Rules for reading Latin. Theme I

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

DON STATE TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

Rostov-on-Don

ESSAY

On the topic: "Phonetics in Latin»

1st year full-time student

Law, service and tourism

Specialty: jurisprudence

Kasabutsky Danil Alexandrovich

Rostov-on-Don 2014

Introduction

A feature of the phonetic system of the Latin language is the presence of labiovelar stops kw (spelling qu) and (spelling ngu) and the absence of voiced fricatives (in particular, the voiced pronunciation of s for the classical period is not reconstructed). All vowels are characterized by opposition in longitude.
In classical Latin, the stress, according to the evidence of ancient grammarians, was musical (raising the tone on a stressed vowel); the place of stress was almost completely determined by the phonological structure of the word. In the preclassical era, there may have been a strong initial stress (this explains many historical changes in the Latin vowel system). In the postclassical era, stress loses its musical character, and none of the Romance languages ​​retains musical stress.

The Latin language is also characterized by diverse restrictions on the structure of the syllable and rather complex rules for the assimilation of vowels and consonants (for example, long vowels cannot be before the combinations nt, nd and before m; voiced noisy ones do not occur before deaf noisy ones and at the end of a word; short i and o also with single exceptions does not occur at the end of a word, etc.). Confluences of three or more consonants are avoided (there are few acceptable combinations of three consonants, they are possible mainly at the junction of the prefix and the root , for example, pst, tst, nfl, mbr, and some others).

1. Latin alphabet

The Latin alphabet is a variation of the Western Greek, assimilated by the Romans, like many other achievements of material and spiritual culture, possibly through the Etruscans. Modern version Latin alphabet, more precisely, the pronunciation of the sounds of the Latin language in the international transcription system (24 letters). However, more than two thousand years ago, during the time of the great Roman lawyer and statesman Since the time of the Roman Republic, Mark Tullius Cicero spoke about 21 letters of the Latin alphabet, there were no letters "K", "Y", "Z". They were later borrowed from the Greek alphabet, so linguists argue that it is impossible to absolutely accurately reproduce the phonetically correct sounds of a dead language.

In the oldest versions of the Latin alphabet, the letter G is missing (officially legalized by the end of the 3rd century BC), the sounds u and v, i and j are denoted in the same way (additional letters v and j appear only in the Renaissance among European humanists; during many scientific editions of classical Latin texts do not use them). The direction of writing from left to right is finally established only by the 4th century. BC. (the direction of writing in more ancient monuments varies). The length of vowels, as a rule, is not indicated (although in some ancient texts a special sign “apex” is used to convey longitude in the form of a slash above the letter, for example á).

To study international legal terminology and legal formulas of Roman law, we are forced to use a variant of the ancient alphabet, which, moreover, has become half native for the Russian language.

Table number 1. comparison table variants of pronunciation of letters and letter combinations in Latin

2. Vowels

The vowels a, e, i, o, u, y are pronounced as indicated in the alphabet. They can be both long and short. Longitude and brevity are natural positional. Natural longitude and brevity in writing are indicated by superscripts: longitude ā, brevity ă, for example: civīlis, popŭlus. Positional longitude and brevity are determined by the rules and are not indicated on the letter.

Longitude and brevity are important for determining the semantics of words, for example: mălum evil, mālum apple, and their forms, for example: justitiă and justitiā are different case forms the words. But the main goal of determining longitude and brevity is to correctly stress the word. In this regard, it is important what is the number of the penultimate syllable in the word, since this determines the place of stress.

The pronunciation of two vowels as one syllable is called a diphthong. There are 4 diphthongs in Latin:

ae = e aera - (era)
oe = e poena - (pena)
au = ау aurum - (aurum)
eu = eu Europa - (europa)
If the combinations ae, oe represent two separate syllables, then a colon is placed over e or its longitude or brevity is indicated: aër = aēr [á-er], coëmo = coĕmo [kό-e-mo].

3. Consonant sounds

The consonants are divided into:

1) According to the organs of speech, which are mainly produced: labial, guttural, dental;

2) By the property of the sound into mute (which cannot be pronounced without the help of a vowel), sonorous or long (capable of prolonged pronunciation without the help of a vowel). The mute are further subdivided into deaf and voiced. The sonorous ones also include smooth l, r and nasal m, n.
C c before vowels e, i, y and diphthongs ae, oe is read like Russian c, and before other vowels and at the end of the word like Russian k:

Cicero (Cicero) corpus - (body)
Caesar (Caesar) culpa - (culpa)
сyanus (cyanus) caput - (kaput)
coepi (cepi) fac - (fak)
H h is pronounced like the Belarusian aspirated g:
heres (gheres), honor (ghonor);
L l is pronounced midway between hard and soft l:
lex (lex), lapsus (lapse);
Q q is used only in combination with u: Qu, qu = q:
aqua (aqua), equus (equius), quid (quid);
S s is pronounced as with: sed (sed), and between vowels as s: casus (casus).
The phrase ngu before vowels reads [ngv] - sanguis blood, lingua language; before consonants - [ngu] angulus angle, lingula uvula.
The phrase ti before vowels is read as [qi] solutio solution; before consonants after s, t, x, before vowels as [ti] - inflamatio inflammation, ostium entrance, hole mixtio mixing.
The phrase su before the vowels a, e is read sv:
suavis (svavis), Suebi (svebi), but: suus (suus).
To convey aspirated Greek sounds, combinations of consonants with h were created:
ch \u003d x charta (chart);
ph = f sphaera (sphere);
th = t thermae (terme);
rh = p arrha (arra).

4. Emphasis

The stress is placed only on the long syllable. It is never placed on the last syllable, of course, except for monosyllabic words.

The stress is placed on the 2nd syllable from the end if it is long and on the 3rd syllable from the end if the second is short.

The stress itself in Latin was not always expressed in the same way. Initially, the stress was melodic: the stressed syllable was emphasized by the voice. Later it became expiratory - the stressed syllable is distinguished by the power of the voice (more active exhalation), as in most modern European languages.

The number of syllables in a word corresponds to the number of vowels (including diphthongs). The syllable division occurs:

1) before a single consonant (including before qu).
ro-sa, a-qua, au-rum, Eu-ro-pa

2) before the combination "mute with smooth" and before the last vowel of other consonant combinations.

pa-tri-a, sa-git-ta, for-tu-na, punc-tum, dis-ci-pli-na, a-gri-co-la, a-ra-trum
The middle language (voiced fricative) sound j (iota) between vowels in pronunciation was doubled, distributed between two syllables.
pejor >> pej-jor

3) the prefix stands out.

de-scen-do, ab-la-ti-vus, ab-es-se

Syllables are open and closed. An open syllable ends in a vowel or diphthong (sae-pe), while a closed syllable ends in a consonant (pas-sus).
In classical Latin, each syllable was either long or short in number. An open syllable with a short vowel is short. All other syllables are long. A closed syllable containing a short vowel is long, since it takes extra time to pronounce the closing consonant).

The stress in the Latin language of the classical period was musical, tonic, i.e. consisted in raising the tone when pronouncing the stressed syllable, if it was long. By the 5th c. n. e., after the loss of quantitative differences between vowels, the nature of the Latin stress changed: it became forceful, expiratory, as in Russian.

Conclusion

The Latin alphabet is a variation of the Western Greek, assimilated by the Romans, like many other achievements of material and spiritual culture, possibly through the Etruscans.

The modern version of the Latin alphabet, more precisely, the pronunciation of the sounds of the Latin language in the international transcription system (24 letters). However, more than two thousand years ago, it was said about 21 letters of the Latin alphabet, there were no letters "K", "Y", "Z". They were later borrowed from the Greek alphabet, so linguists argue that it is impossible to absolutely accurately reproduce the phonetically correct sounds of a dead language. To study international legal terminology and legal formulas of Roman law, we are forced to use a variant of the ancient alphabet, which, moreover, has become half native for the Russian language.

The vowels are pronounced as indicated in the alphabet. They can be both long and short. Longitude and brevity are natural and positional. Longitude and brevity are important for determining the semantics of words, the main goal of determining longitude and brevity is to correctly stress the word. A syllable is long or short, depending on the length or shortness of its vowel.
In words consisting of two or more syllables, the stress is never placed on the last syllable. In two-syllable words, the stress always falls on the first syllable. If the word contains more than two syllables, then the stress falls either on the second or third syllable from the end of the word, depending on the length or shortness of the second syllable from the end. If it is long, then the stress always falls on it, but if it is short, then the stress falls on the third syllable from the end of the word.

Literature

1. Akhterova O.A., Ivanenko T.V. Latin language and fundamentals of legal terminology. - M.: Lawyer, 1998.
2. Garnik A.V., Nalivaiko R.G. Latin language with elements of Roman law. Minsk: Belarusian State University, 2001

3. Lemeshko V.M. Latin language. - M.: Moscow Institute of Economics, Management and Law, 2009.

4. Sobolevsky S.I. Grammar of the Latin language. M.: List-new, 2003.
5. Yarkho V.N. Latin language. - Moscow, graduate School, 2003.

ACTIVITY 1

§one. Latin alphabet

There are 24 letters in the Latin alphabet:

§ 2. Classification of sounds

In Latin, sounds are divided into consonants and vowels. Letters correspond to consonants: b, c, d, f, g, h, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, x, z. Vowels correspond to letters: a, e, i, o, u, y. In addition to vowels, in Latin there are stable combinations of vowels - two-vowels (diphthongs): ae, oe, au, eu.

§ 3. Pronunciation of vowels and diphthongs

Ah, oohUu pronounced like Russian vowels [a], [o],[y]: caput [kaput] - head, opticus [óptikus] - visual, genu [genu] - knee.

Her pronounced like a Russian vowel [e]: vertebra [vertebra] - vertebra, nervus [nervus] - nerve, dens [dens] - tooth.

II pronounced like Russian [and], but at the beginning of a word before a vowel or in the middle of a word between vowels is pronounced like Russian [th]: digitus [digitus] - finger, jodum [yodum] - iodine, major [major] - big.

Yy occurs only in words of Greek origin and is pronounced like a Russian vowel [and]: gyrus [gyrus] - gyrus of the brain, larynx [larynx] - larynx, pharynx [pharynx] - pharynx.

Two-vowels (diphthongs) are pronounced as follows:

ae like a Russian vowel [e]: vertebrae - [vertebre] - vertebrae, laesus - [lezus] - damaged;

oh like a Russian vowel [yo] in the word motley or as Russian [e]: oedema - [yodema] - edema, foetus - [fetus] - fruit.

In cases where ah, oh do not constitute a diphthong, that is, each vowel is pronounced separately, two dots are placed above the second vowel: aёr [aer] - air, dyspnoë [dyspnea] - shortness of breath;

au- as a combination of Russian vowels [au] with a brief : trauma - [tr͡auma] - damage, auris [͡auris] - ear;

eu as a combination of Russian vowels [eu ] with a short [ y] : pleura - [pl͡eur] - pleura, pneumonia - [pn͡eumonya] - inflammation of the lungs.

Note. In the spelling of anatomical, histological and other nomenclature

changes made: diphthongs ah, oh replaced by the monophthong e; semivowel j -

vowel i.

§ 4. Pronunciation of consonants

ss before vowels e,i,y, as well as before diphthongs aé , òe is pronounced like a Russian consonant [ts]: cerebrum [tserebrum] - brain, acidum [acidum] - acid, cytus [citus] - cell, caecum [tsekum] - caecum, coelia [tsёlia] - abdominal cavity. In other cases With pronounced like a Russian consonant [to] : caput [kaput] - head, crista [krista] - comb, lac [lacquer] - milk.

Ll pronounced softly like Russian [l], for example: animal [animal] - animal, collum [collum] - neck, labium [labium] - lip.

Qq occurs only in combination with a vowel u, which is pronounced as a combination of Russian consonants [kv]: aqua [aqua] - water, liquor [liquor] - liquid, quercus [kvarkus] - oak.

Ss pronounced like a Russian consonant [With], but in a position between vowels, and also between a vowel and consonants m or n, it is pronounced as [h]: septum [septum] - septum, scapula [scapule] - scapula, basis [basis] - base, plasma [plasma] - plasma, mensio [menzio] - measurement.

xx pronounced as a combination of Russian consonants [ks] usually between vowels [kz]: radix [radix] - root, arech [apex] - tip,

exitus [ekzitus] - outcome.

Zz pronounced like Russian [h] in words of Greek origin: zygoma [zygoma] - cheekbone, zona [zone] - belt, eczema [eczema] - skin disease. In words of non-Greek origin, it is pronounced like Russian [ts]: zincum [zincum] - zinc, influenza [influenza] - influenza.

letter combination ngu pronounced before vowels [ngv]: lingua [lingua] - language, unguis [ungvis] - nail.

Combination ti pronounced before vowels [qi], but after the consonants s, x this combination is pronounced [ti]: substantia [substance] - substance, mixtio [mixtio] - mixing, ostium [ostium] - input.

The following combinations occur in words of Greek origin and are pronounced as one sound:

ch- as Russian [X]: chirurgis [surgeon] - surgeon;

ph- as Russian [f]: encephalon [encephalon] - brain brain;

rh- as Russian [R]: rhape [rafe] - seam;

th-like Russian [t]: thorax [thorax] - chest.

Nomina si nescis, periit et cognitio rerum
(If you do not know the names, the knowledge of things is also lost)
K. Linnaeus - epigraph to the book "Philosophia botanica" (1751)

Basic rules of Latin.
Latin is a centuries-old basis for scientific communication. On the basis of Latin, the terminology of many sciences, including biological ones, is built. Botanical binary nomenclature is also based on Latin or romanized words.

Complex combinations of vowels (so-called diphthongs) are pronounced:
Ae, like the Russian sound e, aetas—etas
Oh, like the German ö: proelium—prelium
Au, like au with short u: auris—а?ris
Eu, like eu with a short y: eurus—е?rus.

Two dots above e in the compounds aë, oë indicate that each letter is pronounced independently: aër—aer, poëma—a poem.
The letter c before e, ae, eu, oe, i, y is pronounced as q, in all other cases as k:
Cicero - Cicero, lac - lacquer, vacca - Vacca.
The letter s in the middle of a word between two vowels is pronounced loudly as z: rosa - rose, in other cases it is deaf: censor - censor.
The letter u in combinations qu, ngu before vowels is pronounced as in: aqua - aqua, sanguis - sanguis.
The letter q is used only in combination with u.
The letter j (yot) is pronounced like th: major - major. In the initial syllable, this sound merges with the subsequent vowel, Janus-Janus.

The syllable ti before the next vowel is pronounced as qi: oratio - oratio, rebutia - rebutia.
It is pronounced like ti if there is s, t, x before ti: mixtio - mixtio, ostium - ostium, Atticus - Atticus.
The combination ch is pronounced like x: chlorus - chlorus
Ph is pronounced like ph: phylio
Th is pronounced like t: phython-phyton, theatrum-theatrum
Rh rrh is pronounced as r: Rhodos—Rhodes. These letter combinations and the presence of y (Y and Greek) indicate the Greek origin of the words.

Syllables in words can be long or short.
The syllable is considered short: a) if the vowel in the syllable is followed by the vowel v?a.
A syllable is considered long: a) if the syllable contains the diphthong praemium; b) if the syllable contains a vowel followed by one consonant, then the syllable can be both short and long, depending on the quality of the vowel itself.
Based on this, there is a rule for stress:
1) in two-syllable words, the stress is placed on the penultimate syllable; mater, rosa.
2) in polysyllabic words, the stress is on the penultimate syllable if it is long, if it is short, then the stress is on the third syllable from the end; Romanus, Cer?us.

Nouns have three genders:
female - has endings a, is (mamillaria, rhipsalis);
neuter gender- has the ending um (gymnocalycium);
masculine- has the ending us (cereus).

Botanical names consist of two words (binary nomenclature). The first word of the noun denotes the genus of the plant and is written with a capital letter. The second word is a specific epithet, this adjective, is written with a lowercase letter. The specific epithet may reflect any features of the species (Mamillaria plumosa—Pirate Mamillaria), may indicate a geographical origin (Cereus peruvianus—Peruvian Cereus), show ecological situation(Lobivia saxatila—Lobivia rocky). An epithet can be given in honor of people (Mediolobivia haagei—Mediolobivia Haage).
To make botanical names not difficult to remember, it is desirable to know the meanings of individual words and roots. And since the formation of botanical names uses a relatively small number of Latin and Greek roots found in various combinations, mastering them helps to comprehend the meaning of the names and thereby facilitate memorization.

Phonetics is one of the most difficult sections of the Latin language. Despite the fact that the pronunciation of sounds itself does not present any difficulties, it should be borne in mind that the Latin language is usually classified as a dead language, which means that there are simply no single natural modern phonetic norms.

There are several stages in the development of phonetics:

1. ancient phonetics
2. Classical phonetics (restored antique pronunciation)
3. Traditional phonetics (closer to the medieval period)
4. Modern phonetics

Each branch that studies or uses Latin chooses and uses the variant that best suits its basic needs. In general, the structure of the Latin language developed quite early and subsequently underwent only minor changes. Phonetics is an exception: various letters and letter combinations could radically change their sound, enter into the language system or be excluded from it.

Let us consider in more detail the use of individual variants of Latin phonetics:

ancient phonetics– Scattered knowledge about pronunciation individual sounds. At present, ancient phonetics has not been formed into a full-fledged structure and is not used.

Classical phonetics- It is a restored ancient version of pronunciation and, therefore, knowledge of it is important when getting acquainted with the monuments of ancient literature (especially poetic works). It is studied, as a rule, at philological, legal and other humanitarian faculties.

Traditional (Eastern European) phonetics- It is a modified medieval version of Latin, at that time individual peoples were forced to communicate with each other in a Latin language alien to them, and during this period the pronunciation was transformed in two directions:

1. Even the literary version approached the vernacular (and vernacular Latin was something between Latin and vernacular), the purpose of this transformation was to simplify the oral transmission of information in Latin.
2. The second goal of changing the Latin language in the medieval era was to simplify the perception of Latin by ear, this direction was expressed in the fact that new sounds entered the phonetic system of the language, existing ones became more differentiated.

This variant of Latin has a different scope: it is used in medicine, biology and other natural sciences. For medicine, it was the traditional phonetic norms that were chosen during the mandatory oral communication. medical workers in Latin, as easier to hear.

Modern phonetics- It implies the pronunciation of Latin sounds in accordance with the norms of the native language of the speaker (for Europe), letters and combinations of letters are read according to the norms of classical or traditional Latin.

Table number 1. Comparative table of pronunciation of letters and letter combinations in Latin

* diphthongs ae, oe in the preclassical era, [ai], [oh] were pronounced; in classical Latin - [ae], [oe] (with non-syllable [e]). (Source: 1. Shabaga I.Yu. Grammatica Latina: Tutorial(Latin for translators) - M.: Publishing House of Moscow. un-ta, 2009 - 184 p. - p.16. 2. Deryugin A.A., Lukyanova L.M. Latin: Textbook - M.: Progress-Tradition; INFRA-M, 2003 - 384 p. - p.10).

Sounds

Short and long sound

By duration, vowels in ancient Latin were divided into long and short. A long vowel sounded about 2 times longer than a short one. Over time, these norms were lost, now the definition of longitude or brevity is mainly used to set stress. When determining the length of a vowel, there are rules in general view they look like this:

1. The number of vowels is indicated in the dictionary.
   To denote a long sound, the sign (¯) is used - mora, to denote a short one - (̆);
2. A vowel before a vowel or h is short;
3. Diphthongs (au, eu, ei, ui) and digraphs (ae, oe) are always long;
4. A vowel before a group of consonants or a double consonant is long. The exception is vowels before two consonants, the first of which, according to the method of formation, is explosive (denoted by the letters “c”, “g”, “d”, “t”), and the second is a sonor (lateral sonor - [l] or trembling sonor [r ]) or fricative (denoted by the letter “s”). That is, before combinations of letters “dl” - “dr”, “tl” - “tr”, “cl” - “cr”, “gl” - “gr”, “x” ([ks]), “z” ( [dz]).
5. A vowel before one consonant is either long or short, depending on its nature.
   For example:
   final [a] in ablative singular nouns 1 declension long, in the infinitive endings of the present tense active voice 1, 2, 4, conjugations, the vowel is long, and 3 conjugations is short.

syllables

Open and closed syllable

An open syllable in Latin ends in a vowel, while a closed syllable ends in a consonant. However, some combinations of consonants do not close the syllable (for example, the combination of the letters "b", "p", "d", "t", "g", "c" with "r" or "l"). However, the letter "i"/"j" between vowels is read as a double [j] and closes the previous syllable. (See also "The division of words into syllables" for determining the number and composition of syllables in a word).

Long and short syllable

• An open syllable is long if it includes a long vowel and short if it is short.
• A closed syllable is long.

Dividing words into syllables

To divide words into syllables, you should follow three rules.

1. The number of syllables in a word corresponds to the number of vowels, diphthongs are counted as 1 sound.
2. The consonants that a Latin word may begin with refer to the next syllable (for example, “a”-“ni”-“mal”). This rule also applies to groups of letters, for example, the word “doctor” is divided into syllables as “doc”-“tor”, the option “do”-“ctor” is incorrect, since there are no Latin words that begin with “ct”, if If such words existed, then the division would be carried out in this way.
3. Compound words are separated by elements (“con”-“structio”).

stress

Stress Rules

• The stress is never placed on the last syllable, of course, except for monosyllabic words.
• The stress is placed on the 2nd syllable from the end if it is long and on the 3rd syllable from the end if the second is short.

Stress in Latin

The stress itself in Latin was not always expressed in the same way. Initially, the stress was melodic: the stressed syllable was emphasized by the voice. Later it became expiratory - the stressed syllable is distinguished by the power of the voice (more active exhalation), as in most modern European languages.

Phonetic laws of the Latin language

There are three main phonetic laws:

1. Assimilation of consonants
2. Rotacism law
3. Vowel reduction

Assimilation of consonants

The assimilation of consonants in Latin is manifested in the fact that in consonant combinations one is partially or completely likened to another following it. This can manifest itself in the loss of voiced before a deaf consonant.

• The front-lingual consonants [d], [t] before [s] are completely assimilated: “cedere” (to step) - (cedsi) - (cetsi) - “cessi” (form 1 person singular perfect).
• The combination "ss" is simplified into "s". Two "s" at the end of words is never used. “Esse” (to be) - (ess) - “es” (form 2 person singular present tense).
• Voiced [g], [b] are deafened before the deaf. This is recorded in writing: “pingere” (to draw) – (pingsi) – (pincsi) – “pinxi” (form 1 person singular perfect).
• Voiced [d] before “c”, “g”, “p”, “f”, “t”, “r”, “l” is usually completely assimilated. “Affigo” (I attach) from “ad-figo”, “attribuo” (to attach) from “ad-tribuo”.

Rotacism law

Between 2 vowels, [s] becomes [r].

This law was in effect until about the 4th century BC.

2 most notable examples:

1. All present infinitives end in -"re", although they must end in -"se" (similar to the verb "esse").
2. The verb “esse” itself and its change in the past tense (“eram”) and in the future (“ero”).

Short vowel reduction

• In a closed final syllable, the short "o" becomes "u". "Lupo" - "Lupus" (Wolf).
• All short vowels in the medial syllable go into a short "i" unless they are followed by an "r". "Teneo" (keep) - "contineo" (restrain).
  Before "r" in the median open syllable, short vowels turn into "e". "Dare" (give) - "tradere" (transfer).
  The short “i” in the middle syllable before the “r”, formed as a result of rotacism, turns into “e”. "Capio" (to take) - (capise) - "capere".
• The final short "i" goes into "e" or disappears completely.

Notes: one). Letters k, y,z used only in borrowings from Greek. 2). Letter J, j(iota) was introduced in the 18th century to convey the sound [th], before that, the letter i was used to convey this sound before vowels. Some textbooks and dictionaries adhere to this tradition and do not introduce the letter j, i.e. There are two possible spellings, for example:

justus, iustus (justus) - fair

jam, iam (yam) - already

3). Letter U, u was also introduced in the 18th century, before that u and v did not differ. In Roman inscriptions only v. Before vowels v usually read as [in], in other cases as [y].

Basic Reading Rules

All letters in the word are readable. There are no "silent" vowels. Most letters are always read the same way and exactly as they are called. Unstressed vowels are pronounced just as clearly as stressed ones. Rule 1. Letter With it is read in two ways: as [c] and as [k]. Before vowels e, i, y and combinations ae [e] and oe [ö], it is read as [c], in other cases - as [k].

civis [civis] - citizen centum [centum] - one hundred

Cyprus [Tsiprus] - Cypruscorpus [body] - body

cuprum [cuprum] - coppernunc [nunc] - now, now

Caesar [Caesar] - Caesar casus [casus] - case

credo [credo] - I believe, I believe

An exercise: read the words.cor(heart)

lac (milk)

vacca (cow)

clarus(light, famous)

medicine (medicine)

cito (quickly) accuso (accused)

caelum (sky)

decem(ten)

Rule 2 Combination ti before vowels it reads like [qi]. ratio [ratio] - mind

initium [initiation] - the beginning.

Combination ti and before the vowel it reads like [ti], if it stands after st, x: bestia [bestia] - the beast, mixtio [mixio] - mixing.

An exercise: read the words.

revolutio (coup)

administration

amicitia (friendship)

sentiunt (feel)

Horatius, Terentius (Roman names)

Rule 3 Letter Q, q(ku) occurs only in combination qu, which is read as [kv].

aqua [aqua] - water

qui [qui] - which

antiquus [antiquus] - ancient

An exercise: read the words.

quinque (five)

quarta (quarter)

qualis (what)

quasi (as if, almost)

Rule 4 combination before vowels gu read [gv]

lingua [lingua] - language

Combination su read [sv]

suavis [svavis] - pleasant

Rule 5 Combination ae reads like [e]

aetas [etas] - age, age

Graecia [gracia] - Greece

Letter With before ae reads like [c]

Caesar [Caesar] -Caesar

exercise: read the words.

caerimonia (clergy) quaestio (interrogation, investigation)

caecus (blind) praesens (present) aeger (sick) laetitia (joy)

Note: if over With in combination ae there is some icon (aë, aē), then two sounds are read separately: aer [aer] - air

Rule 6. Combination oh reads like German ö, French [œ] and approximately like the Russian letter ё after the consonant:

poena [foam] - punishment.

An exercise: read the words:

proelium (battle), foedus (alliance).

Note: if there is some icon above e (oē, oë), then two sounds are read separately: poēta [po´eta] - a poet.

Rule 7. In words borrowed from the Greek language, there are combinations:

ch- [x]: schola [schola] - school; charta [chart] - paper

ph- [f]: philosophia [philos`ophia] - philosophy

th - [t]: theatrum [te'atrum] - theater

rh- [p]:rhetor [r`etor] - speaker

An exercise: read the words

pulcher (beautiful) elephantus (elephant)

symphonia (consonance) theologia (theology)

thesis(statement)Rhenus(Rhine)

rhythmus (rhythm)

Rule 8. Diphthongs existed in Latin au, eu, i.e. two vowels were pronounced in one syllable. We pronounce them as a normal combination of two vowels, but the second element is never stressed:

aururn[`aurum] -gold

Europa [Eurʻopa] - Europe

An exercise: read the words

nauta (sailor), audio (listening), Euclides (Euclid).

Rule 9 Letter s between vowels reads like [з]:

rosa [rose] - wild rose, causa [k'auza] - reason, business.

Note. In words borrowed from Greek, this rule does not apply: philosophia- [philosʻophia].

Rule 10 letter L it is customary to read softly [l]:

schola [schola], although [schola] is also acceptable;

lux [lux] - light, shine.

stress

Rule 1A. In Latin, stress never will not fall on the last syllable.

An exercise: Read the words paying attention to the stress.

amor(love),caput(head),color(color),carmen(song),credit(believes),audit(listens),terror(fear),docent(teach),student(learn),mutant(change), major (greater senior), minor (smaller, junior)

Rule 1B. Stress in Latin can fall only to the penultimate syllable or to the third from the end (i.e. penultimate). The stress depends on the length or shortness of the penultimate vowel. If the penultimate vowel is long, then the stress falls on it; if it is short, the stress falls on the third syllable from the end. We pronounce Latin words without distinguishing between long and short vowels. But according to some rules, you can restore the longitude or brevity of the vowel.

Rule 2. A vowel before another vowel is always short. If the penultimate vowel is short, then it is unstressed, therefore, the stress shifts to the third syllable from the end.

For example, ratio [r'atio]: stands before o, therefore, it is short and cannot be stressed, so the stress falls on the third syllable from the end; janua [y'anua] - door: stands before a vowel and, therefore, it is short and unbeatable.

An exercise: Read the words paying attention to the stress.

initium (beginning), audio (listen), quattuor (four), sapiens (wise, reasonable), aureus (golden), linea (line, line).

Rule 3 If two or more consonants follow the vowel, then the vowel is long: libertas [libʻertas] - freedom, because after the penultimate vowel e is followed by two consonants in a row (rt), then the vowel is long and therefore stressed.

An exercise: read the words, following the stress.

juventus (youth), honestus (honest), magister (teacher), puella (girl), theatrum (theater), ornamenrum (decoration).

Rule 4. In those words that rules 2 and 3 do not fit, longitude and brevity are usually put down. Long vowels are indicated by a straight line above (ā, ī, ē, ō, ū); diphthongs au and eu, as well as sounds denoted by combinations ae - [e] and oe - [e] are always long. Short vowels are marked with ˇ above: (ǎ, ĕ, ĭ, ŏ, ŭ). In some textbooks and dictionaries, only brevity is affixed (less often, only longitude).

An exercise: read the words

amīcus(friend)medĭcus(doctor)

corōna (wreath) littĕra (letter)

disciplīna (teaching) verĭtas (truth)

civilis(civilian)popŭlus(people)

audire. (listen) domīnus (master)

humānus (human) ocŭlus (eye)

EXERCISE

1. Read and transcribe the words / in Russian letters in square brackets with emphasis /:

Civis, circus, amīca, tunĭca, color, caput, civĭtas, civīlis, oceănus, cursus, Cyclŏps, centum, causa, nunc, lac, sic, occĭdo, ocсasio, necessĭtas, necessarius, accentus, vaccīna, caelum, delictum, inimīcus, Cicro, Graecus, cylindrus, corna, medcus.

2. Read the words, transcribing the transcription in Russian letters:

Discipŭlus,Juppĭter,domĭnus,justitia,injuria,labor,laurus,ocŭlus,bestia,quaestio,negotium,arbĭter,sphaera,aetas,aequus,praesens,quercus,antiqutas,furor,tabŭla,triumphus,monumentum,ornamentum,mystĭcus,Romānus, chimaera,Bacchus,urbs,haud,quamquam,quidquid,unguis,ignis,quinque,unguentum,agricŏla,poena,aurōra,caelicŏla,aes,proelium,aura,auris,ratio,amicitia,popŭlus,levis,dexter,oboedientia,poēta, bacŭlus, beatus, laetitia, consuetūdo, causa, ianua, iambus, coeptum, thesaurus, caecus, pinguis.

3. Read and transcribe the proverbs:

Scientiapotentiaest. Knowledge (is) power.

Repetitio est mater studiōrum. Repetition (is) the mother of learning.

Omneinitium difficile. Every beginning is difficult.

Aquilanoncaptatmuscas. The eagle does not catch flies.

Malaherbacitocrescit. Bad grass grows fast.

Nihilhabeo, nihiltimeo. I have nothing, I'm not afraid of anything.

Quodnocet,docet. What hurts teaches.

Philosophiaestmagistravitae. Philosophy is the teacher of life.

4. Read and transcribe geographical names, translate them into Russian:

Roma, Carthāgo, Cyprus, Corinthus, Athenae, Aegyptus, Caucăsus, Scythia, Thermopylae, Rhenus, Ephesus, Syracūsae, Lutetia, Assyria, Libia, Rhodos, Sicilia, Chersonēsus, Tanais, Troia, Thebae.

5. Read and transcribe the names, translate them into Russian:

Gaius Iulius Caesar, Marcus Tullius Cicĕro, Titus Livius, Publius Cornelius Tacĭtus,

Quintus Horatius Flaccus, Portius Cato Major, Lucius Annaeus Senĕca, Publius Ovidius Naso, Tiberius Gracchus, Augustus, Xerxes, Aesōpus, Anaxagŏras, Demosthĕnes, Prometheus, Aristophănes, Socrătes, Aristotĕles, Xenŏphon, Pyrrhus, Pythagŏras.

(If a latin name ends in –ius, then in Russian it ends in

Iy: Valerius-Valery; if on –us, without the preceding i, then the ending is dropped: Marcus-Mark).

6. Find in the previous tasks the words from which the famous

you the words of Russian, English, French and other languages ​​known to you.