Ancient civilization. The main features of ancient culture and factors of its development

Civilization is public culture, which has reached its economic peak, political stability and social order.

Ancient civilization is a Greco-Roman society with many stages of formation, development and decline of all spheres of life.

A civilized society is opposed to a barbaric way of life. The ancient Romans are civilized, the Celts are not. The peak of development, a complex way of life with a hierarchy, money, laws are signs of a developed society.

We, the modern society, determine the level of civilization and judge from our belfry whether a historical society has reached civilization. Ancient Greece is already a civilization, primitive society is still a barbarian tribe.

Signs of civilization:

• division of physical labor and mental;
• writing;
• the emergence of cities as centers of cultural and economic life.

types of civilizations. There are many, some of them:

• antique;
• ancient Egyptian;
• Chinese;
• Islamic.

Civilization Traits:

• the presence of a center with the concentration of all spheres of life and their weakening on the periphery (when urban residents call the inhabitants of small towns “village”);
• the ethnic core (people) - in Ancient Rome - the Romans, in Ancient Greece - the Hellenes (Greeks);
• formed ideological system (religion);
• tendency to expand (geographically, culturally);
• cities;
• a single information field with language and writing;
• formation of external trade relations and zones of influence;
• stages of development (growth - peak of prosperity - decline, death or transformation).

The rise of ancient civilizations

What are the reasons for the emergence of ancient civilization?

She didn't come out of nowhere. It is considered a daughter civilization from the Near East and secondary to the Mycenaean civilization.

It all started with the transformation of civil communities into Hellenic policies. First, rural and tribal communities, then civil collectives according to a single model - the merit of the tribal aristocracy. The process lasted long and carefully - from the 8th to the 6th centuries. BC. The aristocracy coped with the commoners by maintaining traditions and order. Power remained its lever of control, thanks to tribal property passing from father to son. Using the labor of commoners and freed from hard physical work, the aristocracy had the luxury of education and military affairs. Civilization was built on policies - cities.

When the Greek policies were formed, and the primitive society turned into a class society, the civilizations of the ancient world established their own special social system.

Ancient civilization briefly

6th century BC. - the time when tribal associations finally turned into autonomous states. Awareness of their specialness allowed the Greeks to take a different look at the Persians - the Middle Eastern civilization. Considering the Persians as barbarians and not wanting to put up with their domination, the Greeks decided to go to war, defending the right to wealth and the preservation of uniqueness.

The confrontation between the Greeks and Persians resulted in the Greco-Persian wars between Europe and Asia. Here history marks the march. To stop the Persian expansion, the Greek policies united, forming the famous ancient civilization.

In traditional civilizations, the center was a concentrated circle of all spheres and relationships. Ancient Greece was an exception - here all spheres developed evenly. This is the peculiarity of ancient civilization.

The polis system was similar to a honeycomb, but in each honeycomb the connections were clogged and developed separately. This can explain Sparta and Athens - so different, but so similar. The more active the policy in general Greek life, the faster it was transformed. The backward regions retained an archaic structure.

The fact that the policies were autonomous prevented the formation of a political instrument. There were wars between policies, but external threats did not disappear. Increasingly turning to barbarian Italy for help, Rome was tamed slowly and in stages. At first, Rome did not develop according to the scenario of policies, but Greek influence imposed a civil community. And it stuck. Ancient civilization swallowed up Rome.

The ancient civilizations of the ancient world are Greece and Ancient Rome.

He (Rome) did not yet have a commercial and cultural influence, but there was a military one. Political leadership was defended by blood in hostilities. The Hannibal War was decisive. Now Ancient Rome could dictate terms to the entire Mediterranean.

Citizenship (civilis - civil) with the light hand of the ancient Romans gave us an understanding of civilization, which we now oppose to barbarism. Giving out the rights of citizenship with time more and more, Rome was no longer only a military-political center, it took away the socio-cultural leadership from Greece.

The end of ancient civilization is regarded differently:

• the decline of the Roman spirit;
• crisis of ancient culture;
• military weakening;
• economic decline;
• crisis of the slave system, etc.

The decline manifested itself in the IV - V centuries. Neither the emperors nor the efforts of the state - nothing could prevent the decline, but it appeared on all fronts - in the economic, social, cultural and political spheres. The chain reaction, once triggered, knocked down all the dominoes.

The outer limits easily broke under the weight of the barbarian tribes. Wanting to be conquered, the barbarians assimilated into the culture of the ancient Romans in a couple of centuries, bringing civilization to the development of the feudal system.

The culture of ancient civilizations continues to affect us, after 20 centuries. This is the strength of any civilization - in the spread of its power even after the disappearance.

II semester

Historical Geography of Ancient Greece.

Written sources on the history of Ancient Greece.

Minoan civilization in Crete.

Mycenaean Greece.

Trojan War.

Dark Ages" in the history of Greece.

Greek mythology: main stories.

Poems of Homer.

Great Greek colonization.

Sparta as a type of polis.

Formation of the policy in Athens (VIII-VI centuries BC).

Solon's reforms.

Tyranny of Pisistratus.

Reforms of Cleisthenes.

Greco-Persian Wars.

Athenian democracy in the 5th century. BC.

Athenian maritime power in the 5th century. BC.

Peloponnesian War.

The Crisis of the Polis in Greece, 4th c. BC.

Greek culture of the archaic period.

Greek culture of classical times.

Rise of Macedonia.

Campaigns of Alexander.

Hellenism and its manifestations in economics, politics, culture.

Major Hellenistic States.

Northern Black Sea region in the classical and Hellenistic era.

Periodization of the history of Rome.

Historical Geography of Rome, Italy and the Empire.

Written sources on Roman history.

Etruscans and their culture.

The royal period of the history of Rome.

Early Republic: the struggle of patricians and plebeians.

Roman conquest of Italy.

Second Punic War.

Roman conquest of the Mediterranean in the 2nd century BC. BC.

Reforms of the Gracchi brothers.

Struggle between the optimates and the popular. Marius and Sulla.

Political struggle in Rome in the first half. 1st century BC.

Caesar's conquest of Gaul.

Rise of Spartacus.

The struggle for power and the dictatorship of Caesar.

Struggle between Antony and Octavian.

Principate of Augustus.

Emperors from the dynasty of Tiberius-Juliev.

Roman provinces in the I-II centuries. AD and their romanization.

Golden Age" of the Roman Empire in the II century. AD

Roman culture during the civil wars.

Roman culture of the era of the principate.

The era of "soldier emperors".

Reforms of Diocletian-Constantine.

Ancient Christian church. The adoption of Christianity in the IV century.

The onslaught of the Germanic tribes on the borders of the empire in the IV-V centuries.

Eastern provinces in the IV-VI centuries. Birth of Byzantium.

Fall of the Western Roman Empire.

Culture of the Late Empire.

Antique traditions in the culture of subsequent eras.

The main features of ancient civilization, its differences from the civilizations of the Ancient East.

Ancient civilization is an exemplary, normative civilization. Events took place here, which then only repeated, there is not a single event and reality, which were not meaningful, did not occur in Other Greece and Other. Rome.

Antiquity is clear to us today, because: 1. in antiquity they lived according to the principle of "here and now"; 2. religion was superficial; 3 the Greeks had no morals, conscience, they maneuvered through life; 4 private life was a person's private life, if not affect public morality.

Not similar: 1. There was no concept of ethics (good, bad). Religion was reduced to rituals. And not to assess good and bad.

1. In ancient civilization, man is the main subject of the historical process (more important than the state or religion), in contrast to the civilization of the ancient East.

2. Culture in Western civilization is a personal creative expression, in contrast to the Eastern, where the state and religion are glorified.

3. The ancient Greek hoped only for himself, not for God, nor for the state.

4. The pagan religion for antiquity did not have a moral standard.

5. Unlike the ancient Eastern religion, the Greeks believed that life on earth is better than in the other world.

6. For the Ancient civilization, the important criteria of life were: creativity, personality, culture, i.e. self-expression.

7. In ancient civilization there was basically a democracy (people's assemblies, a council of elders), in the Other East - monarchies.

Periodization of the history of Ancient Greece.

Period

1. Civilization of Minoan Crete - 2 thousand BC - XX - XII century BC

Old palaces 2000-1700 BC - appearance of several potential centers (Knossos, Festa, Mallia, Zagross)

The period of new palaces 1700-1400 BC - the palace at Knossos (Mitaur's Palace)

Earthquake XV - the conquest of Fr. Crete from the mainland by the Achaeans.

2. Mycenaean (Achaean) civilization - XVII-XII centuries BC (Greeks, but not yet ancient)

3. The Homeric period, or the Dark Ages, or the prepolis period (XI-IX centuries BC), - tribal relations in Greece.

Period. Antique civilization

1. Archaic period (archaic) (VIII-VI centuries BC) - the formation of a polis society and state. Settlement of the Greeks along the shores of the Mediterranean and Black Seas (Great Greek colonization).

2. The classical period (classics) (V-IV centuries BC) - the heyday of ancient Greek civilization, a rational economy, a polis system, Greek culture.

3. Hellenistic period (Helinism, postclassical period) - end. IV - I in BC (expansion of the Greek world, dwindling kul-ra, lightened historical period):

Eastern campaigns of Alexander the Great and the formation of a system of Hellenistic states (30s of the 4th century, BC - 80s of the 3rd century BC);

The functioning of Hellenistic societies and states (80s of the 3rd century BC, - the middle of the 2nd century BC);

The crisis of the Hellenistic system and the conquest of the Hellenistic states by Rome in the West and Parthia in the East (mid-2nd century - 1st century BC).

3. Historical geography of Ancient Greece.

The geographical boundaries of ancient Greek history were not constant, but changed and expanded as historical development. The main territory of the ancient Greek civilization was the Aegean region, i.e. Balkan, Asia Minor, Thracian coast and numerous islands of the Aegean Sea. From the 8th-9th centuries. BC, after a powerful colonization movement from the Aeneid region, known as the Great Greek colonization, the Greeks mastered the territories of Sicily and South. Italy, which received the name Magna Graecia, as well as the Black Sea coast. After the campaigns of A. Macedon at the end of the 4th century. BC. and the conquest of the Persian state on its ruins in the Near and Middle East up to India, Hellenistic states were formed and these territories became part of the ancient Greek world. In the Hellenistic era, the Greek world covered a vast territory from Sicily in the west to India in the East, from the Northern Black Sea region in the north, to the first rapids of the Nile in the south. However, in all periods of ancient Greek history, its central part the Aegean region was considered, where the Greek statehood and culture originated and reached its dawn.

The climate is Eastern Mediterranean, subtropical with mild winters (+10) and hot summers.

The relief is mountainous, the valleys are isolated from each other, which prevented the construction of communications and assumed the maintenance of nat-go agriculture in each valley.

There is an indented coastline. There was communication by sea. The Greeks, although they were afraid of the sea, mastered the Aegean Sea, did not go out to the Black Sea for a long time.

Greece is rich in minerals: marble, iron ore, copper, silver, wood, pottery clay of good quality, which provided the Greek craft with a sufficient amount of raw materials.

The soils of Greece are stony, moderately fertile and difficult to cultivate. However, the abundance of sun and the mild subtropical climate made them favorable for agricultural activities. There were also spacious valleys (in Boeotia, Laconica, Thessaly), suitable for agriculture. In agriculture, there was a triad: cereals (barley, wheat), olives (olives), from which oil was produced, and its pomace was the basis of lighting, and grapes (a universal drink that did not spoil in this climate, wine 4 -5%). Cheese was made from milk.

Cattle breeding: small cattle(sheep, bulls), bird, because there was nowhere to turn around.

4. Written sources on the history of Ancient Greece.

In ancient Greece, history is born - special historical writings.

In the 6th century BC, logographs appeared - word writings, the first prose, and a description of memorable events. The most famous are the logographs of Hecatea (540-478 BC) and Hellanicus (480-400 BC).

The first historical study was the work "History" by Herodotus (485-425 BC), who was called "the father of history" by Cicero in ancient times. "History" - the main type of prose, has public and private significance, explains the whole history as a whole, broadcasts, transmits information to descendants. The work of Herodotus differs from the chronicles, chronicles in that there are causes of events. The purpose of the work is to present all the information brought to the author. The work of Herodotus is devoted to the history of the Greco-Persian wars and consists of 9 books, which in the III century. BC e. were named after 9 muses.

Another outstanding work of Greek historical thought was the work of the Athenian historian Thucydides (about 460-396 BC), dedicated to the events of the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC). The work of Thucydides consists of 8 books, they outline the events of the Peloponnesian War from 431 to 411 BC. e. (The work was left unfinished.) However, Thucydides does not confine himself to a thorough and detailed description of military operations. He also gives a description of the internal life of the belligerents, including the relationship of different groups of the population and their clashes, changes in political system, while partially selecting information.

A diverse literary legacy was left by Thucydides' younger contemporary, historian and publicist Xenophon of Athens (430-355 BC). He left behind many different works: "Greek History", "Education of Cyrus", "Anabasis", "Domostroy".

The first Greek literary monuments - Homer's epic poems "Iliad" and "Odyssey" - are practically the only sources of information on the history of the dark ages of the XII - VI centuries. BC e., i.e.

Among the writings of Plato (427-347 BC), his extensive treatises "State" and "Laws", written in the last period of his life, are of the greatest importance. In them, Plato, starting from an analysis of the socio-political relations of the middle of the 6th century. BC e., offers his version of the reorganization of Greek society on new, fair, in his opinion, principles.

Aristotle owns treatises on logic and ethics, rhetoric and poetics, meteorology and astronomy, zoology and physics, which are informative sources. However, the most valuable works on the history of Greek society in the 4th c. BC e. are his writings on the essence and forms of the state - "Politics" and "The Athenian Poured".

Of the historical writings that give a coherent presentation of the events of Hellenistic history, the most important are the works of Polybius (the work details the history of the Greek and Roman world from 280 to 146 BC) and Diodorus' Historical Library.

A great contribution to the study of history Dr. Greece also has the works of Strabo, Plutarch, Pausanias, and others.

Mycenaean (Achaean) Greece.

Mycenaean civilization or Achaean Greece- a cultural period in the history of prehistoric Greece from the 18th to the 12th centuries BC. e., Bronze Age. It got its name from the city of Mycenae on the Peloponnese peninsula.

Internal sources are Linear B tablets deciphered after World War 2 by Michael Ventris. They contain documents on economic reporting: taxes, on the lease of land. Some information about the history of the Archean kings is contained in Homer's poems "Iliad" and "Odyssey", the works of Herodotus, Thucydides, Aristotle, which is confirmed by archeological data.

The creators of the Mycenaean culture were the Greeks - the Achaeans, who invaded the Balkan Peninsula at the turn of III-II millennium BC. e. from the north, from the region of the Danube lowland or from the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region, where they originally lived. The aliens partially destroyed and devastated the settlements of the conquered tribes. The remnants of the pre-Greek population gradually assimilated with the Achaeans.

In the early stages of its development, Mycenaean culture was strongly influenced by the more advanced Minoan civilization, for example, some cults and religious rites, fresco painting, plumbing and sewage, styles of men's and women's clothing, some types of weapons, and finally, a linear syllabary.

The heyday of the Mycenaean civilization can be considered the XV-XIII centuries. BC e. The most significant centers of early class society there were Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos in the Peloponnese, in Central Greece Athens, Thebes, Orchomenos, in the northern part of Iolk - Thessaly, which never united into 1 state. All states were at war. Male warlike civilization.

Almost all Mycenaean palaces-fortresses were fortified with Cyclopean stone walls, which were built by free people, and were citadels (for example, the Tiryns citadel).

The bulk of the working population in the Mycenaean states, as in Crete, were free or semi-free peasants and artisans, who were economically dependent on the palace and were subject to labor and natural duties in its favor. Among the artisans who worked for the palace, blacksmiths occupied a special position. Usually they received from the palace the so-called talasiya, that is, a task or lesson. Craftsmen who were involved in public service were not deprived of personal freedom. They could own land and even slaves like all other members of the community.

At the head of the palace state was a "vanaka" (king), who occupied a special privileged position among the ruling nobility. The duties of Lavagete (commander) included the command of the armed forces of the Pylos kingdom. C ar and military leader concentrated in their hands the most important functions of both economic and political nature. Directly subordinate to the ruling elite of society were numerous officials who acted locally and in the center and together constituted a powerful apparatus for the oppression and exploitation of the working population of the Pylos kingdom: carters (governors), basilei (supervised production).

All land in the kingdom of Pylos was divided into two main categories: 1) land of the palace, or state, and 2) land belonging to individual territorial communities.

Mycenaean civilization survived two invasions from the north with an interval of 50 years. In the period between the invasions, the population of the Mycenaean civilization united with the goal of dying with glory in the Trojan War (not a single Trojan hero returned home alive).

Internal reasons for the death of the Mycenaean civilization: a fragile economy, an undeveloped simple society, which led to destruction after the loss of the top. The external cause of death is the invasion of the Dorians.

Civilizations of the Eastern type are not suitable for Europe. Crete and Mycenae are the parents of antiquity.

7. Trojan War.

The Trojan War, according to the ancient Greeks, was one of the most significant events in their history. Ancient historians believed that it occurred around the turn of the XIII-XII centuries. BC e., and began with it a new - "Trojan" era: the ascent of the tribes inhabiting Balkan Greece to a higher level of culture associated with life in cities. Numerous Greek myths were told about the campaign of the Greek Achaeans against the city of Troy, located in the northwestern part of the peninsula of Asia Minor - Troad, later combined into a cycle of legends - cyclic poems, among them the poem "Iliad", attributed to the Greek poet Homer. It tells about one of the episodes of the final, tenth year of the siege of Troy-Ilion.

The Trojan War, according to the myths, began at the will and fault of the gods. All the gods were invited to the wedding of the Thessalian hero Peleus and the sea goddess Thetis, except for Eris, the goddess of discord. The angry goddess decided to take revenge and threw a golden apple with the inscription "To the most beautiful" to the feasting gods. Three Olympian goddesses, Hera, Athena and Aphrodite, argued which of them it was meant for. Zeus ordered the young Paris, the son of the Trojan king Priam, to judge the goddesses. The goddesses appeared to Paris on Mount Ida, near Troy, where the prince was tending herds, and each tried to seduce him with gifts. Paris preferred the love offered to him by Aphrodite to Helen, the most beautiful of mortal women, and handed the golden apple to the goddess of love. Helena, daughter of Zeus and Leda, was the wife of the Spartan king Menelaus. Paris, who was a guest in the house of Menelaus, took advantage of his absence and, with the help of Aphrodite, convinced Helen to leave her husband and go with him to Troy.

Offended, Menelaus, with the help of his brother, the powerful king of Mycenae Agamemnon, gathered a large army to return his unfaithful wife and stolen treasures. All the suitors who once wooed Elena and swore an oath to defend her honor came to the call of the brothers: Odysseus, Diomedes, Protesilaus, Ajax Telamonides and Ajax Oilid, Philoctetes, the wise old man Nestor and others. Achilles, the son of Peleus and Thetis. Agamemnon was chosen as the leader of the entire army, as the ruler of the most powerful of the Achaean states.

The Greek fleet, numbering a thousand ships, assembled at Aulis, a harbor in Boeotia. To ensure the fleet's safe navigation to the shores of Asia Minor, Agamemnon sacrificed his daughter Iphigenia to the goddess Artemis. Having reached Troas, the Greeks tried to return Helen and the treasures by peaceful means. Odysseus and Menelaus went as messengers to Troy. The Trojans refused them, and a long and tragic war began for both sides. The gods also took part in it. Hera and Athena helped the Achaeans, Aphrodite and Apollo helped the Trojans.

The Greeks could not immediately take Troy, surrounded by powerful fortifications. They built a fortified camp on the seashore near their ships, began to devastate the outskirts of the city and attack the allies of the Trojans. In the tenth year, Agamemnon insulted Achilles by taking away the captive Briseis from him, and he, angry, refused to enter the battlefield. The Trojans took advantage of the inaction of the bravest and strongest of their enemies and went on the offensive, led by Hector. The Trojans were also helped by the general fatigue of the Achaean army, which had been unsuccessfully besieging Troy for ten years.

The Trojans broke into the Achaean camp and almost burned their ships. The closest friend of Achilles, Patroclus, stopped the onslaught of the Trojans, but he himself died at the hands of Hector. The death of a friend makes Achilles forget about the offense. Trojan hero Hector dies in a duel with Achilles. The Amazons come to the aid of the Trojans. Achilles kills their leader Penthesilea, but soon dies himself, as predicted, from the arrow of Paris, directed by the god Apollo.

A decisive turning point in the war occurs after the arrival of the hero Philoctetes from the island of Lemnos and the son of Achilles Neoptolemus to the camp of the Achaeans. Philoctetes kills Paris, and Neoptolemus kills an ally of the Trojans, the Mysian Eurynil. Left without leaders, the Trojans no longer dare to go out to battle in the open field. But the powerful walls of Troy reliably protect its inhabitants. Then, at the suggestion of Odysseus, the Achaeans decided to take the city by cunning. A huge wooden horse was built, inside which a select detachment of warriors hid. The rest of the army took refuge not far from the coast, near the island of Tenedos.

Surprised by the abandoned wooden monster, the Trojans gathered around him. Some began to offer to bring the horse into the city. Priest Laocoön, warning about the treachery of the enemy, exclaimed: "Beware of the Danaans (Greeks), who bring gifts!" But the speech of the priest did not convince his compatriots, and they brought a wooden horse into the city as a gift to the goddess Athena. At night, the warriors hidden in the belly of the horse come out and open the gate. The secretly returned Achaeans break into the city, and the beating of the inhabitants taken by surprise begins. Menelaus with a sword in his hands is looking for an unfaithful wife, but when he sees the beautiful Elena, he is unable to kill her. The entire male population of Troy perishes, with the exception of Aeneas, the son of Anchises and Aphrodite, who received an order from the gods to flee the captured city and revive its glory elsewhere. The women of Troy became captives and slaves of the victors. The city perished in a fire.

After the death of Troy, strife begins in the Achaean camp. Ajax Oilid incurs the wrath of the goddess Athena on the Greek fleet, and she sends a terrible storm, during which many ships sink. Menelaus and Odysseus are carried by a storm to distant lands (described in Homer's poem "The Odyssey"). The leader of the Achaeans, Agamemnon, after returning home, was killed along with his companions by his wife Clytemnestra, who did not forgive her husband for the death of her daughter Iphigenia. So, not at all triumphant, the campaign against Troy ended for the Achaeans.

The ancient Greeks did not doubt the historical reality of the Trojan War. Thucydides was convinced that the ten-year siege of Troy described in the poem was a historical fact, only embellished by the poet. Separate parts of the poem, such as the "catalog of ships" or the list of the Achaean army under the walls of Troy, are written as a real chronicle.

Historians of the XVIII-XIX centuries. were convinced that there was no Greek campaign against Troy and that the heroes of the poem are mythical, not historical figures.

In 1871, Heinrich Schliemann began excavations of the Hissarlik hill in the northwestern part of Asia Minor, identifying it as the location of ancient Troy. Then, following the instructions of the poem, Heinrich Schliemann conducted archaeological excavations in the "gold-abundant" Mycenae. In one of the royal graves discovered there, there were - for Schliemann there was no doubt about this - the remains of Agamemnon and his companions, strewn with gold ornaments; Agamemnon's face was covered with a golden mask.

The discoveries of Heinrich Schliemann shocked the world community. There was no doubt that Homer's poem contains information about real events and their real heroes.

Later, A. Evans discovered the palace of the Minotaur on the island of Crete. In 1939, the American archaeologist Carl Blegen discovered the "sandy" Pylos, the habitat of the wise old man Nestor on the western coast of the Peloponnese. However, archeology has established that the city that Schliemann took for Troy existed for a thousand years before the Trojan War.

But it is impossible to deny the existence of the city of Troy somewhere in the northwestern region of Asia Minor. Documents from the archives of the Hittite kings testify that the Hittites knew both the city of Troy and the city of Ilion (in the Hittite version of "Truis" and "Vilus"), but, apparently, as two different cities located in the neighborhood, and not one under a double title, like in a poem.

Poems of Homer.

Homer is considered the author of two poems - the Iliad and the Odyssey, although the question of whether Homer actually lived or whether he is a legendary person has not yet been resolved in modern science. The totality of the problems associated with the authorship of the Iliad and the Odyssey, their origin and fate until the moment of recording, was called the "Homeric question".

In Italy, G. Vico (17th century) and in Germany, fr. Wolf (18) recognized the folk origin of the poems. In the 19th century, the “theory of small songs” was proposed, from which both poems subsequently arose mechanically. The Grain Theory assumes that the basis of the Iliad and the Odyssey is a small poem, which over time has acquired details and new episodes as a result of the work of new generations of poets. Unitarians denied the participation of folk art in the creation of Homeric poems, they considered them as a work of art created by one author. At the end of the 19th century, a theory was proposed folk origin poems as a result of the gradual natural development of collective epic creativity. Synthetic theories arose in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, according to which the Iliad and the Odyssey appear to be an epic edited by one or two poets.

The plots of both poems date back to the Mycenaean time, which is confirmed by numerous archaeological materials. The poems reflect the Cretan-Mycenaean (the end of the 12th century - information about the Trojan War), Homeric (XI-IX - most of the information, because the information about the Mycenaean time did not reach oral form), early archaic (VIII-VII) era.

The content of the Iliad and the Odyssey was based on legends from the cycle myths about the Trojan War, that took place in the 13th-12th centuries. BC uh. The plot of the Iliad is the anger of the Thessalian hero Achilles at the leader of the Greek troops besieging Troy, Agamemnon, because he took away his beautiful captive. The most ancient part"Iliad" - 2nd song about "Lists of ships". The plot of the Odyssey is the return of the island of Ithaca by Odysseus to his homeland after the Greeks destroyed Troy.

The poems were written down in Athens under the tyrant Peisistratus, who wanted to show that there was a sole power in Greece. Poems purchased modern look in the 2nd century BC in the Alexandrian monsoon (the era of Hellenism).

Meaning of the poems: a book for learning to read and write, the "handbook" of the Greeks.

One of the most important compositional features of the Iliad is the "law of chronological incompatibility" formulated by Thaddeus Frantsevich Zelinsky. It consists in the fact that “In Homer the story never returns to the point of its departure. It follows from this that Homer's parallel actions cannot be depicted; Homer's poetic technique knows only a simple, linear dimension. Thus, sometimes parallel events are depicted as sequential, sometimes one of them is only mentioned or even hushed up. This explains some imaginary contradictions in the text of the poem.

A complete translation of the Iliad into Russian in the size of the original was made by N. I. Gnedich (1829), the Odyssey by V. A. Zhukovsky (1849).

Sparta as a type of polis.

The Spartan state was located in the south of the Peloponnese. The capital of this state was called Sparta, and the state itself was called Laconia. Polis could not be conquered, but only destroyed. All policies developed, but only Sparta in the 6th century. mothballed.

The main sources on the history of the Spartan state are the works of Thucydides, Xenophon, Aristotle and Plutarch, the poems of the Spartan poet Tyrtaeus. Archaeological materials acquire significance.

During the IX-VIII centuries BC, the Spartans waged a stubborn struggle with neighboring tribes for dominance over Laconia. As a result, they managed to subdue the area from the southern borders of the Arcadian Highlands to the Capes Tenar and Malea on the southern coast of the Peloponnese.

In the 7th century BC, an acute land famine began to be felt in Sparta and the Spartans undertook conquest to Messenia, also inhabited by the Dorians. As a result of two Messenian warriors, the territory of Messenia was annexed to Sparta, and the bulk of the population, with the exception of the inhabitants of some coastal cities, was turned into helots.

The fertile lands in Laconia and Messenia were divided into 9,000 allotments and were distributed to the Spartans. Each allotment was processed by several families of helots, who were obliged to support the Spartan and his family with their labor. The Spartan could not dispose of his allotment, sell it or leave it as an inheritance to his son. Nor was he the master of the helots. He had no right to sell or release them. Both the land and the helots belonged to the state.

Three population groups formed in Sparta: the Spartans (the conquerors themselves were Dorians), the perieks (the inhabitants of small towns scattered at some distance from Sparta, along the borders, called periekami ("living around"). They were free, but did not have civil rights) and helots (dependent population).

ephors - in the highest control and administrative body of Sparta. Elected for a year in the number of 5 people. They monitor the behavior of citizens, being overseers in relation to the enslaved and dependent population. They declare war on the helots.

The constant threat of a helot rebellion, looming under the ruling class of Sparta, demanded from him maximum unity and organization. Therefore, simultaneously with the redistribution of land, the Spartan legislator Lycurgus carried out a whole series of important social reforms:

only strong and healthy man could become a real warrior. When a boy was born, his father brought him to the elders. The baby was examined. A weak child was thrown into the abyss. The law obliged each Spartiate to send their sons to special camps - agels (lit. Herd). Boys were taught to read and write only for practical purposes. Education was subordinated to three goals: to be able to obey, courageously endure suffering, win or die in battles. . The boys were engaged in gymnastic and military exercises, learned to wield weapons, live in a Spartan way. They walked all year round in one cloak (himation). They slept on hard cane, plucked with bare hands. They fed them starving. To be dexterous and cunning in war, teenagers learned to steal. The boys even competed to see which of them would endure the beatings longer and more worthily. The winner was praised, his name became known to everyone. But some died under the rods. The Spartans were excellent warriors - strong, skillful, brave. The laconic saying of one Spartan woman who accompanied her son to war was famous. She gave him a shield and said: "With a shield or on a shield!"

Sparta also paid great attention to the education of women, who were highly respected. To give birth to healthy children, you need to be healthy. Therefore, the girls did not do household chores, but gymnastics and sports, they knew how to read, write, and count.

According to the law of Lycurgus, special joint meals were introduced - sisstia.

The principle of equality was put at the heart of the "Lykurgov system", they tried to stop the growth of property inequality among the Spartans. In order to withdraw gold and silver from circulation, iron obols were put into circulation.

The Spartan state forbade all foreign trade. It was only internal and took place in local markets. The craft was poorly developed, it was carried out by the perieks, who made only the most necessary utensils for equipping the Spartan army.

All transformations contributed to the consolidation of society.

Essential elements The political system of Sparta is a dual royal power, a council of elders (gerousia) and a popular assembly.

The people's assembly (apella), in which all full-fledged citizens of Sparta took part, approved the decisions taken by the kings and elders at their joint meeting.

Council of Elders - Gerousia consisted of 30 members: 28 geronts (elders) and two kings. Gerontes were elected from Spartans no younger than 60 years old. The kings received power by inheritance, but their rights in everyday life were very small: military leaders during military operations, judicial and religious functions in peacetime. Decisions were made at a joint meeting of the council of elders and kings.

The city of Sparta itself had a modest appearance. There were not even defensive walls. The Spartans said that the best defense of a city was not the walls, but the courage of its citizens.

By the middle of the 6th c. BC. Corinth, Sicyon and Megara were subordinated, as a result of which the Peloponnesian Union was formed, which became the most significant political association of Greece at that time.

Solon's reforms

Solon went down in history as an outstanding reformer, who largely changed the political face of Athens and thus made it possible for this policy to outstrip other Greek cities in its development.

The socio-economic and political situation in Attica continued to deteriorate for almost the entire 7th century. BC e. The social differentiation of the population led to the fact that already a significant part of all Athenians eked out a miserable existence. The poor peasants lived in debt, paid huge interest, mortgaged the land, gave their rich fellow citizens up to 5/6 of the harvest.

The failure in the war for the island of Salamis with Megara at the end of the 7th century added fuel to the fire.

Solon. descended from an ancient but impoverished noble family, was engaged in maritime trade and was thus connected both with the aristocracy and with the demos, whose members respected Solon for honesty. Pretending to be crazy, he publicly called on the Athenians for revenge in verse. His poems caused a great public outcry, which saved the poet from punishment. He was instructed to assemble and lead the fleet and army. In a new war, Athens defeated Megara, and Solon became the most popular man in the city. In 594 BC. e. he was elected the first archon (eponym) and was also instructed to perform the functions of aisimnet, that is, he was supposed to become an intermediary in settling social issues.

Solon resolutely undertook reforms. To begin with, he conducted the so-called sisachfia (literally "shaking off the burden"), according to which all debts were canceled. Mortgage debt stones were removed from the mortgaged land plots, for the future it was forbidden to borrow money against the mortgage of people. Many peasants got their plots back. The Athenians sold abroad were redeemed at public expense. These events in themselves improved the social situation, although the poor were unhappy that Solon did not carry out the promised redistribution of the land. On the other hand, the archon established the maximum maximum rate of land ownership and introduced freedom of will - from now on, if there were no direct heirs, it was possible to transfer property by will to any citizen, allowing land to be given to non-members of the clan. This undermined the power of the tribal nobility, and also gave a powerful impetus to the development of small and medium landownership.

Solon carried out a monetary reform, making the Athenian coin lighter (reducing the weight) and thereby increasing the monetary circulation in the country. He allowed olive oil to be exported abroad and wine was forbidden to export grain, thus contributing to the development of the most profitable sector of Athenian agriculture for foreign trade and preserving scarce bread for fellow citizens. A curious law was adopted to develop yet another progressive branch of the national economy. According to the law of Solon, sons could not provide for their parents in old age if they had not taught the children some trade in their time.

The most important changes took place in the political and social structure of the Athenian state. Instead of the former estates, Solon introduced new ones based on the property qualification he had carried out (census and income records). From now on, the Athenians, whose annual income was at least 500 medimns (about 52 liters) of bulk or liquid products, were called pentakosiamedimns and belonged to the first category, at least 300 medimns - horsemen (second rank), at least 200 medimns - zeugites (third rank) , less than 200 medimns - feta (fourth category).

From now on, the Areopagus, the bule and the People's Assembly were the highest state bodies. The bule was a new organ. It was the Council of Four Hundred, where each of the four Athenian phyla elected 100 people. All issues and laws were to be discussed in the bule before they were subject to consideration in the National Assembly. The National Assembly itself (ekklesia) under Solon began to gather much more often and acquired greater importance. The archon decreed that during the period of civil strife, every citizen should take an active political position under the threat of deprivation of civil rights.

7.1. The main stages of the formation and development of the culture of ancient Greece

The civilizations of the Ancient East are the civilizations of the "first wave". The peoples of these cultures were the first to embark on the path of building a state, a class society, and an urban economy. The peoples who created the culture of Ancient Greece began to build their civilization later.

Civilization on Greek soil arose twice. It first appears in the 3rd millennium BC. e. This is followed by a large gap in time, after which civilizational processes are again observed.

Therefore, the history of the culture of ancient Greece is usually divided into three periods.

The first period covers the time from the XXX century. BC e. up to the twelfth century. BC e. This is the era of the so-called Aegean culture, which was characterized by palace civilization. It goes through three stages in its development:

1. "early" (3000-2300 BC);

2. "middle" (2300-1600 BC);

3. "late" (1600-1200 BC).

In turn, the entire Aegean culture is divided into three local (regional) types:

1. Cretan (Minoan) centered on the island of Crete;

2. Cyclades (located where the islands of the Cyclades are now scattered);

3. Mycenaean (centered in the city of Mycenae, located in mainland Greece).

Most magnificent forms Aegean culture reaches the island of Crete. It is also called Minos (or Minoan, or Crete-Minoan), named after the mythical king Minos, the founder of this civilization.

At the turn of the 30th century BC e. the tribes of proto-Hellenes, the ancestors of the ancient Greeks, invaded the Balkans. Finding themselves in different conditions, they were forced to create a different culture, reflecting life in the conditions of civilization. This culture is evidenced by the rich ancient Greek mythology (the myth of Theseus and Ariadne, the myth of King Minos, the myth of Talas, etc.), the writings of ancient historians, writers, poets, as well as archaeological material that has come down to our days.

Excavations of the Great and Lesser Palaces at Knossos, located in the northern part of the island of Crete, reveal a whole world of unique culture, unlike that of the older civilization of Egypt. Characteristic of this culture were monumental palaces, which became the first public buildings in this place, as well as fresco painting. The culture of Crete in this far overtook the Cycladic and Mycenaean cultures. The Minoan palaces were characterized by an abundance of columns, wide staircases, spacious passages, openings in the walls, allowing light to penetrate into the premises - all this distinguishes the architecture of Crete from the construction methods used in neighboring Egypt .

The walls of the palaces were covered with frescoes. They are distinguished by a number of features: polychrome, multicolor. Later it will be replaced by a monochrome red-brown or black-and-white vase painting of the archaic period. Variety of plots in which there is no division into "low" and "high" topics. Frescoes differ in the time of writing. The style of the "first palaces" is distinguished. They are characterized by the image of palace life, nature, plants, marine animals. Motives, drawings are not repeated. The artist's creativity is free, not constrained by canons or ideological prescriptions. When depicting palace scenes, youth and beauty of bodies are emphasized. In the portraits of court ladies, images emphasize their grace, dexterity, they are drawn in low-cut suits richly decorated with precious stones. In the neighborhood there are images of scenes of the household yard: a chicken stock, a rooster, a cat ready to grab it. Realism dominates everywhere, the desire to show the object in all its beauty and attractiveness. This is the period when palaces were built without fortifications. In all likelihood, the society of this period did not yet know the class struggle, which means that the nobility had nothing to fear from the "lower classes", to fence themselves off from them with fortress walls. The Cretan culture of this period reached such power that it could not be afraid of an external enemy. The myths speak of the sea power of Crete, its dominance on the waterways of the Mediterranean Sea - "thalasocracy". The remnants of tribal relations, former freedom and social equality have not yet been eliminated in society. On one of the frescoes we see young man, a young man - a "king-priest", that is, a ruler who combines both secular and religious functions. In his hand is a bronze sickle. In front of him are uncompressed ears of corn, which he intends to cut. In societies that began to create a civilization, it was typical that the ruler gave a signal to start and end agricultural work, starting himself, sometimes purely symbolically, to plowing, sowing or harvesting. This is a memory of the past, when the function of disposal was not separated from productive labor, and labor was a syncretic whole.

The frescoes of the period of the "second palaces" already reflect the experience of civilized life with the dominance of political, state and ideological principles over the artist. At this stage, the themes become impoverished, repeated, and the dominance of the canon - rules, forms - over the free will of the artist is observed. An ornament is increasingly common, the former meander is complemented by a circle, a spiral. There is a growing desire for embellishment, decorativeness, and a departure from social topics.

Around 1450 BC. e. Crete is invaded from the mainland by the more primitive tribes of the Achaeans, who destroy the Minoan culture. After 200 years, they are subjugated by the Doryan tribes. Urban culture is in decline. Palaces are destroyed and no one restores them. The period of civilizations of the "Bronze Age" ended, the "age of iron" and the state-polis came.

The second period in the development of ancient Greek culture covers the time from the XII century. BC e. according to the 8th century BC e. It is often referred to as the "Dark Ages" or " Homeric Greece". Archaeological materials show that during this period there is a sharp decline in the living standards of the population, the material culture is poor. The ceramic products that have come down to us are rough and primitive, sometimes their only decoration is a spiral - the heritage of the Mycenaean culture. Metal products are rare. Small handicrafts predominate. True, iron products are also beginning to appear.The break with the Cretan-Minoan culture is also reflected in the change in the type of burial.The Minoan era was characterized by burials in chamber tombs, for the culture of the "Dark Ages" - individual burials in box graves (cysts) or simply in later, cremation and burial in urns appear.There is also a decline in interest in religion, there are no traces of cult activity.New settlements are created outside the ruins of the Mycenaean palaces.Mobility of the population increases, not settling in new cities for a long time.

In fact, society was thrown back deep into the era of "barbarian" culture with a professional division of the population, with revived tribal traditions. Only gradually does socio-economic differentiation begin to manifest itself and the civilizational process gain momentum.

The third period in the development of the culture of the civilization of Ancient Greece covers the time from the VIII century. BC e. and continues until the 1st century. BC e. There are three stages in this period. The first stage (VIII-VI century BC) was called "archaic" (original). The second stage (V-IV centuries BC) is called "classical". The third stage in the development of culture (III-I centuries BC) is called Hellenism.

For this entire period of development of civilization were characterized by:

The transition from "bronze" to iron as the main material of culture.

The transition from the professional division of society to the class. In particular, the formation of a society divided into main classes - slave owners and slaves, which became more and more.

The transition from the primitive communal system with public ownership to a system of relations with the dominance of private ownership of land, livestock, tools and people.

It should be noted that all these processes were very intensive and took a little time. Therefore, it is no coincidence that the archaic period is identified with a cultural upheaval in Ancient Greece.

Antiquity has a special place in world history, since it was the starting point, the first experience, the foundation and spiritual support of European culture. The term "antiquity" (from Latin antiquus - ancient) denotes Greco-Roman antiquity. Antique culture is the largest civilization ancient world geographically close to each other. Common to ancient states were the ways of social development and a special form of ownership - ancient slavery, as well as the form of production based on it. Common was their civilization with a single historical and cultural complex. This does not, of course, deny the presence of peculiarities and differences in the life of ancient societies. Ancient Greek civilization is usually divided into 5 periods, which are also cultural epochs: Crete-Mycenaean or Aegean (III - II millennium BC); Homeric or "dark ages" (XI - IX centuries BC); archaic (VIII - VI centuries BC); classical (V - IV centuries BC); Hellenistic (second half of the 4th - the middle of the 1st centuries BC)

The civilization that arose on the islands of the Aegean Sea, on Crete, as well as on the territory of mainland Greece and Anatolia, received common name Aegean civilization, which, in turn, is divided into the Crete-Mycenaean period (end of III-II millennium BC), which includes the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations. In III-II millennia BC. e. the first states emerge. These were states of a monarchical type, similar to ancient Eastern despotisms, with an extensive bureaucracy and strong communities. The disappearance of the Mycenaean culture in the XII century. BC e. is associated with the invasion of the Dorian tribes from the north of the Balkan Peninsula, among which the tribal system still dominated. The history of Greece after the Dorian invasion begins almost anew. Again there is a decomposition of primitive communal relations, the formation of statehood, the revival of material culture. This period lasted approximately from the 11th to the 9th centuries. and is called the "dark ages", as well as the Homeric period, since it is known primarily from Homer's poems "Iliad" and "Odyssey".

"Dark Ages" - the era of subsistence farming. In the archaic period, crafts were separated from agriculture, which marked the transition to exchange, production not only for their own needs, but also for the market, as a result of which cities were actively developing. During the period of the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. there is a formation of policies - scattered small sovereign city-states, united only by a common language, religion, cultural traditions, political and trade ties. It becomes economically necessary to create new colonies and increase the number of slaves as the main labor force. At the end of the archaic period, slavery spread in many policies, regardless of the form of organization of the policy, including democratic Athens.

The classical period is the time of the highest flowering of ancient Greek society and culture, which fell on the 5th-4th centuries BC. e. Ancient Athens became the most influential political and cultural center after the victory in the Greco-Persian wars. Athens reached its maximum power and cultural flourishing when the outstanding political figure Pericles, who was elected strategist 15 times, became the head of state. This period is known in historiography as the "Golden Age of Pericles", although it was relatively short-lived. During the period of weakness of the Greek policies, Macedonia begins its rise.

A new stage in the history of the countries of the Eastern Mediterranean - Hellenism - begins with the campaigns of Alexander the Great (4th century BC) and ends with the conquest of the Hellenistic states by Ancient Rome in the 1st century. BC e. Macedonia, having conquered Greece, fully adopted its culture, therefore, after the victorious campaigns of Alexander the Great, ancient Greek culture spreads in the conquered eastern countries.

The formation in Greece of city-states - policies, as a special type of community, brought to life a new, polis morality - collectivist in its basis, since the existence of an individual outside the framework of the policy was impossible. The Greek world has always consisted of many independent policies, sometimes entering into military, religious or some other unions, but usually independent and self-sufficient in administrative, economic and cultural terms. The process of gradual development of the policy, the early separation of craft from agriculture and trade, the rapid growth of commodity-money relations contributed to the transformation of the central settlement of a Greek tribe into a city. The citizens of the policy had the right to own land; were obliged to take part in public affairs, and in the event of war - to participate in the civil militia; had the right to publicly express their opinion on any issue, to file complaints about illegal actions. The supreme legislative body in the policy was the people's assembly; executive power was represented by elected (for a certain period of time) bodies and positions: the “Council of Five Hundred”, a jury trial, etc. Above the citizen in the policy was the collective of the policy (the idea of ​​the sovereignty of the people). Ancient democracy was limited: women did not have civil rights, personally free foreigners who lived on the territory of the policy, slaves. There were, in addition to democratic (Athens), and oligarchic policies (Sparta), where the remnants of the tribal system were strong, and the power belonged to the hereditary aristocracy. Nevertheless, the ancient Greek civilization as a whole most fully expressed the idea of ​​the sovereignty of the people and the ideal of a democratic form of government; and the polis organization of society became a unique phenomenon, previously unknown in the world of ancient civilizations, which made it possible to effectively solve economic, military and political tasks, to achieve high level cultural development.

ancient roman civilization interesting for its own system of spiritual values. The main spiritual guidelines of Roman society were: 1) patriotism; 2) the "special chosenness of God" of the Roman people; 3) the idea of ​​Rome as the highest value. Not only crafts were considered unworthy for a Roman citizen, but also artistic creativity (sculpture, painting, acting on stage, dramaturgy), and pedagogy. The originality of the Roman civilization was that it is represented by a variety of forms of socio-political structure known in antiquity. From an early class society headed by a “king” (seven legendary Roman kings were most likely the supreme leaders of tribal unions), to an early republic, then a developed republic, and finally to the emergence of a huge and stable state - the Roman Empire (a new type of monarchy , different from the eastern despotism), which swallowed up almost all other civilizations of antiquity. Roman civilization lasted 12 centuries, which are divided into three periods: the royal VIII-VI centuries. BC.; period of the Roman Republic VI-I centuries. BC.; period of the Roman Empire in the 1st century. BC - V century. n. e.

During the tsarist period, the primary social organization in ancient Rome takes shape. The population lived in clans ruled by elders. In 509 BC. e. The Romans expelled the last king, Tarvinius the Proud, and proclaimed a republic. The period of the Roman Republic is characterized by the beginning of the territorial expansion of Rome and the struggle with Carthage for dominance in the Mediterranean. As a result of wars and the growth of slavery, republican Rome is experiencing an internal crisis: slave uprisings and civil wars take place. As a result, in 82 BC. the commander Sulla establishes sole power, which meant the beginning of the decline of the republican system in Rome. The foundations of the empire that replaced the republic were laid by Gaius Julius Caesar, who was elected in 59 BC. consul, who became dictator for life and received the title of emperor. After the assassination of Caesar, his great-nephew Octavian Augustus, who became emperor, left behind a huge Roman Empire.

Only those who belonged to the Roman community were considered full members of the Roman community. ancient families. From them, a privileged part of Roman society was formed - the patricians, initially only they were considered the Roman people. In a different position was another large stratum of society - the plebeians. The plebeians were personally free, but did not belong to the clans, and therefore were not members of the community. Plebeians are settlers and residents of conquered areas. Initially, the plebeians had no rights: they were not allowed to attend public meetings, did not participate in religious rites, and could not marry patricians. Their struggle for the right to citizenship began. In the VI century. BC. the plebeians were admitted to military service and to public assemblies. And yet the plebeians remained incomplete, and in the future this will become the source of prolonged social battles in Rome.

In public life in Rome big role popular assemblies played. The resolutions of the people's assemblies had the force of law. In addition, the tribunes had high powers: they had the right to impose a ban on the decisions of the court, the senate and senior officials if these decisions infringed upon the interests of the plebeians. The most important governing body was the senate, which consisted of patricians and the top of the plebs. He was in charge of domestic policy and determined foreign policy. Under the control of the Senate were finances and a religious cult. The Senate was an aristocratic body. In fact, he led the state. In this respect Roman democracy differed from Athenian democracy. Having become a huge power, Rome could no longer remain a community. The first signs of the destruction of its traditional structure, the norms of communal life appeared in the 2nd century. BC e.

In general, the foundations were laid in the ancient world civil society providing for the right of every citizen to participate in government, recognition of his personal dignity, rights and freedoms. Roman law contained a system of rules governing private property relations. However, democracy in the ancient world was limited.

Literature

1. World history in dates and events. - M: Rainbow, 2002. - S. 34-101.

2. Samygin, P.S., Samygin, S.I., Shevelev, V.N., Sheveleva E.V. History for bachelors / P.S. Samygin, S.I. Samygin, V.N. Shevelev, E.V. Sheveleva.- Rostov-on-D.: Phoenix, 2012. - S. 56-66.

3. Chubaryan, A.O. The World History. In 6 volumes / A.O. Chubaryan. - M: Nauka, 2011.- V.1. - S. 439-479, 575-602.

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Agricultural policy of P.A. Stolypin
Reform of allotment peasant land tenure. The goal is to create a class of landowners as a social support for the autocracy and an opponent of revolutionary movements.

Russia in World War I
(causes, military plans, stages, outcomes and consequences) The First World War was the result of serious contradictions between European countries. At the heart of the contradictions

February Revolution of 1917 Fall of Tsarism
Causes of the revolution 1. The agrarian question. In Russia, landownership was preserved. By 1917, 130 million people. lived in the countryside, while about 10.5 million peasant households had lands

Post-war development of the countries of Western Europe and the USA. 1818-1939
In Versailles (France) on July 28, 1919, as part of the Paris Peace Conference, an international treaty was signed that summed up the results of the First World War and determined the post-war arrangements

Politics of war communism
Civil war is an organized armed struggle between classes and social groups within the country for state power. The Russian Civil War was extremely

NEP. Reasons for the transition to a new economic policy, its essence
Under the conditions of the Civil War and the military-communist policy, the population lost any material incentives for production. However, it seemed to the leaders of the Bolsheviks that their policy was not extreme.

In the 1920s and 30s
After the end of the civil war, several independent Soviet states existed on the territory of the former Russian Empire - the RSFSR, the Ukrainian SSR, the Byelorussian SSR, as well as Azerbaijan

Consequences of accelerated industrialization
1929 went down in history as the year of the beginning of Stalin's "revolution from above", the year of the "great turning point" of the fundamental transformation economic system countries. It should be noted that n

Complete collectivization of agriculture: goals, methods, results
In 1927, there were approximately 24 million peasant farms in the USSR. 120 million members of peasant families made up the absolute majority of the country's population. Each farm had an average of 4-5 hectares

The policy of the Soviet government in the field of culture
(20-30s of the 20th century) Soviet leaders argued that any culture has a class character. Even before coming to power, the leader of the Bolshevik party V.I. Lenin called Russia

Stalin's personality cult. Repressions in 30-40s
The forced modernization of the USSR economy, which took place in the 1930s, and in a hostile environment, objectively required a concentration of power. "Socialist offensive on all fronts",

Soviet foreign policy on the eve of the Great Patriotic War
(1933–1941) In 1933, most of the world's states, including the USSR, signed the Convention on the definition of an aggressor. Soviet diplomats made a proposal

Causes, main stages, results and lessons of the Second World War
The main causes of the new world war. In the two decades after the First World War, the world, especially in Europe, has accumulated acute economic, socio-political and national

Great Patriotic War of the Soviet people
Decisive importance in the plans of fascist Germany was given to the military defeat of the USSR. In 1940, the Barbarossa plan was developed - the preparation and conduct of a lightning war against the Soviet

The development of the countries of the East in the 1960-80s
As noted earlier, by the beginning of the 20th century. six "great powers" of Europe seized 25 million square meters. km of land, i.e., the space is 2.5 times the size of all of Europe, and enslaved 523 million people.

Domestic and foreign policy of the Soviet state
(1945-1953) The Great Patriotic War, of course, meant greatest victory over the worst enemy of mankind - German fascism. Freedom and independence of countries

Formation of post-industrial civilization
In the last quarter of the XX century. the most significant and dominant approach to the development of social and economic relations is the theory of post-industrial society (D. Bell, G. Ka

Economic reforms and attempts to democratize public life in the USSR (1953-1960s) Foreign policy
On March 5, 1953, I.V. died. Stalin. His death was a turning point in the modern history of the country. A fierce struggle for power began in the political leadership of the USSR. The balance of power was

During the years of perestroika
March 12, 1985 after the death of K.U. Chernenko was elected General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU M.S. Gorbachev. In the prime of life, energetic, charming, with a lively mind, democratic M.S. Gorbachev pointed out

August coup 1991, collapse of the USSR
An acute crisis of confidence in the President of the USSR M.S. Gorbachev, his inability to effectively lead the country and control the socio-political situation was also manifested in his defeats in the fight against

Post-Soviet Russia: economics and domestic politics
In December 1991, the USSR, and with it the socio-economic and politic system ceased to exist. At the same time, in 1990, for the first time, an absolute decline was registered in the country.

Russia's foreign policy in the 1990s
During the period of liberal reforms that began in Russia in the early 1990s, the top political leadership of the country, headed by President B.N. Yeltsin in the international arena took very difficult steps, h

The world of developed countries in the context of globalization
One of the key processes in the development of the world economy at the turn of the XX-XXI centuries. is progressive globalization, i.e. a qualitatively new stage in the development of the internationalization of economic life. From

Russia in the first decade of the XXI century
The 2000 presidential election campaign was very fleeting. On March 26, already in the first round of elections, V.V. Putin won with about 53% of the vote. This meant that the people of the eye

Culture of Russia. XIX century (1801 - 1914)
57. Le Goff, J. Civilization of the Medieval West / J. Le Goff. - Ekaterinburg: U-Factoria, 2005. - 560 p. 58. Lectures on cultural studies. URL: http://studentu-vuza.ru/kulturologiya/lektsii-po

ancient civilization

What are the differences between ancient civilization and ancient Eastern?

In ancient Greece, for the first time in the history of mankind, arose democratic republic- the highest form of government. Together with it, the institution of citizenship arose with a full set of rights and obligations that applied to an ancient citizen who lived in a community - a state (polis).

Another distinguishing feature of ancient civilization is the orientation of culture not towards the ruling persons close to them to know, as is observed in previous cultures, but towards the ordinary free citizen. As a result, culture glorifies and exalts the ancient citizen, equal in rights and position among equals, and raises to the shield such civic qualities as heroism, self-sacrifice, spiritual and physical beauty.

Antique culture is permeated with a humanistic sound, and it was in antiquity that the first system of universal human values ​​was formed, directly related to the citizen and the civil collective. which he entered.

In the set of value orientations of each person, the central place is occupied by the idea of ​​happiness. It was in this that the difference between the ancient humanistic system of values ​​and the ancient Eastern one was most clearly manifested. A free citizen finds happiness only in serving his native team, receiving in return respect, honor and glory that no wealth can give.

This system of values ​​arose as a result of the interaction of a number of factors. Here is the influence of the previous thousand-year Cretan - Mycenaean civilization, and the transition at the beginning of the 1st millennium - BC. e. to the use of iron, which increased the individual capabilities of a person. The state structure was also unique - policies (civil communities), of which there were several hundred in the Greek world - The dual ancient form of property also played a huge role, organically combining private property, which gave a person the initiative - and state property, providing him with social stability and protection. Thanks to this, the foundation of harmony between the individual and society was laid.

The predominance of politics over economics also played a special role. Almost all the income received was spent by the civil collective on leisure activities and the development of culture, and went into the non-productive sphere.

Due to the influence of all these factors in ancient Greece in the era of the classics (V-IV centuries BC), a unique situation developed. The only time in the history of development human society, there was a temporary harmony of man with the three main spheres of his existence: with the surrounding nature, with the civic community and with the cultural environment.