3 main stages in the development of science. The main stages in the development of science

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Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

Northwestern Institute of Printing

Department of book publishing and book trade

ESSAY

By discipline:

Concepts of modern natural science

Stages of development of science

Performed:

Iskhakova A.E.

Speciality:

Journalism

Group: Zhd.1.2

Checked:

Romanenko V.N.

St. Petersburg

2011

Structure

Introduction
Title
Causes and prerequisites for the emergence of science. Zero stage.
Stage 1 - Ancient Greece
Stage 2 - Medieval European Science
Stage 3 - New European classical science (15-16 centuries).
Stage 4 - 20th century - non-classical science is gaining strength.
Stage 5 - Post-non-classical science
Conclusion
Bibliography

Title

Science is a special kind of cognitive activity aimed at obtaining, clarifying and disseminating objective, systematically organized and substantiated knowledge about nature, society and thinking. The basis of this activity is the collection of scientific facts, their constant updating and systematization, critical analysis and, on this basis, the synthesis of new scientific knowledge or generalizations that not only describe the observed natural or social phenomena, but also allow you to build causal relationships and, as consequence is to predict. Those natural science theories and hypotheses that are confirmed by facts or experiments are formulated in the form of laws of nature or society.

Science in a broad sense includes all conditions and components scientific activity:

division and cooperation scientific work;
scientific institutions, experimental and laboratory equipment;
research methods;
conceptual and categorical apparatus;
scientific information system;
as well as the entire amount of previously accumulated scientific knowledge.

As a peculiar form of knowledge - a specific type of spiritual production and a social institution - science arose in ancient Greece and is still the most important branch of our life. My essay will help to study and streamline the information of the formation of science.

Reasons for the emergence of science:

The first and main reason for the emergence of science is formation of subject-object relations between man and nature, between man and his environment. This is connected, first of all, with the transition of mankind from gathering to a producing economy. So, already in the Paleolithic era, a person creates the first tools of labor from stone and bone - an ax, a knife, a scraper, a spear, a bow, arrows, masters fire and builds primitive dwellings. In the Mesolithic era, a person weaves a net, makes a boat, works on wood, invents a bow drill. During the Neolithic period (until 3000 BC), a person develops pottery, masters agriculture, makes pottery, uses a hoe, sickle, spindle, clay, log, pile buildings, masters metals. He uses animals as a draft force, invents wheeled carts, a potter's wheel, a sailboat, and furs. By the beginning of the first millennium BC, iron tools appeared.

The second reason for the formation of science is complication cognitive activity person. "Cognitive", search activity is also characteristic of animals, but due to the complication of the subject-practical activity of a person, the development of various types of transformative activity by a person, profound changes occur in the structure of the human psyche, the structure of his brain, changes are observed in the morphology of his body.

Prerequisites for the emergence of science:

The development of science was an integral part of the general process of the intellectual development of the human mind and the formation of human civilization. It is impossible to consider the development of science in isolation from the following processes:

Formation of speech;
Account development;
The emergence of art;
Formation of writing;
Formation of worldview (myth);
The emergence of philosophy.

In order to determine the main stages of science, we must begin with its emergence. So how did science come about? There are five points of view:

Science has always existed since the birth of human society, since scientific curiosity is organically inherent in man;
Science arose in ancient Greece, since it was here that knowledge first received its theoretical justification (generally accepted);
Science originated in Western Europe in the XII-XIV centuries, since interest in experimental knowledge and mathematics was shown;
Science begins in the 16th-17th centuries, and thanks to the works of G. Galileo, I. Kepler, X. Huygens and I. Newton, the first theoretical model of physics is created in the language of mathematics;
Science begins in the first third of the 19th century, when research activity was combined with higher education.

Science has existed since prehistoric society and the ancient world. We can call this stage zero. in prehistoric society and ancient civilization knowledge existed in a prescription form, i.e. knowledge was inseparable from skill and unstructured. This knowledge was pre-theoretical, non-systematic, there was no abstraction. We refer to auxiliary means of pre-theoretical knowledge: myth, magic, early forms of religion. Myth (narration) is a rational attitude of a person to the world. The magic is the actions themselves. Magic thinks in interconnected processes of physical, mental, symbolic and other nature.

Basic ideas of abstract-theoretical thinking in ancient Greek philosophy. AT ancient culture ancient Greece appears theoretical, systematic and abstract thinking. It is based on the idea of special knowledge (general knowledge, first knowledge). The ancient Greeks appear arche-first (beginning); physis-nature (that from which a thing comes). The beginning of things is one, but the nature is different. These were two concentrates of theoretical thinking. There arose: the law of identity, the law of exclusion of the third, the law of non-contradiction, the law of sufficient reason. This is a systematic approach. The first theories were created in philosophy for the needs of philosophy. Theory begins to connect with scientific knowledge in the 2nd century BC. Versions of the emergence of the theory: a unique economy, Greek religion.

Stages of development of science

Stage 1 - Ancient Greece - the emergence of science in society with the proclamation of geometry as a science of measuring the earth. The object of research is the mega world (including the universe in all its diversity).

worked not with real objects, not with an empirical object, but with mathematical models - abstractions.
Axioms were deduced from all concepts and based on them, with the help of logical justification, new concepts were derived.

Ideals and norms of science : knowledge is a range of knowledge. The method of cognition is observation.

Scientific picture of the world: has an integrative character, is based on the relationship of micro- and macrocosm.

Philos. foundations of science : F. - science of sciences. The style of thinking is intuitively dialectical. Anthropocosmism - man is an organic part of the world cosmic process.

Stage 2 - Medieval European Science Science has become the servant of theology. Confrontation between nominalists (single things) and realists (universal things).

Object of study - the macrocosm (Earth and the nearest space).

Ideals and norms of science : Knowledge is power. Inductively empirical approach. Mechanism. Contrasting object and subject.

Scientific picture of the world : Newtonian classical mechanics; heliocentrism; divine origin. the world and its objects; The world is a complex working mechanism.

Philos. foundations of science : Mechanistic determinism. Thinking style - mechanistically metaphysical (negation of internal contradiction)

scientific knowledge is guided by theologism
focused on the specific service of the interests of a limited number
scientific schools arise, the priority of empirical knowledge in the study of the surrounding reality is proclaimed (there is a division of sciences).

Stage 3 - New European classical science (15-16 centuries).

Object of study - microworld. The set of elementary particles. Relationship between empirical and rational level of knowledge.

Ideals and norms of science : the principle of dependence of the object on the subject. Combination of theoretical and practical directions.

Scientific picture of the world : formation of private scientific pictures of the world (chemical, physical ...)

Philos. foundations of science : dialectic - style naturally scientific thinking.

Culture is gradually liberated from the domination of the church.
the first attempts to remove scholasticism dogmatism
intensive economic development
avalanche-like interest in scientific knowledge.

Period features:

scientific thought begins to focus on obtaining objectively true knowledge with a bias towards practical utility
an attempt to analyze and synthesize rational grains of pre-science
experimental knowledge begins to prevail
science is formed as a social institution (universities, scientific books)
technical, social and human sciences begin to stand out Auguste Comte

4 stage - 20th century - non-classical science is gaining strength.

Object of study - micro, macro and mega world. The relationship of empirical, rational and intuitive knowledge.

Ideals and norms of science : axiologization of science. Increasing the degree of "fundamentalization" of applied sciences.

Scientific picture of the world : the formation of a general scientific picture of the world. The predominance of the concept of global evolutionism (development is an attribute inherent in all forms of objective reality). The transition from anthropocentrism to biospherocentrism (man, biosphere, space - in interconnection and unity).

Philosophical foundations of science : synergetic style of thinking (integrativity, non-linearity, bifurcation)

Stage 5: Post-non-classical science - the modern stage of development of scientific knowledge.

Object of study : historically developing systems - the Earth as a system of interaction of geological, biological and technogenic processes; The Universe as a system of interaction of micro-, macro- and mega-worlds, etc.

Ideals and norms of science: the unity of the diversity of things, properties and relationships based on the appropriate philosophical interpretation of the categories of matter, motion, space and time

Introduction
Title
Causes and prerequisites for the emergence of science. Zero stage.
Stage 1 - Ancient Greece
Stage 2 - Medieval European Science
Stage 3 - New European classical science (15-16 centuries).
Stage 4 - 20th century - non-classical science is gaining strength.
Stage 5 - Post-non-classical science
Conclusion
Bibliography

The main stages in the development of science

There are many views and opinions on the problem of the emergence and development of science. Let's take a look at some opinions:

1. Science has existed since the time when man began to realize himself as a thinking being, that is, science has always existed, at all times.

2. Science arose in ancient Greece (Hellas) in the 6th-5th centuries. BC e., since it was then and there for the first time that knowledge was combined with justification (Thales, Pythagoras, Xenophanes).

3. Science arose in the Western European world in the late Middle Ages (12th-14th centuries) along with a special interest in experimental knowledge and mathematics (Roger Bacon).

4. Science arises in the 16th-17th centuries, i.e. in modern times, begins with the works of Kepler, Huygens, but especially with the works of Descartes, Galileo and Newton, the creators of the first theoretical model of physics in the language of mathematics.

5. Science begins in the first third of the 19th century, when research activities were combined with the higher education system.

It can be considered so. The first rudiments, the genesis of science began in ancient times in Greece, India and China, and science as a branch of culture with its own specific methods of cognition. First substantiated by Francis Bacon and Rene Descartes, it arose in modern times (mid-17th-ser.18th centuries), in the era of the first scientific revolution.

1 scientific revolution - classical (17-18 centuries). Name related:

Kepler (established 3 laws of planetary motion around the Sun (without explaining the reasons for the motion of the planets), clarified the distance between the Earth and the Sun),

Galileo (studied the problem of motion, discovered the principle of inertia, the law of free fall of bodies),

Newton (formulated the concepts and laws of classical mechanics, mathematically formulated the law of universal gravitation, theoretically substantiated Kepler's laws on the motion of planets around the Sun)

Newton's mechanical picture of the world: any events are predetermined by the laws of classical mechanics. The world, all bodies are built from solid, homogeneous, unchanging and indivisible corpuscles - atoms. However, facts were accumulating that did not agree with the mechanistic picture of the world, and by the middle of the 19th century. it has lost the status of general scientific.

According to the 1st scientific revolution, objectivity and objectivity scientific knowledge is achieved by eliminating the subject of cognition (man) and his procedures from cognitive activity. The place of a person in this scientific paradigm is the place of an observer, a tester. The fundamental feature of the generated classical natural science and the corresponding scientific rationality is the absolute predictability of events and phenomena of the future and the restoration of pictures of the past.

2 scientific revolution covered the period from the end of the 19th to the middle of the 20th century. Noted for landmark discoveries:

in physics (discoveries of the atom and its divisibility, electron, radioactivity, X-rays, energy quanta, relativistic and quantum mechanics, Einstein's explanation of the nature of gravity),

in cosmology (the concept of a non-stationary (expanding) Friedman-Hubble Universe): Einstein, considering the radius of curvature of world space, argued that the Universe must be spatially finite and have the shape of a four-dimensional cylinder. In 1922-1924, Friedman criticized Einstein's conclusions. He showed groundlessness of his initial postulate - about the stationarity, invariance in time of the Universe. He spoke about a possible change in the radius of curvature of space and built 3 models of the Universe. The first two models: since the radius of curvature increases, then the Universe expands from a point or from a finite volume. If the radius curvature changes periodically - the pulsating Universe).

In chemistry (an explanation of Mendeleev's periodicity law by quantum chemistry),

In biology (Mendel's discovery of the laws of genetics), etc.

The fundamental feature of the new non-classical rationality is the probabilistic paradigm, uncontrolled, and therefore not absolute predictability of the future (the so-called indeterminism). The place of man in science is changing - now his place is an accomplice in phenomena, his fundamental involvement in scientific procedures.

The beginning of the emergence of the paradigm of non-classical science.

Recent decades The 20th and early 21st centuries can be characterized as the course of the third scientific revolution. Faraday, Maxwell, Planck, Bohr, Einstein and many other great names are associated with era 3 of the scientific revolution. Discoveries in the field of evolutionary chemistry, laser physics, which gave rise to synergetics, thermodynamics of non-stationary irreversible processes, which gave rise to the theory of dissipative structures, theories of autopoiesis ((U. Maturana, F. Varela). According to this theory, complex systems (biological, social, etc.) are characterized by two The first property is homeostaticity, which is ensured by the mechanism of circular organization.The essence of this mechanism is as follows: the elements of the system exist to produce a function, and this function - directly or indirectly - is necessary for the production of elements that exist to produce a function, etc. The second property is cognition: in the process of interaction with environment the system, as it were, “knows” it (there is a corresponding transformation of the internal organization of the system) and establishes such boundaries of the area of relations with it that are acceptable for this system, i.e., which do not lead to its destruction or loss of autonomy. At the same time, this process is progressive in nature, i.e. during the ontogeny of the system, the area of its relations with the environment can expand. Since the accumulated experience of interactions with external environment is fixed in the organization of the system, this greatly facilitates overcoming a similar situation when it encounters it again.), which all together lead us to the latest post-non-classical natural science and post-non-classical rationality. The most important features of post-nonclassical rationality are:

Complete unpredictability

closed future,

Satisfaction of the principles of irreversibility of time and motion.

There is another classification of stages in the development of science (for example, W. Weaver and others). formulated by W. Weaver. According to him, science first experienced the stage of studying organized simplicity (it was Newtonian mechanics), then the stage of cognition of unorganized complexity (this is statistical mechanics and physics of Maxwell, Gibbs), and today it is busy with the problem of studying organized complexity (first of all, this is the problem of life). Such a classification of the stages of science carries a deep conceptual and historical understanding of the problems of science in explaining the phenomena and processes of the natural and humanitarian worlds.

Natural science knowledge of phenomena and objects of nature structurally consists of empirical and theoretical levels of research. Without a doubt, surprise and curiosity are the beginning scientific research(first said by Aristotle). An indifferent, indifferent person cannot become a scientist, cannot see, fix this or that empirical fact, which will become a scientific fact. A fact becomes scientific from an empirical fact if it is subjected to systematic research. On this path, the path of searching for a method or method of research, the first and simplest are either passive observation, or a more radical and active one - experiment. hallmark a true scientific experiment from charlatanism should be its reproducibility by everyone and always (for example, most of the so-called paranormal phenomena - clairvoyance, telepathy, telekinesis, etc. - do not possess this quality). Experiments can be real, model or mental. In the last two cases it is necessary high level abstract thinking, since reality is replaced by idealized images, concepts, ideas that do not actually exist.

The Italian genius Galileo in his time (in the XV
II century) achieved outstanding scientific results, since he began to think in ideal (abstract) images (idealizations). Among them were such abstractions as an absolutely smooth elastic ball, a smooth, elastic table surface, replaced in thoughts by an ideal plane, uniform rectilinear motion, the absence of friction forces, etc.

At the theoretical level, it is necessary to come up with some new concepts that have not previously taken place in this science, to put forward a hypothesis. In a hypothesis, one or more important features of a phenomenon are taken into account, and on the basis of them alone, an idea of the phenomenon is built, without attention to its other aspects. Empirical generalization does not go beyond collected facts, and the hypothesis comes out.

Further, in scientific research, it is necessary to return to the experiment in order not so much to verify, but to refute the stated hypothesis and, perhaps, replace it with another one. At this stage of knowledge, the principle of falsifiability operates. scientific statements. "likely". A hypothesis that has been tested acquires the status of a law (sometimes regularities, rules) of nature. Several laws from the same field of phenomena form a theory that exists as long as it remains consistent with the facts, despite the increasing volume of new experiments. So, science is observations, experiments, hypotheses, theories and arguments in favor of each of its stages of development.

Science as such is a branch of culture, a rational way of knowing the world, and an organizational and methodological institution. Science, which has been formed by now as a type of Western European culture, is a special rational way of knowing nature and social formations, based on empirical verification or mathematical proof. The main function of science is the development and theoretical systematization of objective knowledge about reality, its result is the sum of knowledge, and the immediate goal of science is the description, explanation and prediction of the processes and phenomena of reality. Natural science is a branch of science based on reproducible empirical testing of hypotheses, its main purpose is the creation of theories or empirical generalizations that describe natural phenomena.

The methods used in science, in natural science, in particular, are divided into empirical and theoretical. Empirical methods - observation, description, measurement, observation. Theoretical Methods- formalization, axiomatization and hypothetical-deductive. Another division of methods is into general or generally valid, into general scientific and particular or concrete scientific. For example, general methods: analysis, synthesis, deduction, induction, abstraction, analogy, classification, systematization, etc. General scientific methods: dynamic, statistical, etc. In the philosophy of science, at least three different approaches- Popper, Kuhn and Lakatos. Central location Popper has the principle of falsification, Kuhn has the concept of normal science, crises and scientific revolutions, Lakatos has the concept of a hard core of science and the replacement of research programs. The stages of the development of science can be characterized either as classical (determinism), non-classical (indeterminism) and post-non-classical (bifurcation or evolutionary-synergetic), or as stages of cognition of organized simplicity (mechanics), unorganized complexity (statistical physics) and organized complexity (life).

Genesis of the main conceptual concepts modern natural science ancient and medieval civilizations. The role and significance of myths in the development of science and natural science. Ancient Middle Eastern Civilizations. Antique Hellas (Ancient Greece). Ancient Rome.

We begin to study the pre-scientific period in the development of natural science, the time frame of which extends from antiquity (7th century BC) to the 15th century. new era. In that historical period the natural science of the states of the Mediterranean (Babylon, Assyria, Egypt, Hellas, etc.), China, India and the Arab East (the most ancient civilizations) existed in the form of the so-called natural philosophy (derived from the Latin nature - nature), or the philosophy of nature, the essence which consisted in a speculative (theoretical) interpretation of a single, integral nature. Particular attention should be paid to the concept of the integrity of nature, because in modern times (17-19 centuries) and in modern times, in the modern era, (20-21 centuries), the integrity of the science of nature was actually lost and on new basis began to revive only at the end of the 20th century.

The English historian Arnold Toynbee (1889-1975) singled out 13 independent civilizations in human history, the Russian sociologist and philosopher Nikolai Danilevsky (1822-1885) - 11 civilizations, the German historian and philosopher Oswald Spengler (1880-1936) - 8 civilizations in total:

v Babylonian,

v Egyptian,

v Mayan people,

v antique,

v indian,

v Chinese,

v Arabic,

v western.

We will single out here only the natural science of those civilizations that played the most prominent role in the emergence, formation and development of natural philosophy and modern natural science.

There are several stages in the history of natural science. Period from approximately the 6th century BC. (the beginning of the birth of philosophy) and until the 16th - 17th centuries, it is characterized by the existence of natural philosophy. Further, from the 16th - 17th centuries, classical natural science appears, which ends at turn of XIX- XX centuries.

This historical period, in turn, can be divided into two stages: the stage of the formation of a mechanistic picture of the world (until the 30s of the 19th century) and the stage of the origin and formation of evolutionary models of the world (until the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century). Then follows the so-called period of non-classical natural science, which ends by the middle of the 20th century. And the last period in the history of natural science, which continues to this day, is commonly referred to as the period of post-non-classical natural science.

The main components of the foundation of science are the ideals and methods of research (ideas about the goals of scientific activity and how to achieve them); scientific picture of the world (a holistic system of ideas about the world, its general properties and patterns formed on the basis of scientific concepts and laws) philosophical ideas and principles that justify the goals, methods, norms and ideals of scientific research. The stages in the development of science associated with the restructuring of research strategies determined by the foundations of science are called scientific revolutions.

The restructuring of the foundations of science, accompanied by scientific revolutions, can be, firstly, the result of intradisciplinary development, during which problems arise that cannot be solved within the framework of a given scientific discipline. For example, in the course of its development, science encounters new types of objects that do not fit into the existing picture of the world, their knowledge requires new cognitive means. This leads to a revision of the foundations of science. Secondly, scientific revolutions are possible due to interdisciplinary interactions based on the transfer of ideals and norms of research from one discipline to another, which often leads to the discovery of phenomena and laws that had not previously fallen into the scope of scientific research.

Depending on which component of the foundation of science is being restructured, two types of scientific revolution are distinguished: a) the ideals and norms of scientific research remain unchanged, while the picture of the world is revised; b) simultaneously with the picture of the world, not only the ideals and norms of science, but also its philosophical foundations change radically.

The main condition for the emergence of the idea of scientific revolutions was the recognition of the historicity of reason, and, consequently, the historicity of scientific knowledge and the corresponding type of rationality.

Philosophy of the XVII - the first half of the XVIII century. considered the mind as a non-historical, self-identical ability of man as such. The principles and norms of rational reasoning, with the help of which true knowledge is obtained, were recognized as constant for any historical time. Philosophers saw their task in "cleansing" the mind of subjective additions that distort the purity of true knowledge.

Only in the 19th century the notion of the ahistorical nature of reason was called into question. The French positivists (Saint-Simon, O. Comte) singled out the stages of cognition in human history, and the German philosophers of the post-Kantian period introduced the concept of the historical subject of cognition. But if the subject of cognition is historical, then this, first of all, means the historicity of the mind, with the help of which the process of cognition is carried out. As a result, truth began to be defined as having a "binding" to a certain historical time. The principle of the historicism of reason was further developed in Marxism, neo-Hegelianism, neo-Kantianism, and the philosophy of life. These philosophical schools, which are completely different in terms of problems and the way they are solved, were united by the recognition of the concrete historical nature of the human mind.

In the middle of the XX century. a whole new research direction appeared, called "sociology of knowledge". Within this direction, scientific knowledge was considered as a social product. In other words, it was recognized that the ideals and norms of scientific knowledge, the methods of activity of the subjects of scientific knowledge are determined by the level of development of society, its concrete historical existence.

The principle of historicity, having become a key one in the analysis of scientific knowledge, allowed the American philosopher T. Kuhn to present the development of science as a historical paradigm shift occurring in the course of scientific revolutions. He divided the stages of development of science into periods of "normal science" and scientific revolution. During the period of "normal science" the vast majority of scientists accept established models of scientific activity or paradigms (a paradigm is an example, an example) and solve all scientific problems with their help. The content of paradigms includes a set of theories, methodological principles, value and worldview attitudes. The period of "normal science" ends when problems and tasks appear that cannot be solved within the framework of the existing paradigm. Then it “explodes”, and a new paradigm comes to replace it. This is how the revolution in science takes place.

The restructuring of the foundations of science, which occurs in the course of scientific revolutions, leads to a change in the types of scientific rationality. And although the historical types of rationality are a kind of abstract idealizations, historians and philosophers of science still distinguish several such types.

Historically, primary rationality was discovered in ancient Greece (between 800 and 200 BC). Hidden or explicit basis of rationality is the recognition of the identity of thinking and being. This identity itself was first discovered by the Greek philosopher Parmenides. By being, he understood not the actual reality given to the senses, but something indestructible, unique, immovable, endless in time, indivisible, needing nothing, devoid of sensual qualities.

Being is the truly existing One (God, Absolute). The identity of thinking (mind) and being meant the ability of thinking to go beyond the sensible world and "work" with ideal "models" that do not coincide with ordinary everyday ideas about the world. The ability to "work" with ideal models can be realized by thinking only in words. Thinking was understood by ancient philosophers as “contemplation that likens the soul to God”, as an intellectual insight that likens the human mind to the divine mind. The main function of the mind was seen in the knowledge of the target cause. Only the mind can understand the concepts of purpose, good, and the best.

The first scientific revolution took place in the 17th century. Its result was the emergence of classical European science, first of all, mechanics, and later physics. In the course of this revolution, a special type of rationality was formed, which was called scientific (the classical type of scientific rationality).

It was the result of the fact that European science abandoned metaphysics.

Being has ceased to be considered as the Absolute, God, the One. The majestic ancient Cosmos was identified with nature. The human mind lost its cosmic dimension, began to resemble not the Divine mind, but itself, and was endowed with the status of sovereignty. Without abandoning the ability of thinking to work with ideal objects discovered by ancient philosophy, the science of modern times narrowed their spectrum: the idea of ideality was joined by the idea of an artifact (made thing), incompatible with pure contemplation discovered by ancient rationality. Scientific rationality recognized the legitimacy of only those ideal constructs that can be reproduced in a controlled manner, constructed an infinite number of times in an experiment. The main content of the identity of thinking and being is the recognition of the possibility of finding such a single ideal construction that would fully correspond to the object being studied, thereby ensuring the unambiguity of the content of true knowledge. Science refused to introduce into the procedures of explanation not only the ultimate goal as the main one in the universe and in the activity of the mind, but also the goal in general. Spinoza argued that "nature does not act on purpose."

The second scientific revolution took place at the end of the 18th-first half of the 19th century. There has been a transition from classical science, focused mainly on the study of mechanical and physical phenomena, to a disciplinary organized science. Biology and geology introduce into the picture of the world the idea of development, which was not in the mechanistic picture of the world, and therefore new ideals of explanation were needed, taking into account the idea of development. The attitude to the mechanistic picture of the world as the only possible and true one was shaken.

The emergence of the life sciences undermined the claims of classical scientific rationality to the status of the one and the absolute. There is a differentiation of ideals and norms of scientific and rationality. Thus, in biology and geology, ideals of evolutionary explanation arise, a picture of the world is formed that cannot be reduced to a mechanical one.

The type of scientific explanation and substantiation of the object under study through the construction of a visual mechanical model began to give way to another type of explanation, expressed in the requirements of a consistent mathematical description of the object, even to the detriment of visibility. The turn to mathematization made it possible to construct in the language of mathematics not only strictly deterministic, but also random processes, which, according to the principles of classical rationalism, could only be considered as irrational. In this regard, many physicists are beginning to realize the insufficiency of the classical type of rationality. The first hints of the need to introduce a subjective factor into the content of scientific knowledge appear, which inevitably led to a weakening of the rigidity of the principle of the identity of thinking and being, characteristic of classical science. As you know, physics was the leader of natural science, therefore the “turn” of physicists towards non-classical thinking can certainly be considered as the beginning of the emergence of the paradigm of non-classical science.

The third scientific revolution covers the period from the end of the 19th century to the end of the 19th century. until the middle of the 20th century. and is characterized by the emergence of non-classical natural science and the corresponding type of rationality (non-classical type of scientific rationality). The study of microworld objects is moving to the center of research programs. Features of the study of the microworld contributed to the further transformation of the principle of the identity of thinking and being, which is basic for any type of rationality. There have been changes in the understanding of the ideals and norms of scientific knowledge.

Scientists agreed that the object is not given to thinking in its original state: it does not study the object as it is in itself, but how the interaction of the object with the device appeared to the observer. Since any experiment is conducted by a researcher, the problem of truth becomes directly related to activity. Some thinkers have commented similar situation like this: "The scientist asks nature questions and I myself answer them." Scientists and philosophers raised the question of the "opacity" of being, which blocked the ability of the subject of knowledge to implement ideal models and projects developed by rational consciousness. As a result, the principle of the identity of thinking and being continued to “blur”. In contrast to the ideal of a single scientific theory that “photographs” the objects under study, the truth of several different theoretical descriptions of the same object began to be admitted. Researchers are faced with the need to recognize the relative truth of theories and pictures of nature developed at a particular stage in the development of natural science.

The fourth scientific revolution took place in the last third of the 20th century. It is associated with the emergence of special objects of study, which led to radical changes in the foundations of science. A post-non-classical science is born, the objects of study of which are historically developing systems (the Earth as a system of interaction of geological, biological and technogenic processes; the Universe as a system of interaction of micro-, macro- and mega-worlds, etc.). Rationality of the post-nonclassical type is being formed.

If in non-classical science the ideal of historical reconstruction was used mainly in the humanities (history, archeology, linguistics, etc.), as well as in a number of natural disciplines, such as geology, biology, then in post-non-classical science historical reconstruction as a type of theoretical knowledge began to be used in cosmology, astrophysics and even in elementary particle physics, which led to a change in the picture of the world.

In the course of developing the ideas of thermodynamics of nonequilibrium processes characteristic of phase transitions and the formation of dissipative structures, a new direction in scientific disciplines emerged - synergetics. Synergetics is based on the idea that historically developing systems move from one relatively stable state to another. At the same time, a new level organization of the elements of the system and its self-regulation appear in comparison with the previous state.

Post-nonclassical science for the first time turned to the study of such historically developing systems, the direct component of which is the person himself. When studying this kind of complex systems, including a person with his transformative productive activity, the ideal of value-neutral research turns out to be unacceptable. An objectively true explanation and description of such systems presupposes the inclusion of assessments of a socio-social, ethical nature. eleven

History of science.

Philosophy of Science.
The main stages in the development of science.

3. Conclusion.

4. List of used sources.

History of science.

History of science is a study of the phenomenon of science in its history. Science, in particular, is a set of empirical, theoretical and practical knowledge about the World obtained scientific community. Since, on the one hand, science represents objective knowledge, and, on the other hand, the process of obtaining and using it by people, a conscientious historiography of science must take into account not only the history of thought, but also the history of the development of society as a whole.

Studying history modern science draws on many surviving original or republished texts. However, the very words “science” and “scientist” came into use only in the 18th-20th centuries, and before that, natural scientists called their occupation “natural philosophy”.

Although empirical research has been known since ancient times (for example, the work of Aristotle and Theophrastus), and the scientific method was developed in its foundations in the Middle Ages (for example, Ibnal-Haytham, Al-Biruni or Roger Bacon), the beginning of modern science dates back to the New time, a period called the scientific revolution that took place in XVI-XVII centuries in Western Europe.

The scientific method is considered so essential to modern science that many scientists and philosophers consider the work done before the scientific revolution to be "pre-scientific". Therefore, historians of science often give a broader definition of science than is accepted in our time, in order to include the period of Antiquity and the Middle Ages in their studies.

First and main reason the emergence of science is the formation of subject-object relations between man and nature, between man and his environment. This is connected, first of all, with the transition of mankind from gathering to a producing economy. So, already in the Paleolithic era, a person creates the first tools of labor from stone and bone - an ax, a knife, a scraper, a spear, a bow, arrows, masters fire and builds primitive dwellings. In the Mesolithic era, a person weaves a net, makes a boat, works on wood, invents a bow drill. During the Neolithic period (until 3000 BC), a person develops pottery, masters agriculture, makes pottery, uses a hoe, sickle, spindle, clay, log, pile buildings, masters metals. He uses animals as a draft force, invents wheeled carts, a potter's wheel, a sailboat, and furs. By the beginning of the first millennium BC, iron tools appeared.

The second reason for the formation of science is the complication of human cognitive activity. "Cognitive", search activity is also characteristic of animals, but due to the complication of the subject-practical activity of a person, the development of various types of transformative activity by a person, profound changes occur in the structure of the human psyche, the structure of his brain, changes are observed in the morphology of his body.

Formation of speech;

Account development;

The emergence of art;

Formation of writing;

Formation of worldview (myth);

The emergence of philosophy.

Periodization of science.

One of the primary problems of the history of science is the problem of periodization. Usually, the following periods of development of science are distinguished:

Prescience- the origin of science in the civilizations of the Ancient East: astrology, pre-Euclidean geometry, letters, numerology.

ancient science- the formation of the first scientific theories (atomism) and the compilation of the first scientific treatises in the era of Antiquity: Ptolemy's astronomy, Theophrastus's botany, Euclid's geometry, Aristotle's physics, as well as the emergence of the first protoscientific communities represented by the Academy

Medieval magical science- formation of experimental science on the example of Jabir's alchemy

Scientific revolution and classical science- the formation of science in the modern sense in the works of Galileo, Newton, Linnaeus

Non-classical science- science of the era of the crisis of classical rationality: Darwin's theory of evolution, Einstein's theory of relativity, Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, the Big Bang hypothesis, René Thom's catastrophe theory, Mandelbrot's fractal geometry.

Another division into periods is possible:

preclassical(early antiquity, the search for absolute truth, observation and reflection, the method of analogies)

classical(XVI-XVII centuries, planning of experiments appears, the principle of determinism is introduced, the importance of science increases)

non-classical(the end of the 19th century, the emergence of powerful scientific theories, for example, the theory of relativity, the search for relative truth, it becomes clear that the principle of determinism is not always applicable, and the experimenter influences the search for an experiment)

post-non-classical(the end of the 20th century, synergetics appears, the subject field of knowledge expands, science goes beyond its limits and penetrates into other areas, the search for the goals of science).

Background of modern science:

The accumulation of knowledge occurs with the advent of civilizations and writing; the achievements of ancient civilizations (Egyptian, Mesopotamian, etc.) in the field of astronomy, mathematics, medicine, etc. are known. However, under the conditions of the dominance of mythological, pre-rational consciousness, these successes did not go beyond the purely empirical and practical framework. So, for example, Egypt was famous for its geometers; but if you take the Egyptian textbook of geometry, then you can see there only a set of practical recommendations for the surveyor, set out dogmatically (“if you want to get this, do this and that”); the concept of a theorem, an axiom, and especially a proof, was absolutely alien to this system. Indeed, the demand for "evidence" would seem almost sacrilegious under conditions that implied an authoritarian transfer of knowledge from teacher to student.

We can assume that the true foundation of classical science was laid in ancient Greece, starting around the 6th century BC. BC e., when mythological thinking was first replaced by rationalistic thinking. Empiricism, largely borrowed by the Greeks from the Egyptians and Babylonians, is supplemented by scientific methodology: the rules of logical reasoning are established, the concept of hypothesis is introduced, etc., a number of brilliant insights appear, such as the theory of atomism. Aristotle played a particularly important role in the development and systematization of both methods and knowledge itself. difference ancient science from the modern one consisted in its speculative nature: the concept of experiment was alien to her, scientists did not seek to combine science with practice (with rare exceptions, for example, Archimedes), but, on the contrary, were proud of their involvement in pure, “disinterested” speculation. In part, this is due to the fact that Greek philosophy assumed [source not specified 582 days] that history repeats itself cyclically, and the development of science is meaningless, since it will inevitably end in a crisis of this science.

Christianity spreading in Europe abolished the view of history as repeating periods (Christ, as historical figure, appeared on earth only once) and created a highly developed theological science (born in fierce theological disputes with heretics in the era of the Ecumenical Councils), built on the rules of logic. However, after the division of the churches in 1054, a theological crisis intensified in the western (Catholic) part. Then interest in empiricism (experience) was completely abandoned, and science began to be reduced to the interpretation of authoritative texts and the development of formal logical methods in the face of scholasticism. However, the works of ancient scientists who received the status of "authorities" - Euclid in geometry, Ptolemy in astronomy, his own and Pliny the Elder in geography and natural sciences, Donatus in grammar, Hippocrates and Galen in medicine, and, finally, Aristotle, as a universal authority in most areas of knowledge - brought the foundations of ancient science to the New Age, serving as a real foundation on which the entire building of modern science was laid.

In the Renaissance, there is a turn towards empirical and dogmatism-free rationalistic research, in many respects comparable to the upheaval of the 6th century. BC e. This was facilitated by the invention of printing (mid-15th century), which dramatically expanded the basis for future science. First of all, there is the formation of the humanities, or studia humana (as they were called in contrast to theology - studia divina); in the middle of the 15th century. Lorenzo Valla publishes the treatise "On the forgery of the Gift of Constantine", thus laying the foundations for scientific criticism of texts, a hundred years later, Scaliger lays the foundations of scientific chronology.

In parallel, there is a rapid accumulation of new empirical knowledge (especially with the discovery of America and the beginning of the era of the Great geographical discoveries), which undermines the picture of the world bequeathed by the classical tradition. The theory of Copernicus also dealt a severe blow to it. There is a renewed interest in biology and chemistry.

The birth of modern science

The anatomical studies of Vesalius revived interest in the structure of the human body.

Modern experimental natural science was born only at the end of the 16th century. Its appearance was prepared by the Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Counter-Reformation, when the very foundations of the medieval worldview were called into question. Just as Luther and Calvin reformed religious doctrines, the work of Copernicus and Galileo led to the abandonment of Ptolemaic astronomy, and the work of Vesalius and his followers brought about significant changes in medicine. These events marked the beginning of what is now called the Scientific Revolution.

Newton, Isaac

The theoretical substantiation of the new scientific methodology belongs to Francis Bacon, who substantiated in his "New Organon" the transition from the traditional deductive approach (from the general - speculative assumption or authoritative judgment - to the particular, that is, to the fact) to the inductive approach (from the particular - empirical fact - to general, that is, to regularity). The appearance of the systems of Descartes and especially Newton - the latter was entirely built on experimental knowledge - marked the final rupture of the "umbilical cord" that connected the emerging science of modern times with the ancient medieval tradition. The publication in 1687 of The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy was the culmination of the scientific revolution and gave rise to an unprecedented surge of interest in scientific publications in Western Europe. Among other scientists of this period, Brahe, Kepler, Halley, Brown, Hobbes, Harvey, Boyle, Hooke, Huygens, Leibniz, Pascal also made an outstanding contribution to the scientific revolution.

Philosophy of Science.

Philosophy of science is a branch of philosophy that studies the concept, boundaries and methodology of science. There are also more specialized branches of the philosophy of science, such as the philosophy of mathematics, the philosophy of physics, the philosophy of chemistry, the philosophy of biology.

The philosophy of science as a direction of Western and Russian philosophy is represented by many original concepts that offer one or another model for the development of science and epistemology. It is focused on identifying the role and significance of science, the characteristics of cognitive, theoretical activity.

The philosophy of science as a philosophical discipline, along with the philosophy of history, logic, methodology, cultural studies, which explores its own section of the reflexive relationship of thinking to being (in this case, to the being of science), arose in response to the need to comprehend the socio-cultural functions of science in the conditions of scientific and technological revolution. This is a young discipline that made itself known only in the second half of the 20th century. While the direction, which has the name "philosophy of science", arose a century earlier.

Subject

“The subject of the philosophy of science,” as researchers note, “is the general patterns and trends of scientific knowledge as a special activity for the production of scientific knowledge taken in their historical development and viewed in a historically changing socio-cultural context.

The philosophy of science has the status of historical socio-cultural knowledge, regardless of whether it is focused on the study of natural sciences or social sciences and the humanities. The philosopher of science is interested in scientific search, "algorithm of discovery", the dynamics of the development of scientific knowledge, methods research activities. (It should be noted that the philosophy of science, although it is interested in the rational development of sciences, is still not called upon to directly ensure their rational development, as a diversified metascience is called upon.) If the main goal of science is to obtain the truth, then the philosophy of science is one of the most important areas for mankind application of his intellect, in which the discussion of the question "how is it possible to achieve the truth?".

The main directions of the philosophy of science

The immediate predecessor of the philosophy of science is the epistemology of the XVII-XVIII centuries. (both empirical and rationalistic), in the center of which was the comprehension of the essence of scientific knowledge and methods for obtaining it. Epistemological questions were the central theme of the classical stage of modern philosophy - from R. Descartes and J. Locke to I. Kant. Without understanding these issues, one cannot understand the philosophy of science of the 19th-20th centuries.

As a separate area of philosophy, the philosophy of science took shape in the 19th century. There are several stages in its development.

Positivism:

Positivism goes through a series of stages traditionally called first positivism, second positivism (empirio-criticism), and third positivism (logical positivism, neo-positivism). common feature All of these trends are empiricism, dating back to F. Bacon, and the rejection of metaphysics, by which positivists understand the classical philosophy of the New Age - from Descartes to Hegel. Also, positivism as a whole is characterized by a one-sided analysis of science: it is believed that science has a significant impact on the culture of mankind, while it itself obeys only its own internal laws and is not influenced by social, historical, aesthetic, religious and other external factors.

The main features of positivism:

science and scientific rationality are recognized as the highest value;

the requirement to transfer natural science methods to humanitarian sciences;

an attempt to rid science of speculative constructions, the requirement to verify everything by experience;

faith in the progress of science.

Criticism of positivism:

1. The world is considered as a mechanical aggregate of private areas, where the sum of the particulars gives the whole.

2. The world does not contain any integral, universal properties and laws.

3. Denial of philosophy, which leads to the denial of the partisanship of philosophy, which entails falling into the worst philosophy.

4. The last reality is sensations, which testifies to the borrowing of the logic of subjective idealism (it is impossible to verify whether something lies behind sensations).

The main stages in the development of science.

In early human societies cognitive and production moments were inseparable, the initial knowledge was of a practical nature, playing the role of a guide to certain types of human activity. The accumulation of such knowledge was an important prerequisite for future science.

For the emergence of science proper, appropriate conditions were needed: a certain level of development of production and social relations, the division of mental and physical labor, and the existence of broad cultural traditions that ensure the perception of the achievements of other peoples and cultures.

Corresponding conditions first developed in ancient Greece, where the first theoretical systems arose in the 6th century BC. BC. Thinkers such as Thales and Democritus already explained reality through natural principles as opposed to mythology. The ancient Greek scientist Aristotle was the first to describe the laws of nature, society and thinking, bringing to the fore the objectivity of knowledge, logic, and persuasiveness. At the moment of cognition, a system of abstract concepts was introduced, the foundations of a demonstrative way of presenting the material were laid; separate branches of knowledge began to separate: geometry (Euclid), mechanics (Archimedes), astronomy (Ptolemy).

A number of areas of knowledge were enriched in the Middle Ages by scientists of the Arab East and Central Asia: Ibn Sta, or Avicenna, (980-1037), Ibn Rushd (1126-1198), Biruni (973-1050). In Western Europe, due to the dominance of religion, a specific philosophical science was born - scholasticism, and alchemy and astrology were also developed. Alchemy contributed to the creation of the basis for science in the modern sense of the word, since it relied on the experimental study of natural substances and compounds and prepared the ground for the formation of chemistry. Astrology was associated with the observation of heavenly bodies, which also developed an experimental base for future astronomy.

The most important stage in the development of science was the New Age - XVI-XVII centuries. Here, the needs of emerging capitalism played a decisive role. During this period, the dominance of religious thinking was undermined, and experiment (experiment) was established as the leading method of research, which, along with observation, radically expanded the scope of cognizable reality. At this time, theoretical reasoning began to be combined with the practical development of nature, which dramatically increased the cognitive capabilities of science. , (1571-1630), W. Garvey (1578-1657), R. Descartes (1596-1650), H. Huygens (1629-1695), I. Newton (1643-1727) and others.

The scientific revolution of the 17th century is connected with the revolution in natural science. The development of productive forces required the creation of new machines, the introduction of chemical processes, the laws of mechanics, and the construction of precise instruments for astronomical observations.

The scientific revolution went through several stages, and its formation took a century and a half. Its beginning was laid by N. Copernicus and his followers Bruno, Galileo, Kepler. In 1543, the Polish scientist N. Copernicus (1473-1543) published the book "On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres", in which he approved the idea that the Earth, like other planets solar system, revolves around the Sun, which is the central body of the solar system. Copernicus established that the Earth is not an exclusive celestial body, which dealt a blow to anthropocentrism and religious legends, according to which the Earth supposedly occupies a central position in the Universe. The geocentric system of Ptolemy was rejected.

Galileo owns the largest achievements in the field of physics and the development of the most fundamental problem - motion, his achievements in astronomy are enormous: the justification and approval of the heliocentric system, the discovery of the four largest satellites of Jupiter out of 13 currently known; the discovery of the phases of Venus, the extraordinary appearance of the planet Saturn, now known to be created by the rings representing the totality solids; huge amount stars not visible to the naked eye. Galileo was successful in scientific achievements largely because he recognized observation, experience as the starting point for the knowledge of nature.

The modern world is characterized as a period of rapid development of scientific and technical aspects of human life, which naturally find their application in the economic sphere, reducing physical activity per person. However, the obvious advantages of using scientific and technological achievements are also reverse side, which in the course of cultural studies is fixed as a problem of the socio-cultural consequences of the scientific and technological revolution.

Newton created the foundations of mechanics, discovered the law of universal gravitation and developed on its basis the theory of motion of celestial bodies. This scientific discovery glorified Newton forever. He owns such achievements in the field of mechanics as the introduction of the concepts of force, inertia, the formulation of the three laws of mechanics; in the field of optics - the discovery of refraction, dispersion, interference, diffraction of light; in the field of mathematics - algebra, geometry, interpolation, differential and integral calculus.

In the XVIII century, revolutionary discoveries were made in astronomy by I. Kant (172-4-1804) and P. Laplace (1749-1827), as well as in chemistry - its beginning is associated with the name of A. Lavoisier (1743-1794). This period includes the activities of M.V. Lomonosov (1711-1765), who anticipated much of the subsequent development of natural science.

In the 19th century, there were continuous revolutionary upheavals in science in all branches of natural science.

The reliance of modern science on experiment, the development of mechanics laid the foundation for establishing a connection between science and production. At the same time, by the beginning of the XIX century. the experience accumulated by science, the material in certain areas no longer fit into the framework of a mechanistic explanation of nature and society. A new round of scientific knowledge and a deeper and broader synthesis were required, combining the results of individual sciences. During this historical period, science was glorified by Yu.R. Mayer (1814-1878), J. Joule (1818-1889), G. Helmholtz (1821-1894), who discovered the laws of conservation and transformation of energy, which provided a single basis for all sections of physics and chemistry. Of great importance in the knowledge of the world was the creation of T. Schwann (1810-1882) and M. Schleiden (1804-1881) of the cell theory, which showed the uniform structure of all living organisms. C. Darwin (1809-1882), who created the evolutionary doctrine in biology, introduced the idea of development into natural science. Thanks to periodic system elements discovered by the brilliant Russian scientist D.I. Mendeleev (1834-1907), an internal connection between all known types of matter was proved.

Thus, by the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. there were major changes in the foundations of scientific thinking, the mechanistic worldview has exhausted itself, which led the classical science of modern times to a crisis. This was facilitated, in addition to those mentioned above, by the discovery of the electron and radioactivity. As a result of the resolution of the crisis, a new scientific revolution took place, which began in physics and covered all the main branches of science. It is associated primarily with the names of M. Planck (1858-1947) and A. Einstein (1879-1955), the discovery of the electron, radium, the transformation of chemical elements, the creation of the theory of relativity and quantum theory marked a breakthrough into the field of the microworld and high speeds. The advances in physics have had an impact on chemistry. Quantum theory, by explaining the nature of chemical bonds, has opened wide possibilities for the chemical transformation of matter before science and production; penetration into the mechanism of heredity began, genetics was developed, and the chromosome theory was formed.

By the middle of the 20th century, biology moved to one of the first places in natural science, where such fundamental discoveries were made as the establishment of the molecular structure of DNA by F. Crick (born 1916) and J. Watson (born 1928), the discovery of the genetic code.

Science is currently an extremely complex social phenomenon that has many-sided connections with the world. It is considered from four sides (like any other social phenomenon - politics, morality, law, art, religion):

1) from the theoretical, where science is a system of knowledge, a form of social consciousness;

2) from the point of view of the social division of labor, where science is a form of activity, the system of relations between scientists and scientific institutions;

3) from the point of view of a social institution;

4) from the point of view of the practical application of the conclusions of science in terms of its social role.

Currently, scientific disciplines are usually divided into three large groups: natural, social and technical. Branches of science differ in their subjects and methods. At the same time, there is no sharp line between them, and a number of scientific disciplines occupy an intermediate interdisciplinary position, for example, biotechnology, radiogeology.

Sciences are divided into fundamental and applied. Fundamental sciences by knowledge of the laws governing the behavior and interaction of the basic structures of nature, society and thinking. These laws are studied in pure form”, which is why the fundamental sciences are sometimes called the pure sciences.

The goal of applied sciences is to apply the results of fundamental sciences to solve not only cognitive, but also social and practical problems.

The creation of a theoretical reserve for applied sciences, as a rule, determines the outstripping development of fundamental sciences in comparison with applied ones. AT modern society, in developed industrial countries, the leading place belongs to theoretical, fundamental knowledge, and its role is constantly increasing. In the cycle " fundamental research- development - implementation" - installation on reduction of terms of movement.

Conclusion.

In my work, I examined the main stages in the development of science. Expanding the topic, I showed that science was relevant in ancient times, it is relevant today. And undoubtedly, science will be relevant in the future.

They say that if it were not for Bach, the world would never have heard music. But if Einstein had not been born, then sooner or later the theory of relativity would have been discovered by some scientist.

The famous aphorism of F. Bacon: “Knowledge is power” is more relevant today than ever. Especially if in the foreseeable future humanity will live in the conditions of the so-called information society where the main factor of social development will be the production and use of knowledge, scientific, technical and other information. The growing role of knowledge (and, to an even greater extent, the methods of obtaining it) in the life of society must inevitably be accompanied by an increase in the knowledge of sciences that specifically analyze knowledge, cognition, and research methods.

Science is the understanding of the world in which we live. Accordingly, science is usually defined as a highly organized and highly specialized activity for the production of objective knowledge about the world, including man himself.