of joining the Baltic states" with the "strengthening of the Russian state in the 16th century." Among the motives that prompted this decision, he highlights the need to acquire Russia's access to the Baltic Sea in order to expand cultural and economic ties with Europe. Thus, the Russian merchants were interested in the war; the nobility expected to acquire new lands. Zimin considers the involvement of "a number of major Western powers" in the Livonian War as the result of "the short-sighted policy of the Chosen One." With this, as well as with the ruin of the country, with the demoralization of service people, with the death of skilled military leaders during the years of the oprichnina, the historian connects the defeat of Russia in the war.

The beginning of the "war for Livonia" R.G. Skrynnikov connects with the "first success" of Russia - the victory in the war with the Swedes (1554-1557), under the influence of which "plans for the conquest of Livonia and assertion in the Baltic states" were put forward. The historian points to the "special goals" of Russia in the war, the main of which was the creation of conditions for Russian trade. After all, the Livonian Order and German merchants hindered the commercial activities of the Muscovites, and Ivan IV's attempts to organize his own "shelter" at the mouth of the Narova failed. The defeat of the Russian troops at the last stage of the Livonian War, according to Skrynnikov, was the result of the entry into the war of the armed forces of Poland, led by Stefan Batory. The historian notes that in the army of Ivan IV at that time there were not 300 thousand people, as previously stated, but only 35 thousand. In addition, the twenty-year war and the ruin of the country contributed to the weakening of the noble militia. Skrynnikov explains the conclusion of peace by Ivan IV with the abandonment of the Livonian possessions in favor of the Commonwealth by the fact that Ivan IV wanted to focus on the war with the Swedes.

According to V.B. Kobrin (1930-1990) The Livonian war became unpromising for Russia, when, some time after the start of the conflict, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland became opponents of Moscow. The historian notes the key role of Adashev, who was one of the leaders of Russia's foreign policy, in unleashing the Livonian War. The conditions of the Russian-Polish truce, concluded in 1582, Kobrin considers not humiliating, but rather difficult for Russia. In this regard, he notes that the goal of the war was not achieved - "the reunification of the Ukrainian and Belarusian lands that were part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the annexation of the Baltic states." The historian considers the terms of the truce with Sweden to be even more difficult, since a significant part of the coast of the Gulf of Finland, which was part of the Novgorod land, “was lost”.

Conclusion

In this way:

1. The purpose of the Livonian War was to give Russia access to the Baltic Sea in order to break the blockade from Livonia, the Polish-Lithuanian state and Sweden and establish direct communication with European countries.

2. The immediate cause for the start of the Livonian War was the question of the “Yuryev tribute”.

3. The beginning of the war (1558) brought victories to Ivan the Terrible: Narva and Yuryev were taken. The hostilities that began in 1560 brought new defeats to the Order: the large fortresses of Marienburg and Fellin were taken, the order army blocking the path to Viljandi was defeated near Ermes, and the Master of the Order Furstenberg himself was taken prisoner. The success of the Russian army was facilitated by the peasant uprisings that broke out in the country against the German feudal lords. The result of the company in 1560 was the actual defeat of the Livonian Order as a state.

4. Since 1561, the Livonian War entered the second period, when Russia was forced to wage war with the Polish-Lithuanian state and Sweden.

5. Since Lithuania and Poland in 1570 could not quickly concentrate their forces against the Muscovite state, because were exhausted by the war, then Ivan IV began in May 1570 to negotiate a truce with Poland and Lithuania and at the same time create, by neutralizing Poland, an anti-Swedish coalition, realizing his long-standing idea of forming a vassal state from Russia in the Baltic states. The Danish Duke Magnus in May 1570 was proclaimed "King of Livonia" upon arrival in Moscow.

6. The Russian government undertook to provide the new state, which settled on the island of Ezel, with its military aid and material resources so that it could expand its territory at the expense of Swedish and Lithuanian-Polish possessions in Livonia.

7. The proclamation of the Livonian kingdom was, according to Ivan IV, to provide Russia with the support of the Livonian feudal lords, i.e. of all German chivalry and nobility in Estonia, Livonia and Courland, and consequently, not only an alliance with Denmark (through Magnus), but, most importantly, an alliance and support for the Habsburg empire. With this new combination in Russian foreign policy, the tsar intended to create a vise on two fronts for an overly aggressive and restless Poland, which had grown to include Lithuania. While Sweden and Denmark were at war with each other, Ivan IV led successful operations against Sigismund II Augustus. In 1563, the Russian army took Plock, a fortress that opened the way to the capital of Lithuania, Vilna, and to Riga. But already at the beginning of 1564, the Russians suffered a series of defeats on the Ulla River and near Orsha.

8. By 1577, in fact, all of Livonia to the north of Western Dvina(Vidzeme), except for Riga, which, as Hanseatic city, Ivan IV decided to spare. However, military successes did not lead to a victorious end to the Livonian War. The fact is that by this time Russia had lost the diplomatic support that it had at the beginning of the Swedish stage of the Livonian War. Firstly, in October 1576, Emperor Maximilian II died, and hopes for the capture of Poland and its division did not materialize. Secondly, a new king came to power in Poland - Stefan Batory, former prince Semigradsky, one of the best commanders of his time, who was a supporter of an active Polish-Swedish alliance against Russia. Thirdly, Denmark completely disappeared as an ally and, finally, in 1578-1579. Stefan Batory managed to persuade Duke Magnus to betray the king.

9. In 1579, Batory captured Polotsk and Velikiye Luki, in 1581 he besieged Pskov, and by the end of 1581 the Swedes captured the entire coast of Northern Estonia, Narva, Vesenberg (Rakovor, Rakvere), Haapsa-lu, Pärnu and the entire South (Russian ) Estonia - Fellin (Viljandi), Dorpat (Tartu). In Ingermanland, Ivan-gorod, Yam, Koporye were taken, and in Ladoga - Korela.

10. In January 1582, a ten-year truce with the Commonwealth was concluded in Yama-Zapolsky (not far from Pskov). Under this agreement, Russia renounced Livonia and Belarusian lands, but some border Russian lands, captured during the hostilities by the Polish king, were returned to it.

11. Peace of Plus was concluded with Sweden. Under this agreement, the Russian state was deprived of all its acquisitions in Livonia. The cities of Ivan-gorod, Yam, Koporye passed to the Swedes along with Narva (Rugodivo). In Karelia, the Kexholm (Korela) fortress retreated to the Swedes along with a vast county and the coast of Lake Ladoga.

12. As a result, the Russian state was cut off from the sea. The country was devastated, the central and northwestern regions were depopulated. Russia has lost a significant part of its territory.

List of used literature

1. Zimin A.A. History of the USSR from ancient times to the present day. - M., 1966.

2. Karamzin N.M. History of Russian Goverment. - Kaluga, 1993.

3. Klyuchevsky V.O. Russian history course. - M. 1987.

4. Kobrin V.B. Ivan the Terrible. - M., 1989.

5. Platonov S.F. Ivan the Terrible (1530-1584). Vipper R.Yu. Ivan the Terrible / Comp. D.M. Kholodikhin. - M., 1998.

6. Skrynnikov R.G. Ivan the Terrible. - M., 1980.

7. Soloviev S.M. Works. History of Russia since ancient times. - M., 1989.

Read in the same book:Introduction | Chapter 1. Creation of Livonia | Military operations of 1561 - 1577 | mybiblioteka.su - 2015-2018. (0.095 sec)

The best that history gives us is the enthusiasm it arouses.

The Livonian War lasted from 1558 to 1583. During the war, Ivan the Terrible sought to gain access and capture the port cities of the Baltic Sea, which was supposed to significantly improve the economic situation of Rus', by improving trade. In this article, we will talk briefly about the Levon War, as well as all its aspects.

Beginning of the Livonian War

The sixteenth century was a period of uninterrupted wars. The Russian state sought to protect itself from its neighbors and return the lands that were previously part of Ancient Rus'.

Wars were fought on several fronts:

The eastern direction was marked by the conquest of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, as well as the beginning of the development of Siberia.
The southern direction of foreign policy represented the eternal struggle with the Crimean Khanate.
The western direction is the events of the long, difficult and very bloody Livonian War (1558–1583), which will be discussed.

Livonia is a region in the eastern Baltic. On the territory of modern Estonia and Latvia. In those days, there was a state created as a result of crusading conquests. How public education, it was weak due to national contradictions (the Baltics were placed in feudal dependence), religious schism (the Reformation penetrated there), and the struggle for power among the top.

Map of the Livonian War

Reasons for the start of the Livonian War

Ivan 4 the Terrible began the Livonian War against the backdrop of the success of his foreign policy in other areas. The Russian prince-tsar sought to push back the borders of the state in order to gain access to shipping areas and ports of the Baltic Sea. And the Livonian Order gave the Russian Tsar ideal reasons for starting the Livonian War:

Refusal to pay tribute. In 1503, the Livnsky Order and Rus' signed a document according to which the former were obliged to pay an annual tribute to the city of Yuryev. In 1557, the Order single-handedly withdrew from this obligation.
The weakening of the external political influence of the Order against the backdrop of national differences.

Speaking about the reason, it should be emphasized that Livonia separated Rus' from the sea, blocked trade. Large merchants and nobles, who wished to appropriate new lands, were interested in the capture of Livonia. But the main reason is the ambitions of Ivan IV the Terrible. The victory was supposed to strengthen his influence, so he waged war, regardless of the circumstances and the meager capabilities of the country for the sake of his own greatness.

Course of the war and major events

The Livonian War was fought with long breaks and is historically divided into four stages.

First stage of the war

In the first stage (1558–1561) fighting conducted relatively successfully for Russia. The Russian army in the first months captured Derpt, Narva and was close to capturing Riga and Revel. The Livonian Order was on the verge of death and asked for a truce. Ivan the Terrible agreed to stop the war for 6 months, but this was a huge mistake. During this time, the Order came under the protectorate of Lithuania and Poland, as a result of which Russia received not 1 weak, but 2 strong opponents.

The most dangerous enemy for Russia was Lithuania, which at that time could in some aspects surpass the Russian kingdom in its potential. Moreover, the peasants of the Baltic were dissatisfied with the newly arrived Russian landowners, the cruelties of the war, exactions and other disasters.

Second phase of the war

The second stage of the war (1562–1570) began with the fact that the new owners of the Livonian lands demanded that Ivan the Terrible withdraw his troops and abandon Livonia. In fact, it was proposed that the Livonian War should end, and Russia would be left with nothing as a result. After the tsar refused to do this, the war for Russia finally turned into an adventure. The war with Lithuania lasted 2 years and was unsuccessful for the Russian Tsardom. The conflict could only be continued under the conditions of the oprichnina, especially since the boyars were against the continuation of hostilities. Earlier, for dissatisfaction with the Livonian War, in 1560 the tsar dispersed the Chosen Rada.

It was at this stage of the war that Poland and Lithuania united in single state- Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. It was a strong power that everyone, without exception, had to reckon with.

Third stage of the war

The third stage (1570–1577) is the battles of local significance between Russia and Sweden for the territory of modern Estonia. They ended without any meaningful results for both sides. All battles were local in nature and did not have any significant impact on the course of the war.

Fourth stage of the war

At the fourth stage of the Livonian War (1577–1583), Ivan IV again captures the entire Baltic, but soon the luck turned away from the king and the Russian troops were defeated. The new king of united Poland and Lithuania (the Commonwealth), Stefan Batory, drove Ivan the Terrible out of the Baltic region, and even managed to capture a number of cities already on the territory of the Russian kingdom (Polotsk, Velikiye Luki, etc.).

Livonian War of 1558-1583

The fighting was accompanied by terrible bloodshed. Since 1579, assistance to the Commonwealth was provided by Sweden, which acted very successfully, capturing Ivangorod, Yam, Koporye.

The defense of Pskov saved Russia from complete defeat (since August 1581). For 5 months of the siege, the garrison and the inhabitants of the city repelled 31 assault attempts, weakening the army of Batory.

The end of the war and its results

The Yam-Zapolsky truce between the Russian Empire and the Commonwealth of 1582 put an end to a long and unnecessary war. Russia abandoned Livonia. The coast of the Gulf of Finland was lost. It was captured by Sweden, with which the Peace of Plus was signed in 1583.

Thus, the following causes of damage can be distinguished Russian state, which sum up the results of the Liovna war:

adventurism and ambitions of the tsar - Russia could not wage war simultaneously with three strong states;
the pernicious influence of the oprichnina, economic ruin, Tatar attacks.
A deep economic crisis within the country, which broke out at the 3rd and 4th stages of hostilities.

Despite the negative outcome, it was the Livonian War that determined the direction of Russia's foreign policy in long years forward - get access to the Baltic Sea.

Siege of Pskov by King Stefan Batory in 1581, Karl Pavlovich Bryullov

Date: January 15, 1582.
Location: Kiverova Gora village, 15 versts from Zapolsky Pit.
Type: peace treaty.
Military conflict: Livonian war.
Participants, countries: Rzeczpospolita - Russian kingdom.
Participants, representatives of the countries: J. Zbarazhsky, A. Radziwill, M. Garaburda and H. Varshevitsky - D.P. Yeletsky, R.
Livonian War

V. Olferiev, N. N. Vereshchagin and Z. Sviyazev.
Negotiator: Antonio Possevino.

Yam-Zapolsky peace treaty was concluded on January 15, 1582 between the Russian kingdom and the Commonwealth. This agreement was concluded for 10 years and became one of the main acts that ended the Livonian War.

Yam-Zapolsky peace treaty: conditions, results and significance

Under the terms of the Yam-Zapolsky peace treaty, the Commonwealth returned all the conquered Russian cities and territories, namely the Pskov and Novgorod lands. The exception was the area of the city of Velizh, where the border was restored, which existed until 1514 (until Smolensk was annexed to the Russian kingdom).

The Russian kingdom gave away all its territories in the Baltic states (the territory belonging to the Livonian Order). Stefan Batory also demanded large monetary compensation, but Ivan IV refused him. The agreement, at the insistence of the ambassadors of the Russian kingdom, did not mention the Livonian cities that were captured by Sweden. And although the ambassadors of the Commonwealth made a special statement, which stipulated territorial claims in relation to Sweden, this question remained open.

In 1582, the treaty was ratified in Moscow. Ivan IV the Terrible intended to use this treaty to build up forces and resume active hostilities with Sweden, which, however, was not put into practice. Despite the fact that the Russian kingdom did not acquire new territories and did not resolve the contradictions with the Commonwealth, the threat in the form of the Livonian Order no longer existed.

Introduction 3

1. Causes of the Livonian War 4

2. Stages of war 6

3.Results and consequences of the war 14

Conclusion 15

References 16

Introduction.

The relevance of research. The Livonian War is a significant stage in Russian history. Long and exhausting, it brought many losses to Russia. It is very important and relevant to consider this event, because any military action changed the geopolitical map of our country, had a significant impact on its further socio-economic development. This directly applies to the Livonian War. It will also be interesting to reveal the diversity of points of view on the causes of this collision, the opinions of historians on this matter.

Article: Livonian War, its political meaning and consequences

After all, pluralism of opinions indicates that there are many contradictions in views. Therefore, the topic has not been sufficiently studied and is relevant for further consideration.

aim of this work is to reveal the essence of the Livonian War. To achieve the goal, it is necessary to consistently solve a number of tasks :

- identify the causes of the Livonian War

- analyze its stages

- to consider the results and consequences of the war

1. Causes of the Livonian War

After the annexation of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates to the Russian state, the threat of invasion from the east and southeast was eliminated. Ivan the Terrible faces new tasks - to return the Russian lands that were once captured by the Livonian Order, Lithuania and Sweden.

In general, it is possible to clearly identify the causes of the Livonian War. However, Russian historians interpret them differently.

So, for example, N.M. Karamzin connects the beginning of the war with the hostility of the Livonian Order. Karamzin fully approves Ivan the Terrible's aspirations to reach the Baltic Sea, calling them "intentions that are beneficial for Russia."

N.I. Kostomarov believes that on the eve of the war, Ivan the Terrible had an alternative - either to deal with the Crimea, or to take possession of Livonia. The historian explains the decision of Ivan IV, which was contrary to common sense, to fight on two fronts by "discord" between his advisers.

S.M. Soloviev explains the Livonian War by the need of Russia to “assimilate the fruits of European civilization”, the carriers of which were not allowed into Rus' by the Livonians, who owned the main Baltic ports.

IN. Klyuchevsky practically does not consider the Livonian War at all, since he analyzes the external position of the state only from the point of view of its influence on the development of socio-economic relations within the country.

S.F. Platonov believes that Russia was simply drawn into the Livonian War. The historian believes that Russia could not evade what was happening on its western borders, could not put up with unfavorable terms of trade.

MN Pokrovsky believes that Ivan the Terrible started the war on the recommendations of some "advisers" from a number of troops.

According to R.Yu. Vipper, "The Livonian War was prepared and planned by the leaders of the Chosen Rada for quite a long time."

R.G. Skrynnikov connects the beginning of the war with the first success of Russia - the victory in the war with the Swedes (1554-1557), under the influence of which plans were put forward to conquer Livonia and establish themselves in the Baltic states. The historian also notes that "the Livonian War turned the Eastern Baltic into an arena of struggle between states seeking dominance in the Baltic Sea."

V.B. Kobrin pays attention to the personality of Adashev and notes his key role in unleashing the Livonian War.

In general, formal pretexts were found for the start of the war. The real reasons were the geopolitical need for Russia to gain access to the Baltic Sea, as the most convenient for direct ties with the centers of European civilizations, as well as the desire to take an active part in the division of the territory of the Livonian Order, the progressive collapse of which was becoming obvious, but which, not wanting to strengthening of Russia, prevented its external contacts. For example, the authorities of Livonia did not allow more than a hundred specialists from Europe, invited by Ivan IV, to pass through their lands. Some of them were imprisoned and executed.

The formal reason for the start of the Livonian War was the question of the "Yuryev tribute" (Yuryev, later called Derpt (Tartu), was founded by Yaroslav the Wise). According to the agreement of 1503, an annual tribute was to be paid for it and the adjacent territory, which, however, was not done. In addition, in 1557 the Order entered into a military alliance with the Lithuanian-Polish king.

2.Stages of the war.

The Livonian war can be conditionally divided into 4 stages. The first one (1558-1561) is directly related to the Russian-Livonian war. The second (1562-1569) included primarily the Russo-Lithuanian war. The third (1570-1576) was distinguished by the resumption of the Russian struggle for Livonia, where they, together with the Danish prince Magnus, fought against the Swedes. The fourth (1577-1583) is associated primarily with the Russian-Polish war. During this period, the Russo-Swedish war continued.

Let's consider each of the stages in more detail.

First stage. In January 1558, Ivan the Terrible moved his troops to Livonia. The beginning of the war brought him victories: Narva and Yuryev were taken. In the summer and autumn of 1558 and at the beginning of 1559, Russian troops passed through all of Livonia (to Revel and Riga) and advanced in Courland to the borders of East Prussia and Lithuania. However, in 1559, under the influence of politicians grouped around A.F. Adashev, who prevented the expansion of the scope of the military conflict, Ivan the Terrible was forced to conclude a truce. In March 1559, it was concluded for a period of six months.

The feudal lords took advantage of the truce to conclude an agreement with the Polish king Sigismund II Augustus in 1559, according to which the order, lands and possessions of the Archbishop of Riga were transferred under the protectorate of the Polish crown. In an atmosphere of sharp political disagreements in the leadership of the Livonian Order, its master V. Furstenberg was dismissed and G. Ketler, who adhered to a pro-Polish orientation, became the new master. In the same year, Denmark took possession of the island of Ezel (Saaremaa).

The hostilities that began in 1560 brought new defeats to the Order: the large fortresses of Marienburg and Fellin were taken, the order army blocking the path to Viljandi was defeated near Ermes, and the Master of the Order Furstenberg himself was taken prisoner. The success of the Russian army was facilitated by the peasant uprisings that broke out in the country against the German feudal lords. The result of the company in 1560 was the actual defeat of the Livonian Order as a state. The German feudal lords of Northern Estonia became subjects of Sweden. According to the Vilna Treaty of 1561, the possessions of the Livonian Order came under the rule of Poland, Denmark and Sweden, and his last master, Ketler, received only Courland, and even then it was dependent on Poland. Thus, instead of a weak Livonia, Russia now had three strong opponents.

Second phase. While Sweden and Denmark were at war with each other, Ivan IV led successful operations against Sigismund II Augustus. In 1563, the Russian army took Plock, a fortress that opened the way to the capital of Lithuania, Vilna, and to Riga. But already at the beginning of 1564, the Russians suffered a series of defeats on the Ulla River and near Orsha; in the same year, a boyar and a major military leader, Prince A.M., fled to Lithuania. Kurbsky.

Tsar Ivan the Terrible responded to military failures and escapes to Lithuania with repressions against the boyars. In 1565, the oprichnina was introduced. Ivan IV tried to restore the Livonian Order, but under the protectorate of Russia, and negotiated with Poland. In 1566, a Lithuanian embassy arrived in Moscow, proposing to divide Livonia on the basis of the situation that existed at that time. The Zemsky Sobor, convened at that time, supported the intention of the government of Ivan the Terrible to fight in the Baltic states up to the capture of Riga: "Our sovereign of those Livonian cities that the king took for protection, it is unsuitable to retreat, and it is fitting for the sovereign to stand for those cities." The council's decision also emphasized that giving up Livonia would hurt trade interests.

Third stage. From 1569 the war becomes protracted. This year, at the Seimas in Lublin, Lithuania and Poland were united into a single state - the Commonwealth, with which in 1570 Russia managed to conclude a truce for three years.

Since Lithuania and Poland in 1570 could not quickly concentrate their forces against the Muscovite state, because. were exhausted by the war, then Ivan IV began in May 1570 to negotiate a truce with Poland and Lithuania. At the same time, he creates, by neutralizing Poland, an anti-Swedish coalition, realizing his long-standing idea of forming a vassal state from Russia in the Baltic states.

The Danish Duke Magnus accepted the offer of Ivan the Terrible to become his vassal (“goldovnik”) and in the same May 1570, upon arrival in Moscow, was proclaimed “King of Livonia”. The Russian government undertook to provide the new state, which settled on the island of Ezel, with its military assistance and material means so that it could expand its territory at the expense of the Swedish and Lithuanian-Polish possessions in Livonia. The parties intended to seal the allied relations between Russia and the "kingdom" of Magnus by marrying Magnus to the niece of the tsar, the daughter of Prince Vladimir Andreevich Staritsky - Maria.

The proclamation of the Livonian kingdom was, according to Ivan IV, to provide Russia with the support of the Livonian feudal lords, i.e. of all German chivalry and nobility in Estonia, Livonia and Courland, and consequently, not only an alliance with Denmark (through Magnus), but, most importantly, an alliance and support for the Habsburg empire. With this new combination in Russian foreign policy, the tsar intended to create a vise on two fronts for an overly aggressive and restless Poland, which had grown to include Lithuania. Like Vasily IV, Ivan the Terrible also expressed the idea of the possibility and necessity of dividing Poland between the German and Russian states. More intimately, the Tsar was preoccupied with the possibility of creating a Polish-Swedish coalition on his western borders, which he tried with all his might to prevent. All this speaks of a correct, strategically deep understanding of the alignment of forces in Europe by the tsar and of his precise vision of the problems of Russian foreign policy in the short and long term. That is why his military tactics were correct: he sought to defeat Sweden alone as soon as possible, before it came to a joint Polish-Swedish aggression against Russia.

Description of the Livonian War

Livonian War (1558-1583) - the war of the Russian kingdom against the Livonian Order, the Polish-Lithuanian state, Sweden and Denmark for hegemony in the Baltic states.

Main events (Livonian War - briefly)

The reasons: Access to the Baltic Sea. The hostile policy of the Livonian Order.
Occasion: Refusal of the order to pay tribute for Yuriev (Derpt).
First stage (1558-1561): The capture of Narva, Yuriev, Fellin, the capture of Master Furstenberg, the Livonian Order as a military force practically ceased to exist.
Second stage (1562-1577): The entry into the war of the Commonwealth (since 1569) and Sweden. Capture of Polotsk (1563). Defeat on the river Ole and near Orsha (1564). Capture of Weissenstein (1575) and Wenden (1577).
Third stage (1577-1583): Campaign of Stefan Batory, Fall of Polotsk, Velikiye Luki. Defense of Pskov (August 18, 1581 - February 4, 1582) Capture of Narva, Ivangorod, Koporye by the Swedes.
1582- Yam-Zapolsky truce with the Commonwealth (the refusal of Ivan the Terrible from Livonia for the return of the lost Russian fortresses).
1583- Plyussky truce with Sweden (renunciation of Estonia, concession to the Swedes of Narva, Koporye, Ivangorod, Korela).
Reasons for the defeat: an incorrect assessment of the balance of power in the Baltic states, the weakening of the state as a result of the internal policy of Ivan IV.

Course of the Livonian War (1558–1583) (full description)

The reasons

In order to start a war, formal reasons were found, but the real reasons were the geopolitical need for Russia to gain access to the Baltic Sea, as more convenient for direct ties with the centers of European civilizations, and the desire to participate in the division of the territory of the Livonian Order, the progressive collapse of which became obvious, but which, not wanting to strengthen Muscovite Rus', prevented its external contacts.

Russia had a small segment of the Baltic coast, from the Neva basin to Ivangorod. However, it was strategically vulnerable, and there were no ports or developed infrastructure. Ivan the Terrible hoped to use the transport system of Livonia. He considered it an ancient Russian patrimony, which was illegally seized by the Crusaders.

The forceful solution of the problem predetermined the defiant behavior of the Livonians themselves, who, even according to their historians, acted imprudently. The mass pogroms of Orthodox churches in Livonia served as a pretext for aggravating relations. Even at that time, the term of the truce between Moscow and Livonia (concluded in 1504 as a result of the Russian-Lithuanian war of 1500-1503) ended. To extend it, the Russians demanded the payment of the Yuryev tribute, which the Livonians were obliged to pay even to Ivan III, but for 50 years they never collected it. Recognizing the need to pay it, they again did not fulfill their obligations.

1558 - the Russian army entered Livonia. Thus began the Livonian War. It lasted 25 years, becoming the longest and one of the most difficult in Russian history.

First stage (1558-1561)

In addition to Livonia, the Russian tsar wanted to conquer the East Slavic lands, which were part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. 1557, November - he concentrated a 40,000-strong army in Novgorod for a campaign in the Livonian lands.

Capture of Narva and Syrensk (1558)

In December, this army, under the command of the Tatar prince Shig-Aley, Prince Glinsky and other governors, advanced to Pskov. Meanwhile, the auxiliary army of Prince Shestunov began hostilities from the Ivangorod region at the mouth of the Narva (Narova) River. 1558, January - the tsarist army approached Yuryev (Derpt), but could not capture it. Then part of the Russian army turned towards Riga, and the main forces headed for Narva (Rugodiv), where they joined up with Shestunov's army. There was a lull in the fighting. Only the garrisons of Ivangorod and Narva fired at each other. On May 11, the Russians from Ivangorod attacked the Narva fortress and were able to take it the next day.

Soon after the capture of Narva, Russian troops under the command of the governor Adashev, Zabolotsky and Zamytsky and the duma clerk Voronin were ordered to capture the fortress of Syrensk. On June 2, the regiments were under its walls. Adashev set up barriers on the Riga and Kolyvan roads in order to prevent the main forces of the Livonians under the command of the Master of the Order from reaching Syrensk. On June 5, large reinforcements from Novgorod approached Adashev, which the besieged saw. On the same day, artillery shelling of the fortress began. The next day the garrison surrendered.

Capture of Neuhausen and Dorpat (1558)

From Syrensk, Adashev returned to Pskov, where the entire Russian army was concentrated. In mid-June, it took the fortresses of Neuhausen and Dorpat. The entire north of Livonia was under Russian control. The army of the Order in numerical ratio was several times inferior to the Russians and, moreover, was scattered over separate garrisons. It could not oppose anything to the army of the king. Until October 1558, the Russians in Livonia were able to capture 20 castles.

Battle of Tiersen

January 1559 - Russian troops marched on Riga. Near Tirzen they defeated the Livonian army, and near Riga they burned the Livonian fleet. Although it was not possible to capture the Riga fortress, 11 more Livonian castles were taken.

Truce (1559)

The Master of the Order was forced to conclude a truce before the end of 1559. By November of this year, the Livonians were able to recruit landsknechts in Germany and resume the war. But they did not cease to pursue failures.

1560, January - the army of governor Borboshin captured the fortresses of Marienburg and Fellin. The Livonian Order as a military force practically ceased to exist.

1561 - the last master of the Livonian Order, Kettler, recognized himself as a vassal of the king of Poland and divided Livonia between Poland and Sweden (Esel Island went to Denmark). The Poles got Livonia and Courland (Kettler became the Duke of the latter), the Swedes got Estland.

Second stage (1562-1577)

Poland and Sweden began to demand the withdrawal of Russian troops from Livonia. Ivan the Terrible not only did not comply with this requirement, but at the end of 1562 invaded the territory of Lithuania, allied to Poland. His army numbered 33,407 men. The goal of the campaign is the well-fortified Polotsk. 1563, February 15 - Polotsk, unable to withstand the fire of 200 Russian guns, capitulated. Ivan's army moved to Vilna. The Lithuanians were forced to conclude a truce until 1564. After the resumption of the war, Russian troops occupied almost the entire territory of Belarus.

But the repressions that began against the leaders of the "chosen council" - the actual government until the end of the 50s, had a negative impact on the combat capability of the Russian army. Many of the governors and nobles, fearing reprisals, preferred to flee to Lithuania. In the same 1564, one of the most prominent governors, Prince Andrei Kurbsky, who was close to the Adashev brothers, who were members of the elected Rada, and feared for his life, moved there. The subsequent oprichnina terror further weakened the Russian army.

1) Ivan the Terrible; 2) Stefan Batory

The formation of the Commonwealth

1569 - as a result of the Union of Lublin, Poland and Lithuania formed a single state of the Commonwealth (Republic) under the authority of the King of Poland. Now the Polish army came to the aid of the Lithuanian army.

1570 - the fighting in both Lithuania and Livonia intensified. To secure the Baltic lands, Ivan IV decided to create his own fleet. At the beginning of 1570, he issued a "letter of commendation" for the organization of a privateer (private) fleet, which acted on behalf of the Russian tsar, to the Dane Carsten Rode. Rode was able to arm several ships, and he caused significant damage to the Polish maritime trade. In order to have a reliable naval base, the Russian army in the same 1570 tried to capture Reval, thereby starting a war with Sweden. But the city freely received supplies from the sea, and Grozny was forced to lift the siege after 7 months. The Russian privateer fleet was never able to become a formidable force.

Third stage (1577-1583)

After a 7-year lull, in 1577, the 32,000-strong army of Ivan the Terrible undertook a new campaign to Revel. But this time the siege of the city did not bring anything. Then the Russian troops went to Riga, capturing Dinaburg, Wolmar and several other castles. But these successes were not decisive.

Meanwhile, the situation on the Polish front began to deteriorate. 1575 - an experienced military leader, the Transylvanian prince, was elected king of the Commonwealth. He was able to form a strong army, which also included German and Hungarian mercenaries. Bathory concluded an alliance with Sweden, and in the fall of 1578 the combined Polish-Swedish army was able to defeat the 18,000-strong Russian army, which lost 6,000 people killed and captured and 17 guns.

By the beginning of the 1579 campaign, Stefan Batory and Ivan IV had approximately equal main armies of 40,000 men each. Terrible after the defeat at Wenden was not confident in his abilities and offered to start peace negotiations. But Batory rejected this proposal and launched an offensive against Polotsk. In the autumn, Polish troops laid siege to the city and, after a month-long siege, captured it. Rati governor Sheina and Sheremeteva, sent to the rescue of Polotsk, only reached the Sokol fortress. They did not dare to engage in battle with superior enemy forces. Soon the Poles also captured Sokol, defeating the troops of Sheremetev and Shein. The Russian tsar clearly did not have enough strength to successfully fight on two fronts at once - in Livonia and Lithuania. After the capture of Polotsk, the Poles took several cities in Smolensk and Seversk lands, and then returned to Lithuania.

1580 - Batory undertook a big campaign against Rus', he captured and ravaged the cities of Ostrov, Velizh and Velikiye Luki. Then the Swedish army under the command of Pontus Delagardi took the city of Korela and the eastern part of the Karelian Isthmus.

1581 - the Swedish army captured Narva, and the next year they occupied Ivangorod, Yam and Koporye. Russian troops were expelled from Livonia. The fighting moved to the territory of Rus'.

Siege of Pskov (August 18, 1581 – February 4, 1582)

1581 - 50,000 Polish troops led by the king laid siege to Pskov. It was a very strong fortress. The city, which stood on the right, high bank of the Velikaya River at the confluence of the Pskov River, was surrounded by a stone wall. It stretched for 10 km and had 37 towers and 48 gates. However, from the side of the Velikaya River, from where it was difficult to expect an enemy attack, the wall was wooden. Under the towers there were underground passages, providing covert communication between different areas of defense. The city had significant stocks of food, weapons and ammunition.

Russian troops were dispersed over many points, from where an enemy invasion was expected. The tsar himself with a significant detachment stopped in Staritsa, not daring to meet the Polish army marching towards Pskov.

When the sovereign learned about the invasion of Stefan Batory, an army of Prince Ivan Shuisky, who was appointed "great governor", was sent to Pskov. 7 other governors were subordinate to him. All the inhabitants of Pskov and the garrison were sworn in that they would not surrender the city, but would fight to the end. The total number of Russian troops defending Pskov reached 25,000 people and was about half the size of Batory's army. By order of Shuisky, the surroundings of Pskov were devastated so that the enemy could not find food and food there.

Livonian War 1558-1583. Stefan Batory near Pskov

On August 18, Polish troops approached the city at a distance of 2–3 cannon shots. For a week, Batory conducted reconnaissance of the Russian fortifications and only on August 26 gave the order to his troops to approach the city. But the soldiers soon came under fire from Russian guns and retreated to the Cherekha River. There Batory set up a fortified camp.

The Poles began to dig trenches and set up tours to get closer to the walls of the fortress. On the night of September 4-5, they rolled rounds to the Pokrovskaya and Svinaya towers on the southern face of the walls and, placing 20 guns, on the morning of September 6, they began to fire at both towers and 150 m of the wall between them. By the evening of September 7, the towers were badly damaged, and a breach 50 meters wide was formed in the wall. However, the besieged managed to build a new wooden wall against the breach.

On September 8, the Polish army launched an assault. The attackers were able to capture both damaged towers. But shots from big gun"Bars", capable of sending cores over a distance of more than 1 km, the Pig Tower occupied by the Poles was destroyed. Then the Russians blew up its ruins, rolling up barrels of gunpowder. The explosion served as a signal for a counterattack, led by Shuisky himself. The Poles could not hold the Pokrovskaya Tower either - and retreated.

After an unsuccessful assault, Batory ordered to conduct tunnels to blow up the walls. The Russians were able to destroy two tunnels with the help of mine galleries, the enemy could not finish the rest. On October 24, Polish batteries began shelling Pskov from across the Velikaya River with red-hot cannonballs to start fires, but the city's defenders quickly coped with the fire. After 4 days, a Polish detachment with crowbars and pickaxes approached the wall from the Velikaya side between the corner tower and the Pokrovsky Gate and destroyed the sole of the wall. It collapsed, but it turned out that behind this wall there is another wall and a ditch that the Poles could not overcome. The besieged threw stones and pots of gunpowder on their heads, poured boiling water and pitch.

On November 2, the Poles launched the last assault on Pskov. This time Batory's army attacked the western wall. Prior to that, for 5 days it was subjected to powerful shelling and in several places it was destroyed. However, the Russians met the enemy with heavy fire, and the Poles turned back, never reaching the breaches.

By that time, the morale of the besiegers had fallen noticeably. However, the besieged experienced considerable difficulties. The main forces of the Russian army in Staritsa, Novgorod and Rzhev were inactive. Only two detachments of archers of 600 people each tried to break into Pskov, but more than half of them died or were captured.

On November 6, Batory removed the guns from the batteries, stopped siege work and began to prepare for the winter. At the same time, he sent detachments of Germans and Hungarians to capture the Pskov-Caves Monastery, 60 km from Pskov, but the garrison of 300 archers, supported by monks, successfully repulsed two attacks, and the enemy was forced to retreat.

Stefan Batory, having made sure that he could not take Pskov, in November handed over command to Hetman Zamoysky, and he himself went to Vilna, taking with him almost all the mercenaries. As a result, the number of Polish troops almost halved - to 26,000 people. The besiegers suffered from cold and disease, the death toll and desertion increased.

Results and consequences

Under these conditions, Bathory agreed to a ten-year truce. It was concluded in Yama-Zapolsky on January 15, 1582. Rus' renounced all its conquests in Livonia, and the Poles liberated the Russian cities they had occupied.

1583 - the Treaty of Plyus was signed with Sweden. Yam, Koporye and Ivangorod passed to the Swedes. For Russia there was only a small section of the Baltic coast at the mouth of the Neva. But in 1590, after the expiration of the truce, hostilities between the Russians and the Swedes resumed and this time they were successful for the Russians. As a result, according to the Tyavzinsky Treaty on "eternal peace", Rus' regained Yam, Koporye, Ivangorod and Korelsky district. But that was only small consolation. In general, Ivan IV's attempt to gain a foothold in the Baltic failed.

At the same time, sharp contradictions between Poland and Sweden on the issue of control over Livonia facilitated the position of the Russian tsar, excluding a joint Polish-Swedish invasion of Rus'. The resources of Poland alone, as the experience of Batory's campaign against Pskov showed, were clearly not enough to capture and hold a significant territory of the Muscovite kingdom. At the same time, the Livonian War showed that Sweden and Poland in the east had a formidable enemy to be reckoned with.

The main directions of the foreign policy of the Russian centralized state emerged in the second half of the 15th century, under Grand Duke Ivan III. They boiled down, firstly, to the struggle on the eastern and southern borders with the Tatar khanates that arose on the ruins of the Golden Horde; secondly, to the fight against the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the union of Poland connected with it by the bonds of the union for the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian lands captured by the Lithuanian and partly Polish feudal lords; thirdly, to the fight on the northwestern borders against the aggression of the Swedish feudal lords and the Livonian Order, who sought to isolate the Russian state from the natural and convenient outlet it needed to the Baltic Sea.

For centuries, the struggle on the southern and eastern outskirts was a habitual and constant matter. After the collapse of the Golden Horde, the Tatar khans continued to raid the southern borders of Russia. And only in the first half of the 16th century did the long war between the Great Horde and the Crimea absorb the forces of the Tatar world. A protege of Moscow established itself in Kazan. The union between Russia and Crimea lasted for several decades, until the Crimeans destroyed the remnants of the Great Horde. The Ottoman Turks, having subjugated the Crimean Khanate, became a new military force that the Russian state faced in this region. After the attack of the Crimean Khan on Moscow in 1521, the citizens of Kazan broke off vassal relations with Russia. The struggle for Kazan began. Only the third campaign of Ivan IV was successful: Kazan and Astrakhan were taken. Thus, by the mid-50s of the 16th century, a zone of its political influence had developed to the east and south of the Russian state. A force grew in her face that could resist the Crimea and the Ottoman Sultan. The Nogai Horde actually submitted to Moscow, and its influence in the North Caucasus also increased. Following the Nogai Murzas, the Siberian Khan Ediger recognized the power of the king. The Crimean Khan was the most active force holding back Russia's advance to the south and east.

international circumstances and the alignment of political forces within the country. The elected council considered a decisive fight against Crimea timely and necessary. But she did not take into account the difficulties of implementing this plan. Vast expanses wild field"separated what was then Russia from the Crimea. Moscow did not yet have strongholds on this path. The situation spoke more in favor of defense than offensive. In addition to the difficulties of a military nature, there were also great political difficulties. Entering into conflict with the Crimea and Turkey, Russia could count on an alliance with Persia and German Empire. The latter was under the constant threat of Turkish invasion and lost a significant part of Hungary. But at the moment, the position of Poland and Lithuania, who saw in Ottoman Empire a serious counterbalance to Russia. The joint struggle of Russia, Poland and Lithuania against Turkish aggression was accompanied by serious territorial concessions in favor of the latter. Russia could not abandon one of the main directions in foreign policy: reunification with Ukrainian and Belarusian lands. More realistic was the program of struggle for the Baltic states. Ivan the Terrible disagreed with his council, deciding to go to war against the Livonian Order, to try to advance to the Baltic Sea. In principle, both programs suffered from the same defect - impracticability in this moment but at the same time both were equally urgent and timely. Nevertheless, before the start of hostilities in the western direction, Ivan IV stabilized the situation on the lands of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, suppressing the revolt of the Kazan murzas in 1558 and thus forcing the Astrakhan khanates to submit.

Even during the existence of the Novgorod Republic, Sweden began to penetrate the region from the west. The first major skirmish concerns XII century. At the same time, the German knights begin to implement their political doctrine - "March to the East", a crusade against the Slavic and Baltic peoples in order to convert them to Catholicism. In 1201, Riga was founded as a stronghold. In 1202, the Order of the Sword-bearers was founded specifically for operations in the Baltic states, which conquered Yuryev in 1224. Having suffered a series of defeats from the Russian forces and the Baltic tribes, the sword-bearers and the Teutons formed the Livonian Order. The intensified advance of the knights was stopped during 1240-1242. In general, the peace with the order in 1242 did not save from hostilities with the crusaders and the Swedes in the future. The knights, relying on the help of the Roman Catholic Church, at the end of the 13th century captured a significant part of the Baltic lands.

the order pushed the Swedish king to fight the Russian state. Sweden lost the war. After the defeat, the Swedish king was forced to pursue an extremely cautious policy towards his eastern neighbor. True, the sons of Gustav Vasa did not share the waiting position of their father. Crown Prince Eric hoped to establish complete Swedish dominance in Northern Europe. It was obvious that after the death of Gustav, Sweden would again take an active part in Livonian affairs. To some extent, the hands of Sweden were tied by the aggravation of Swedish-Danish relations.

The territorial dispute with Lithuania had a long history. Before the death of Prince Gediminas (1316 - 1341), Russian regions accounted for more than two thirds of the entire territory of the Lithuanian state. Over the next hundred years, under Olgerd and Vitovt, the Chernigov-Seversk region (the cities of Chernigov, Novgorod - Seversk, Bryansk), the Kyiv region, Podolia (the northern part of the lands between the Bug and the Dniester), Volyn, Smolensk region were conquered.

Under Basil III, Russia claimed the throne of the Principality of Lithuania after the death in 1506 of Alexander, whose widow was the sister of the Russian sovereign. In Lithuania, a struggle began between the Lithuanian-Russian and Lithuanian Catholic groups. After the victory of the latter, Alexander's brother Sigismund ascended the Lithuanian throne. The latter saw Vasily as a personal enemy who claimed the Lithuanian throne. This aggravated the already strained Russo-Lithuanian relations. In such an environment, the Lithuanian Seimas in February 1507 decided to start a war with the eastern neighbor. The Lithuanian ambassadors, in an ultimatum form, raised the question of the return of the lands that had passed to Russia during the last wars with Lithuania. It was not possible to achieve positive results in the process of negotiations, and in March 1507 hostilities began. In 1508, in the Principality of Lithuania itself, an uprising of Prince Mikhail Glinsky, another pretender to the throne of Lithuania, begins. The rebellion received active support in Moscow: Glinsky was accepted into Russian citizenship, in addition, he was given an army under the command of Vasily Shemyachich. Glinsky conducted military operations with varying success. One of the reasons for the failure was the fear of the popular movement of Ukrainians and Belarusians who wanted to reunite with Russia. Not having sufficient funds to successfully continue the war, Sigismund decided to start peace negotiations. On October 8, 1508, "Perpetual Peace" was signed. According to it, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania for the first time officially recognized the transition to Russia of the Seversk cities annexed to the Russian state during the wars of the late 15th - early 16th centuries. But despite some success, the government Basil III did not consider the war of 1508 a solution to the issue of Western Russian lands and considered the "eternal peace" as a respite, preparing to continue the struggle. The ruling circles of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were not inclined to come to terms with the loss of the Seversk lands either.

But under the specific conditions of the middle of the 16th century, a direct clash with Poland and Lithuania was not envisaged. The Russian state could not count on the help of reliable and strong allies. Moreover, the war with Poland and Lithuania would have to be waged in difficult conditions of hostile actions both from the Crimea and Turkey, and from Sweden and even the Livonian Order. Therefore, this variant of foreign policy was not considered by the Russian government at the moment.

One of the important factors that determined the choice of the king in favor of the struggle for the Baltic states was the low military potential of the Livonian Order. Home military force in the country was the knightly Order of the Sword. Over 50 castles scattered throughout the country were in the hands of the order authorities. Half of the city of Riga was subordinated to the supreme authority of the master. The archbishop of Riga (another part of Riga was subordinate to him), and the bishops of Derpt, Revel, Ezel and Courland were completely independent. The knights of the order owned estates on fiefdom. Large cities, such as Riga, Revel, Derpt, Narva, and others, were in fact an independent political force, although they were under the supreme authority of the master or bishops. There were constant clashes between the Order and the spiritual princes. The Reformation spread rapidly in the cities, while chivalry remained largely Catholic. The only organ of the central legislative power was the Landtags, convened by the masters in the city of Wolmar. The meetings were attended by representatives of four estates: the Order, the clergy, chivalry and cities. The resolutions of the Landtags usually had no real significance in the absence of a single executive power. Close ties have existed for a long time between the local Baltic population and the Russian lands. Ruthlessly suppressed economically, politically and culturally, the Estonian and Latvian population was ready to support the military operations of the Russian army in the hope of liberation from national oppression.

The Russian state itself by the end of the 50s. XVI century was a powerful military power in Europe. As a result of the reforms, Russia has become much stronger and has achieved a much higher degree of political centralization than ever before. Permanent infantry units were created - the archery army. The Russian artillery also achieved great success. Russia had not only large enterprises for the manufacture of cannons, cannonballs and gunpowder, but also well-trained numerous personnel. In addition, the introduction of an important technical improvement - the gun carriage - made it possible to use artillery in the field. Russian military engineers have developed a new effective system engineering support for the attack of fortresses.

Russia in the 16th century became the largest trading power at the crossroads of Europe and Asia, the craft of which was still suffocated by the lack of

non-ferrous and precious metals. The only channel for the receipt of metals was trade with the West through the overhead mediation of Livonian cities. The Livonian cities - Derpt, Riga, Revel and Narva - were part of the Hansa, a trade association of German cities. The main source of their income was intermediary trade with Russia. For this reason, the attempts of the English and Dutch merchants to establish direct trade relations with the Russian state were stubbornly suppressed by Livonia. At the end of the 15th century, Russia tried to influence the trade policy of the Hanseatic League. In 1492, Russian Ivangorod was founded opposite Narva. A little later, the Hanseatic court in Novgorod was closed. The economic growth of Ivangorod could not but frighten the trading elite of the Livonian cities, which were losing huge profits. Livonia, in response, was ready to organize an economic blockade, which was also supported by Sweden, Lithuania and Poland. In order to eliminate the organized economic blockade of Russia, a clause on freedom of communication with European countries through Swedish possessions was included in the 1557 peace treaty with Sweden. Another channel of Russian-European trade passed through the cities of the Gulf of Finland, in particular, Vyborg. The further growth of this trade was hindered by the contradictions between Sweden and Russia in border issues.

Trade on the White Sea, although of great importance, could not solve the problems of Russian-Northern European contacts for many reasons: navigation on the White Sea is impossible most of the year; the way there was difficult and distant; contacts were unilateral in nature with the complete monopoly of the British, etc. The development of the Russian economy, which needed constant and unhindered trade relations with the countries of Europe, set the task of gaining access to the Baltic.

The roots of the war for Livonia should be sought not only in the described economic situation of the Muscovite state, they also lay in the distant past. Even under the first princes, Rus' was in close contact with many foreign states. Russian merchants traded in the markets of Constantinople, marriage unions connected the princely family with European dynasties. In addition to overseas merchants, ambassadors of other states and missionaries often came to Kyiv. One of the consequences of the Tatar-Mongol yoke for Rus' was the forcible reorientation of foreign policy towards the East. The war for Livonia was the first serious attempt to bring Russian life back on track, to restore the interrupted connection with the West.

International life posed the same dilemma for every European state: to secure for itself an independent, independent position in the sphere of international relations, or to serve as a mere object of interests of other powers. In many respects from the outcome of the struggle for the Baltic states

the future of the Muscovite state depended: whether it would enter the family of European peoples, having the opportunity to communicate independently with the states of Western Europe.

In addition to trade and international prestige, the territorial claims of the Russian Tsar played an important role among the causes of the war. In the first message of Ivan the Terrible, Ivan IV reasonably states: "... The city of Vladimir, located in our patrimony, the Livonian land ...". Many Baltic lands have long belonged to the Novgorod land, as well as the banks of the Neva River and the Gulf of Finland, subsequently captured by the Livonian Order.

The social factor should not be discounted either. The program of the struggle for the Baltic states met the interests of the nobility and the townspeople. The nobility counted on the local distribution of land in the Baltic, as opposed to the boyar nobility, which was more satisfied with the option of annexing the southern lands. Due to the remoteness of the "wild field", the impossibility of establishing a strong central authority there, at least at first, the landowners - the boyars had the opportunity to occupy the position of almost independent sovereigns in the southern regions. Ivan the Terrible sought to weaken the influence of the titled Russian boyars, and, naturally, he took into account, first of all, the interests of the nobility and merchant classes.

With the complex alignment of forces in Europe, it was extremely important to choose a favorable moment for the start of hostilities against Livonia. It came to Russia at the end of 1557 - the beginning of 1558. The defeat of Sweden in the Russian-Swedish war temporarily neutralized this rather strong enemy, which had the status of a maritime power. Denmark at this point was distracted by the aggravation of its relations with Sweden. Lithuania and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were not bound by serious complications of the international order, but were not ready for a military clash with Russia due to unresolved issues of the internal order: social conflicts within each state and disagreements over the union. Proof of this is the fact that in 1556 the expired truce between Lithuania and the Russian state was extended for six years. And finally, as a result of military operations against the Crimean Tatars, it was possible for some time not to be afraid of the southern borders. The raids resumed only in 1564 during a period of complications on the Lithuanian front.

During this period, relations with Livonia were rather strained. In 1554, Alexey Adashev and the clerk Viskovaty announced to the Livonian embassy that they did not want to extend the truce due to:

Non-payment by the Bishop of Dorpat of tribute from the possessions ceded to him by the Russian princes;

The oppression of Russian merchants in Livonia and the ruin of Russian settlements in the Baltic.

The establishment of peaceful relations between Russia and Sweden contributed to the temporary settlement of Russian-Livonian relations. After Russia lifted the ban on the export of wax and lard, Livonia was presented with the terms of a new truce:

Unimpeded transportation of weapons to Russia;

Guaranteed payment of tribute by the Bishop of Derpt;

Restoration of all Russian churches in Livonian cities;

Refusal to enter into an alliance with Sweden, the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania;

Providing conditions for free trade.

Livonia was not going to fulfill its obligations under a truce concluded for fifteen years.

Thus, the choice was made in favor of resolving the Baltic issue. This was facilitated by a number of reasons: economic, territorial, social and ideological. Russia, being in a favorable international situation, had a high military potential and was ready for a military conflict with Livonia for the possession of the Baltic states.

The Livonian War of 1558-1583 became one of the most important campaigns of the times of Yes and of the entire 16th century, perhaps.

Livonian War: briefly about the prerequisites

After the great Moscow Tsar managed to conquer Kazan and

Astrakhan Khanate, Ivan IV turned his attention to the Baltic lands and access to the Baltic Sea. The capture of these territories for the Muscovite kingdom would mean promising opportunities for trade in the Baltic. At the same time, it was extremely unprofitable for the German merchants and the Livonian Order, who had already settled there, to allow new competitors into the region. The resolution of these contradictions was to be the Livonian War. We should also briefly mention the formal reason for it. They were served by the non-payment of the tribute that the Derpt bishopric was obliged to pay in favor of Moscow in accordance with the 1554 agreement. Formally, such a tribute has existed since the beginning of the 16th century. However, in practice, no one remembered about it for a long time. Only with the aggravation of relations between the parties did he use this fact as a justification for the Russian invasion of the Baltic.

Livonian war: briefly about the ups and downs of the conflict

Russian troops launched an invasion of Livonia in 1558. The first stage of the clash, which lasted until 1561, ended

crushing defeat of the Livonian Order. The armies of the Muscovite tsar marched through eastern and central Livonia with pogroms. Dorpat and Riga were taken. In 1559, the parties concluded a truce for six months, which was to develop into a peace treaty on the terms of the Livonian Order from Russia. But the kings of Poland and Sweden hurried to help the German knights. King Sigismund II, by a diplomatic maneuver, managed to take the order under his own protectorate. And in November 1561, under the terms of the Vilna Treaty, the Livonian Order ceases to exist. Its territories are divided between Lithuania and Poland. Now Ivan the Terrible had to confront three powerful rivals at once: the Principality of Lithuania, the Kingdoms of Poland and Sweden. With the latter, however, the Muscovite tsar managed to quickly make peace for a while. In 1562-63, the second large-scale campaign to the Baltic begins. The events of the Livonian War at this stage continued to develop successfully. However, already in the mid-1560s, relations between Ivan the Terrible and the boyars of the Chosen Rada escalated to the limit. The situation worsens even more due to the flight of one of the closest princely associates of Andrei Kurbsky to Lithuania and his defection to the side of the enemy (the reason that prompted the boyar was the growing despotism in the Moscow principality and the infringement of the ancient liberties of the boyars). After this event, Ivan the Terrible finally hardens, seeing around him solid traitors. In parallel with this, defeats at the front also occur, which were explained by the prince's internal enemies. In 1569, Lithuania and Poland united into a single state, which

strengthens their power. In the late 1560s - early 70s, Russian troops suffered a series of defeats and even lost several fortresses. Since 1579, the war has been taking on a more defensive character. However, in 1579 Polotsk was captured by the enemy, in 1580 - Veliky Luk, in 1582 the long siege of Pskov continued. The necessity of signing peace and respite for the state after decades of military campaigns becomes obvious.

Livonian war: briefly about the consequences

The war ended with the signing of the Plyussky and Yam-Zapolsky truces, which were extremely disadvantageous for Moscow. The exit was never received. Instead, the prince received an exhausted and devastated country, which found itself in an extremely difficult situation. The consequences of the Livonian War accelerated the internal crisis that led to the Great Troubles at the beginning of the 16th century.

Livonian war: causes, course, results:

INTRODUCTION

1. CAUSES OF THE LIVONS WAR

2.1 First stage

2.2. Second phase

2.3 Third stage

2.4 Outcomes of the war

CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

INTRODUCTION

Relevance of the topic. The history of the Livonian War, despite the knowledge of the goals of the conflict, the nature of the actions of the warring parties, the results of the clash, remains among the key problems of Russian history. Evidence of this is the diversity of opinions of researchers who tried to determine the significance of this war among other foreign policy actions of Russia in the second half of the 16th century. It is possible with good reason to find problems similar to those of the reign of Ivan the Terrible in foreign policy modern Russia. Having thrown off the Horde yoke, the young state needed an urgent reorientation to the West, the restoration of interrupted contacts. The Soviet Union was also in long-term isolation from most of the Western world for many reasons, so the first task of the new, democratic government was to actively search for partners and raise the country's international prestige. It is the search for the right ways to establish contacts that determines the relevance of the topic under study in social reality.

Object of study. Russia's foreign policy in the 16th century.

Subject of study. Livonian war causes, course, results.

Objective. To characterize the influence of the Livonian War of 1558 - 1583. on the international position of Russia; and also on internal politics and the economy of the country.

Tasks:

1. Determine the causes of the Livonian War of 1558 - 1583.

2. Identify the main stages in the course of hostilities with a description of each of them. Pay attention to the causes of changes in the nature of war.

3. Summing up the results of the Livonian War, based on the terms of the peace treaty.

Timeline: started in 1558 and ended 1583.

Geographic scope: the territory of the Baltic States, the western and northwestern regions of Russia.

1. CAUSES OF THE LIVONS WAR

For centuries, the struggle on the southern and eastern outskirts was a habitual and constant matter. After the collapse of the Golden Horde, the Tatar khans continued to raid the southern borders of Russia. And only in the first half of the 16th century did the long war between the Great Horde and the Crimea absorb the forces of the Tatar world. A protege of Moscow established itself in Kazan. The union between Russia and Crimea lasted for several decades, until the Crimeans destroyed the remnants of the Great Horde. Skrynnikov, R.G. Russian history. IX - XVII centuries - M., 1997. - S. 227. The Ottoman Turks, having subjugated the Crimean Khanate, became a new military force that the Russian state faced in this region. After the attack of the Crimean Khan on Moscow in 1521, the citizens of Kazan broke off vassal relations with Russia. The struggle for Kazan began. Only the third campaign of Ivan IV was successful: Kazan and Astrakhan were taken. Skrynnikov R.G. Decree. op. - S. 275-277. Thus, by the mid-50s of the 16th century, a zone of its political influence had developed to the east and south of the Russian state. A force grew in her face that could resist the Crimea and the Ottoman Sultan. The Nogai Horde actually submitted to Moscow, and its influence in the North Caucasus also increased. Following the Nogai Murzas, the Siberian Khan Ediger recognized the power of the king. The Crimean Khan was the most active force holding back Russia's advance to the south and east. Zimin, A.A., Khoroshkevich A.L. Russia in the time of Ivan the Terrible. - M., 1982. - S. 87-88.

The foreign policy question that has arisen seems natural: should we continue the onslaught on the Tatar world, should we finish the struggle, the roots of which go back to the distant past? Is the attempt to conquer the Crimea timely? Two different programs clashed in Russian foreign policy. The formation of these programs was determined by international circumstances and the alignment of political forces within the country. The elected council considered a decisive fight against Crimea timely and necessary. But she did not take into account the difficulties of implementing this plan. The vast expanses of the "wild field" separated the then Russia from the Crimea. Moscow did not yet have strongholds on this path. The situation spoke more in favor of defense than offensive. In addition to the difficulties of a military nature, there were also great political difficulties. Entering into conflict with the Crimea and Turkey, Russia could count on an alliance with Persia and the German Empire. The latter was under the constant threat of Turkish invasion and lost a significant part of Hungary. But at the moment, the position of Poland and Lithuania, which saw in the Ottoman Empire a serious counterbalance to Russia, was much more important. The joint struggle of Russia, Poland and Lithuania against Turkish aggression was accompanied by serious territorial concessions in favor of the latter. Russia could not abandon one of the main directions in foreign policy: reunification with Ukrainian and Belarusian lands. More realistic was the program of struggle for the Baltic states. Ivan the Terrible disagreed with his council, deciding to go to war against the Livonian Order, to try to advance to the Baltic Sea. In principle, both programs suffered from the same defect - impracticability at the moment, but at the same time, both were equally urgent and timely. Shmurlo, E.F. History of Russia (IX - XX centuries). - M., 1997. - S. 82-85. However, before the start of hostilities on westbound Ivan IV stabilized the situation on the lands of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, suppressing the revolt of the Kazan murzas in 1558 and thus forcing the Astrakhan khanates to submit. Zimin, A.A., Khoroshkevich A.L. Russia in the time of Ivan the Terrible. - M., 1982. - S. 92-93.

Even during the existence of the Novgorod Republic, Sweden began to penetrate the region from the west. The first serious skirmish dates back to the 12th century. At the same time, the German knights begin to implement their political doctrine - "March to the East", crusade against the Slavic and Baltic peoples with the aim of converting them to Catholicism. In 1201, Riga was founded as a stronghold. In 1202, the Order of the Sword-bearers was founded specifically for operations in the Baltic states, which conquered Yuryev in 1224. Having suffered a series of defeats from the Russian forces and the Baltic tribes, the sword-bearers and the Teutons formed the Livonian Order. The intensified advance of the knights was stopped during 1240 - 1242. In general, the peace with the order in 1242 did not save from hostilities with the crusaders and the Swedes in the future. The knights, relying on the help of the Roman Catholic Church, at the end of the 13th century captured a significant part of the Baltic lands.

Sweden, having its own interests in the Baltics, was able to intervene in Livonian affairs. The Russian-Swedish war lasted from 1554 to 1557. The attempts of Gustav I Vasa to involve Denmark, Lithuania, Poland and the Livonian Order in the war against Russia did not produce results, although initially it was the order that pushed the Swedish king to fight the Russian state. Sweden lost the war. After the defeat, the Swedish king was forced to pursue an extremely cautious policy towards his eastern neighbor. True, the sons of Gustav Vasa did not share the waiting position of their father. Crown Prince Eric hoped to establish complete Swedish dominance in Northern Europe. It was obvious that after the death of Gustav, Sweden would again take an active part in Livonian affairs. To some extent, Sweden's hands were tied by the aggravation of Swedish-Danish relations. Korolyuk, V.D. Decree op. - S. 25-26.

Under Basil III, Russia claimed the throne of the Principality of Lithuania after the death in 1506 of Alexander, whose widow was the sister of the Russian sovereign. Zimin, A.A. Russia on the threshold of a new era. M., 1972. - P.79. In Lithuania, a struggle began between the Lithuanian-Russian and Lithuanian Catholic groups. After the victory of the latter, Alexander's brother Sigismund ascended the Lithuanian throne. The latter saw Vasily as a personal enemy who claimed the Lithuanian throne. This aggravated the already strained Russo-Lithuanian relations. In such an environment, the Lithuanian Seimas in February 1507 decided to start a war with the eastern neighbor. The Lithuanian ambassadors, in an ultimatum form, raised the question of the return of the lands that had passed to Russia during the last wars with Lithuania. It was not possible to achieve positive results in the process of negotiations, and in March 1507 hostilities began. In 1508, in the Principality of Lithuania itself, an uprising of Prince Mikhail Glinsky, another pretender to the throne of Lithuania, begins. The rebellion received active support in Moscow: Glinsky was accepted into Russian citizenship, in addition, he was given an army under the command of Vasily Shemyachich. Glinsky conducted military operations with varying success. One of the reasons for the failure was the fear of the popular movement of Ukrainians and Belarusians who wanted to reunite with Russia. Not having sufficient funds to successfully continue the war, Sigismund decided to start peace negotiations. On October 8, 1508, "Perpetual Peace" was signed. According to it, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania for the first time officially recognized the transition to Russia of the Seversk cities annexed to the Russian state during the wars of the late 15th - early 16th centuries. Zimin, A.A. Russia on the threshold of a new era. M., 1972. - S. 82-93. But, despite some success, the government of Vasily III did not consider the war of 1508 to be a solution to the issue of Western Russian lands and considered "eternal peace" as a respite, preparing to continue the struggle. The ruling circles of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were not inclined to come to terms with the loss of the Seversk lands either.

One of the important factors that determined the choice of the king in favor of the struggle for the Baltic states was the low military potential of the Livonian Order. The main military force in the country was the knightly Order of the Sword. Over 50 castles scattered throughout the country were in the hands of the order authorities. Half of the city of Riga was subordinated to the supreme authority of the master. The archbishop of Riga (another part of Riga was subordinate to him), and the bishops of Derpt, Revel, Ezel and Courland were completely independent. Korolyuk V.D. Decree op. S. 22. The knights of the order owned estates on a fief basis. Large cities, such as Riga, Revel, Derpt, Narva, and others, were in fact an independent political force, although they were under the supreme authority of the master or bishops. There were constant clashes between the Order and the spiritual princes. The Reformation spread rapidly in the cities, while chivalry remained largely Catholic. The only organ of the central legislative power was the Landtags, convened by the masters in the city of Wolmar. The meetings were attended by representatives of four estates: the Order, the clergy, chivalry and cities. The resolutions of the Landtags usually had no real significance in the absence of a single executive power. Close ties have existed for a long time between the local Baltic population and the Russian lands. Ruthlessly suppressed economically, politically and culturally, the Estonian and Latvian population was ready to support the military operations of the Russian army in the hope of liberation from national oppression.

Russia in the 16th century became the largest trading power at the crossroads of Europe and Asia, whose craft was still suffocated by the lack of non-ferrous and precious metals. The only channel for the receipt of metals is trade with the West through the overhead mediation of Livonian cities. Zimin, A.A., Khoroshkevich. Russia in the time of Ivan the Terrible. - M., 1982. - S. 89. The Livonian cities - Dorpat, Riga, Revel and Narva - were part of the Hansa, a trade association of German cities. The main source of their income was intermediary trade with Russia. For this reason, the attempts of the English and Dutch merchants to establish direct trade relations with the Russian state were stubbornly suppressed by Livonia. At the end of the 15th century, Russia tried to influence the trade policy of the Hanseatic League. In 1492, Russian Ivangorod was founded opposite Narva. A little later, the Hanseatic court in Novgorod was closed. The economic growth of Ivangorod could not but frighten the trading elite of the Livonian cities, which were losing huge profits. Livonia, in response, was ready to organize an economic blockade, which was also supported by Sweden, Lithuania and Poland. In order to eliminate the organized economic blockade of Russia, a clause on freedom of communication with European countries through Swedish possessions was included in the 1557 peace treaty with Sweden. Korolyuk, V.D. Decree op. - S. 30-32. Another channel of Russian-European trade passed through the cities of the Gulf of Finland, in particular, Vyborg. The further growth of this trade was hindered by the contradictions between Sweden and Russia in border issues.

Trade on the White Sea, although of great importance, could not solve the problems of Russian-Northern European contacts for many reasons: navigation on the White Sea is impossible for most of the year; the way there was difficult and distant; contacts were unilateral in nature with the complete monopoly of the British, etc. Zimin, A. A., Khoroshkevich, A. L. Russia in the Time of Ivan the Terrible. - M., 1982. - S. 90-91. The development of the Russian economy, which needed constant and unhindered trade relations with the countries of Europe, set the task of gaining access to the Baltic.

The roots of the war for Livonia should be sought not only in the described economic situation of the Muscovite state, they also lay in the distant past. Even under the first princes, Rus' was in close contact with many foreign states. Russian merchants traded in the markets of Constantinople, marriage unions connected the princely family with European dynasties. In addition to overseas merchants, ambassadors of other states and missionaries often came to Kyiv. Shmurlo, E.F. Decree. op. - P. 90. One of the consequences of the Tatar-Mongol yoke for Rus' was the forcible reorientation of foreign policy towards the East. The war for Livonia was the first serious attempt to bring Russian life back on track, to restore the interrupted connection with the West.

International life posed the same dilemma for every European state: to provide for itself in the sphere of international relations an independent, independent position or serve as a mere object of interests of other powers. In many ways, the future of the Muscovite state depended on the outcome of the struggle for the Baltic states: whether it would enter the family of European peoples, having the opportunity to independently communicate with the states of Western Europe.

In addition to trade and international prestige, the territorial claims of the Russian Tsar played an important role among the causes of the war. In the first message of Ivan the Terrible, Ivan IV reasonably states: "... The city of Vladimir, located in our patrimony, the Livonian land ...". Correspondence of Ivan the Terrible with Andrei Kurbsky / Comp. Ya. S. Lurie, Yu. D. Rykov. - M., 1993. - S. 156. Many Baltic lands have long belonged to the Novgorod land, as well as the banks of the Neva River and the Gulf of Finland, subsequently captured by the Livonian Order.

The social factor should not be discounted either. The program of the struggle for the Baltic states met the interests of the nobility and the townspeople. Korolyuk, V.D. Decree. op. - P. 29. The nobility counted on land distribution in the Baltic states, as opposed to the boyar nobility, which was more satisfied with the option of annexing the southern lands. Due to the remoteness of the "wild field", the impossibility of establishing a strong central authority there, at least at first the landowners - the boyars had the opportunity to take the position of almost independent sovereigns in the southern regions. Ivan the Terrible sought to weaken the influence of the titled Russian boyars, and, naturally, he took into account, first of all, the interests of the nobility and merchant classes.

With the complex alignment of forces in Europe, it was extremely important to choose a favorable moment for the start of hostilities against Livonia. It came to Russia in late 1557 - early 1558. The defeat of Sweden in the Russian-Swedish war temporarily neutralized this rather strong enemy, which had the status of a maritime power. Denmark at this point was distracted by the aggravation of its relations with Sweden. Lithuania and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were not bound by serious complications of the international order, but were not ready for a military clash with Russia due to unresolved issues of the internal order: social conflicts within each state and disagreements over the union. Proof of this is the fact that in 1556 the expired truce between Lithuania and the Russian state was extended for six years. There. - P. 27. And finally, as a result of military operations against the Crimean Tatars, it was possible for some time not to be afraid of the southern borders. The raids resumed only in 1564 during a period of complications on the Lithuanian front.

During this period, relations with Livonia were rather strained. In 1554, Alexey Adashev and the clerk Viskovaty announced to the Livonian embassy that they did not want to extend the truce due to:

Non-payment by the Bishop of Dorpat of tribute from the possessions ceded to him by the Russian princes;

The oppression of Russian merchants in Livonia and the ruin of Russian settlements in the Baltic.

Unimpeded transportation of weapons to Russia;

Guaranteed payment of tribute by the Bishop of Derpt;

Restoration of all Russian churches in Livonian cities;

Refusal to enter into an alliance with Sweden, the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania;

Providing conditions for free trade.

Livonia was not going to fulfill its obligations under a truce concluded for fifteen years. Zimin, A. A., Khoroshkevich A. L. Russia in the Time of Ivan the Terrible. - M., 1982. - S. 92 - 93.

2. PROGRESS AND RESULTS OF THE LIVONS WAR

2.1 First phase of the war

The course of the Livonian War can be divided into three stages, each of which differs somewhat in the composition of the participants, the duration and nature of the actions. The reason for the start of hostilities in the Baltic States was the fact that the Bishop of Dorpat did not pay the "Yurievsky tribute" from the possessions ceded to him by the Russian princes. Korolyuk, V. D. Decree. op. - P. 34. In addition to the oppression of the Russian people in the Baltic states, the Livonian authorities violated another clause of the agreement with Russia - in September 1554 they entered into an alliance with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, directed against Moscow. Zimin, A. A., Khoroshkevich, A. L. Russia in the Time of Ivan the Terrible. - M., 1982. -S. 93. The Russian government sent Master Furstenberg a letter declaring war. However, hostilities did not begin then - Ivan IV hoped to achieve his goals through diplomacy until June 1558.

The main goal of the first campaign of the Russian army in Livonia, which took place in the winter of 1558, was the desire to achieve a voluntary concession of Narva from the Order. Hostilities began in January 1558. Moscow cavalry rati led by the Kasimov "king" Shah - Ali and Prince. M.V. Glinsky entered the land of the Order. During the winter campaign, Russian and Tatar detachments, numbering 40 thousand soldiers, reached the Baltic coast, devastating the environs of many Livonian cities and castles. During this campaign, Russian military leaders twice, on the direct instructions of the tsar, sent letters to the master about the resumption of peace negotiations. The Livonian authorities made concessions: they began collecting tribute, agreed with the Russian side on a temporary cessation of hostilities and sent their representatives to Moscow, who, during the most difficult negotiations, were forced to agree to the transfer of Narva to Russia.

But the established truce was soon violated by supporters of the military party of the Order. March 1558. Narva Vogt E. von Schlennenberg ordered the shelling of the Russian fortress Ivangorod, provoking a new invasion of Moscow troops into Livonia.

During the second trip to the Baltic in May-July 1558. Russians captured more than 20 fortresses, including the most important ones - Narva, Neishloss, Neuhaus, Kiripe and Derpt. During the summer campaign in 1558. the troops of the Moscow tsar came close to Revel and Riga, devastating their surroundings. Korolyuk, V.D. Decree. op. - S. 38.

The decisive battle of the winter campaign of 1558/1559. happened near the city of Tiersen, where on January 17, 1559. met a large Livonian detachment of the Riga house prefect F. Felkerzam and the Russian Advanced Regiment, led by the voivode Prince. V.S. Silver. In a stubborn battle, the Germans were defeated.

March 1559. the Russian government, considering its position sufficiently strong, through the mediation of the Danes, agreed to conclude a six-month truce with master V. Furstenberg - from May to November 1559.

Having received in 1559. an urgently needed respite, the order authorities, headed by G. Ketler, who became on September 17, 1559. new master, enlisted the support of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Sweden. Ketler in October 1559 broke the truce with Moscow. The new master managed to defeat the detachment of the governor Z.I. near Dorpat with an unexpected attack. Ochina-Pleshcheeva. Nevertheless, the head of the Yuryevsky (Derpt) garrison, voivode Katyrev-Rostovsky, managed to take measures to defend the city. For ten days, the Livonians unsuccessfully stormed Yuryev and, not venturing into a winter siege, were forced to retreat. The siege of Lais in November 1559 turned out to be just as unsuccessful. Ketler, having lost 400 soldiers in the battles for the fortress, retreated to Wenden.

The result of a new big offensive of the Russian troops was the capture of one of the strongest fortresses of Livonia - Fellin - on August 30, 1560. A few months before this, Russian troops led by governors Prince I.F. Mstislavsky and Prince P.I. Shuisky occupied Marienburg.

Thus, the first stage of the Livonian War lasted from 1558 to 1561. It was conceived as a punitive demonstration campaign with the clear military superiority of the Russian army. Livonia stubbornly resisted, counting on the help of Sweden, Lithuania and Poland. Hostile relations between these states allowed Russia for the time being to conduct successful military operations in the Baltics.

2.2 Second phase of the war

Despite the defeat of the Order, the government of Ivan the Terrible faced a difficult choice: either to cede the Baltic states in response to the ultimatum statement of Poland and Lithuania (1560), or to prepare for war against the anti-Russian coalition (Sweden, Denmark, the Polish-Lithuanian state and the Holy Roman Empire) . Ivan the Terrible attempted to avoid conflict by dynastic marriage with a relative of the Polish king. The matchmaking proved unsuccessful, as Sigismund demanded territorial concessions as a marriage condition. Kostomarov, N. I. Russian history in the biographies of its most important figures. SPb., 2007. - S. 361.

The successes of the Russian weapons accelerated the disintegration of the Cavalier Teutonic Order in Livonia. Korolyuk, V.D. Decree. op. - P. 44. In June 1561, the cities of Northern Estonia, including Revel, swore allegiance to the Swedish king Eric XIV. The Livonian state ceased to exist, transferring its cities, castles and lands under the joint rule of Lithuania and Poland. Master Ketler became a vassal of the Polish king and Grand Duke of Lithuania Sigismund II August. In December, Lithuanian troops were sent to Livonia, occupying more than ten cities. The Muscovite side initially managed to reach an agreement with the Kingdom of Sweden (August 20, 1561 in Novgorod, a truce was concluded with representatives of the Swedish king Eric XIV for 20 years).

In March 1562, immediately after the end of the truce with Lithuania, the Moscow governors devastated the environs of the Lithuanian Orsha, Mogilev and Vitebsk. In Livonia, the troops of I.F. Mstislavsky and P.I. Shuisky captured the cities of Tarvast (Taurus) and Verpel (Polchev).

In the spring of 1562 Lithuanian troops carried out retaliatory raids on Smolensk places and Pskov volosts, after which the fighting unfolded along the entire line of the Russian-Lithuanian border. Summer - autumn 1562. Lithuanian troops continued to attack border fortresses in Russia (Nevel) and on the territory of Livonia (Tarvast).

December 1562. Ivan IV himself set out on a campaign against Lithuania with an 80,000-strong army. Russian regiments in January 1563 moved to Polotsk, which had a favorable strategic position at the junction of Russian, Lithuanian and Livonian borders. The siege of Polotsk began on January 31, 1563. Thanks to the actions of Russian artillery, the well-fortified city was taken on February 15. There. - P. 55. An attempt to conclude peace with Lithuania (with the condition of consolidating the successes achieved) failed.

Soon after the victory near Polotsk, the Russian rati began to suffer defeats. The Lithuanians, alarmed by the loss of the city, sent all available forces to the Moscow border under the command of Hetman Nikolai Radziwill.

Battle on the river Ulle January 26, 1564 turned into a heavy defeat for the Russian army due to the betrayal of Prince. A.M. Kurbsky, an agent of Lithuanian intelligence, who transmitted information about the movement of Russian regiments.

1564 brought not only the flight of Kurbsky to Lithuania, but also another defeat from the Lithuanians - near Orsha. The war took on a protracted character. In the autumn of 1564 the government of Ivan the Terrible, not having the strength to fight several states at once, concluded a seven-year peace with Sweden at the cost of recognizing Swedish authority over Reval, Pernov (Pärnu) and other cities of Northern Estonia.

In the autumn of 1564 the Lithuanian army, in which Kurbsky was also located, launched a successful counteroffensive. In agreement with Sigismund II, the Crimean Khan Devlet Giray also approached Ryazan, whose raid led the king into a panic.

In 1568, the enemy of Ivan IV, Johan III, sat on the Swedish throne. In addition, the rude actions of Russian diplomats contributed to the further deterioration of relations with Sweden. In 1569 Lithuania and Poland, according to the Union of Lublin, merged into a single state - the Commonwealth. Korolyuk, V.D. Decree. op. - S. 69. In 1570, the Russian tsar accepted the peace conditions of the Polish king in order to be able to oust the Swedes from the Baltic states by force of arms. On the lands of Livonia occupied by Moscow, a vassal kingdom was created, the ruler of which was Danish prince Magnus Holstein. The siege of the Swedish Revel by the Russian-Livonian troops for almost 30 weeks ended in complete failure. Kostomarov, N. I. Historical monographs and research: in 2 books. - M., 1989. - S. 87. In 1572, a struggle began in Europe for the Polish throne, which had become empty after the death of Sigismund. The Commonwealth was on the threshold civil war and foreign invasion. Russia hastened to turn the tide of the war in its favor. In 1577, the victorious campaign of the Russian army to the Baltic took place, as a result of which Russia controlled the entire coast of the Gulf of Finland, excluding Riga and Revel.

In the second stage, the war took on a protracted character. The struggle was fought on several fronts with varying success. The situation was complicated by unsuccessful diplomatic actions and mediocrity of the military command. Failures in foreign policy led to a sharp change in domestic policy. Years of war led to an economic crisis. The military successes achieved by 1577 subsequently failed to be consolidated.

2.3 Third phase of the war

A decisive turning point in the course of hostilities is associated with the appearance at the head of the Polish-Lithuanian state of an experienced military leader Stefan Batory, whose candidacy for the Polish throne was nominated and supported by Turkey and the Crimea. He deliberately did not interfere with the offensive of the Russian troops, delaying peace negotiations with Moscow. His first concern was the solution of internal problems: the suppression of the rebellious gentry and the restoration of the combat capability of the army.

In 1578 Polish counter-offensive began Swedish troops. The stubborn struggle for the castle of Verdun ended on October 21, 1578. heavy defeat of the Russian infantry. Russia lost one city after another. Duke Magnus went over to the side of Bathory. The difficult situation forced the Russian tsar to seek peace with Batory in order to gather strength and inflict in the summer of 1579. decisive blow to the Swedes.

But Batory did not want peace on Russian terms and was preparing to continue the war with Russia. In this, he was fully supported by the allies: the Swedish king Johan III, the Saxon Elector August and the Brandenburg Elector Johann George. Zimin, A. A., Khoroshkevich, A. L. Russia in the Time of Ivan the Terrible. - M., 1982. - S. 125.

Batory determined the direction of the main attack not on devastated Livonia, where there were still many Russian troops, but on the territory of Russia in the Polotsk region - a key point on the Dvina. There. - S. 140.

Alarmed by the invasion Polish army within the Muscovite state, Ivan the Terrible tried to strengthen the garrison of Polotsk and its combat capabilities. However, these actions are clearly too late. The siege of Polotsk by the Poles lasted three weeks. The defenders of the city offered fierce resistance, but, suffering huge losses and having lost faith in the help of the Russian troops, they surrendered on September 1 to Batory.

After the capture of Polotsk, the Lithuanian army invaded the Smolensk and Seversk lands. After this success, Batory returned to the capital of Lithuania - Vilna, from where he sent a message to Ivan the Terrible with a message about the victories and demanding the cession of Livonia and recognition of the rights of the Commonwealth to Courland.

Preparing to resume hostilities next year, Stefan Batory again intended to attack not in Livonia, but in a northeasterly direction. This time he was going to capture the fortress of Velikiye Luki, which covered the Novgorod lands from the south. And again, Batory's plans turned out to be unsolved by the Moscow command. Russian regiments were stretched along the entire front line from the Livonian city of Kokenhausen to Smolensk. This mistake had the most negative consequences.

At the end of August 1580. the army of the Polish king (48-50 thousand people, of which 21 thousand were infantry) crossed the Russian border. The royal army, which set out on a campaign, had first-class artillery, which included 30 siege guns.

The siege of Velikiye Luki began on August 26, 1580. Alarmed by the successes of the enemy, Ivan the Terrible offered him peace, agreeing to very significant territorial concessions, primarily the transfer of 24 cities in Livonia to the Commonwealth. The tsar also expressed his readiness to renounce claims to Polotsk and Polotsk land. However, Batory considered Moscow's proposals insufficient, demanding all of Livonia. Apparently, even then, in his entourage, plans were being developed to conquer the Seversk land, Smolensk, Veliky Novgorod and Pskov. The interrupted siege of the city continued, and on September 5, the defenders of the dilapidated fortress agreed to surrender.

Shortly after this victory, the Poles took the fortresses of Narva (September 29), Ozerische (October 12) and Zavolochye (October 23).

In the battle near Toropets, the army of Prince. V.D. Khilkov, and this deprived the protection of the southern borders of the Novgorod land.

The Polish-Lithuanian detachments continued military operations in this area even in winter. The Swedes, having taken with great difficulty the fortress of Padis, put an end to the Russian presence in Western Estonia.

The main target of Batory's third strike was Pskov. June 20, 1581 The Polish army set out on a campaign. This time, the king failed to hide his preparation and the direction of the main attack. The Russian governors succeeded, ahead of the enemy, in delivering a warning strike in the area of Dubrovna, Orsha, Shklov and Mogilev. This attack not only slowed down the progress of the Polish army, but also weakened its strength. Thanks to the temporary stop of the Polish offensive, the Russian command managed to transfer additional military contingents from the Livonian castles to Pskov and strengthen the fortifications. Polish-Lithuanian troops in the autumn and winter of 1581. stormed the city 31 times. All attacks were beaten off. Bathory abandoned the winter siege and on December 1, 1581. left camp. The time has come for negotiations. The Russian tsar understood that the war was lost, while for the Poles, further presence on the territory of Russia was fraught with heavy losses.

The third stage is more defensive actions of Russia. Many factors played a role in this: the military talent of Stefan Batory, the inept actions of Russian diplomats and generals, a significant drop in Russia's military potential. For 5 years, Ivan the Terrible has repeatedly offered peace to opponents on conditions unfavorable for Russia.

2.4 Summary

Russia needed peace. In the Baltic States, the Swedes went on the offensive, the Crimeans resumed raids on the southern borders. Pope Gregory XIII, who dreamed of expanding the influence of the papal curia in Eastern Europe, acted as an intermediary in the peace negotiations. Zimin, A. A., Khoroshkevich, A. L. Russia in the Time of Ivan the Terrible. - M., 1982. - S. 143. Negotiations began in mid-December 1581 in the small village of Yama Zapolsky. The congresses of ambassadors ended on January 5, 1582, with the conclusion of a ten-year truce. The Polish commissars agreed to cede to the Muscovy the Velikie Luki, Zavolochye, Nevel, Kholm, Rzhev Pustaya and the Pskov suburbs of Ostrov, Krasny, Voronech, and Velya, previously captured by their army. It was specifically stipulated that the Russian fortresses, besieged at that time by the troops of the Polish king, were subject to return if they were captured by the enemy: Vrev, Vladimirets, Dubkov, Vyshgorod, Vyborets, Izborsk, Opochka, Gdov, Kobyle settlement and Sebezh. The foresight of the Russian ambassadors turned out to be useful: according to this clause, the Poles returned the captured city of Sebezh. For its part, the Muscovite state agreed to the transfer of the Commonwealth of all the cities and castles in Livonia occupied by Russian troops, of which there were 41. Yam - the Zapolsky truce did not apply to Sweden. Korolyuk V.D. Decree. op. - S. 106.

So, Stefan Batory secured most of the Baltic states for his kingdom. He also managed to achieve recognition of his rights to the Polotsk land, to the cities of Velizh, Usvyat, Ozerishche, Sokol. In June 1582, the terms of the Yam-Zapolsky truce were confirmed at the negotiations in Moscow, which were conducted by the Polish ambassadors Janusz Zbarazhsky, Nikolai Tavlosh and clerk Mikhail Garaburda. The parties agreed to consider the day of St. Peter and Paul (29 June) 1592

On February 4, 1582, a month after the conclusion of the Yam-Zapolsky truce, the last Polish detachments left Pskov.

However, the Yam-Zapolsky and "Peter and Paul" peace agreements of 1582 did not end the Livonian War. The Swedish army under the command of Field Marshal P. Delagardie dealt the final blow to Russian plans to preserve part of the cities conquered in the Baltic states. In September 1581, his troops captured Narva and Ivangorod, the defense of which was led by the governor A. Belsky, who surrendered the fortress to the enemy.

Having entrenched themselves in Ivangorod, the Swedes soon went on the offensive again and soon occupied the border Yam (September 28, 1581) and Koporye (October 14) with their counties. On August 10, 1583, Russia concluded a truce with Sweden in Plus, according to which the Russian cities and Northern Estonia occupied by them remained behind the Swedes. Zimin, A. A., Khoroshkevich, A. L. Russia in the Time of Ivan the Terrible. - M., 1982. - S. 144.

The Livonian War, which lasted almost 25 years, ended. Russia suffered a heavy defeat, losing not only all its conquests in the Baltic states, but also part of its own territories with three major border fortress cities. On the coast of the Gulf of Finland, only a small fortress Oreshek on the river remained behind the Moscow state. Neva and a narrow corridor along this waterway from the river. Arrows to the river. Sisters, with a total length of 31.5 km.

Three stages in the course of hostilities are different character: the first is a local war with a clear advantage of the Russians; at the second stage, the war took on a protracted character, an anti-Russian coalition was formed, battles were taking place on the border of the Russian state; the third stage is characterized mainly by the defensive actions of Russia on its territory, Russian soldiers demonstrate unprecedented heroism in the defense of cities. The main goal of the war - the solution of the Baltic issue - was not achieved.