Pronunciation of individual sounds. Pronunciation of individual combinations of sounds, words and word forms

Among other norms of Russian pronunciation, which quite often cause difficulties, the following can be distinguished.

1. Pronunciation of the pronoun that and derivatives from it.

The literary norm is the pronunciation [w then]. The pronunciation [h o] is considered dialectal and vernacular; [h then] is typical for the speech of Petersburgers, but it also belongs to non-literary ones. Most of the derivatives of this pronoun are pronounced in the same way - something, anything to.

Exception makes an indefinite place-property with the prefix non-, in which [h] sounds, - something.

2. Pronunciation of the combination -ch- in the middle of a word.

Most words with this phrase sound the same as they are written (with a consonant [h]): final, legal.

However, in a number of words [sh] is pronounced in place of h. This is the so-called old Moscow pronunciation. It was widespread in the XIX and in the first half of the XX century. And now, in the speech of native Muscovites, one can notice a fairly stable tradition of pronouncing the combination ch as [shn] (for example, they often pronounce: film crew). But such a pronunciation is not normative, although it is not such a gross mistake as the pronunciation [h] in the pronoun what.

Currently, the number of words in which the pronunciation [w] is preserved in the literary language is rapidly declining. It remains obligatory in the words:

of course [w] but, on purpose [w] but, boring [w] but, boring [w] ny, boring [w] newish, trifling [w] ny, laundry [w] naya, very [w] nickname, very [ sh] ny, starling [sh] nickname, starling [sh] nitsa, starling [sh] ny, scrambled [sh] nitsa, maiden [sh] nick.

In a number of words, the pronunciation [w] is the main literary variant, and the pronunciation [h] is permissible:

bakery, dvoechnik, troechnik.

Options with [w] and [h] are equal in words:

penny, decent.

Noun housemaid, at the adjective brown the main pronunciation is the variant with [h], while the pronunciation [w] is acceptable, but is regarded as obsolete. The same can be said for the words kalachny, kalachnik. Basically [w] is pronounced in a saying: with a cloth snout in a kalach [sh] row.

3. Unjustified omission of sounds in individual words. Quite often in common speech there is an unjustified omission of vowels and consonants, and sometimes entire combinations of sounds.

note on the pronunciation of words in which the emphasized vowel is unjustifiably lost quite regularly: overalls of zones, wire, peripetia, nayo m, ishi as, surnames I.

In common speech, the pronunciation of nouns is quite common. bulletin n, keychain k, vale t in indirect cases without vowels [o] and [e]. Many Russian words are characterized by vowel fluency in oblique cases ( day - day, hammer - hammer). But these nouns are foreign and do not obey this pattern. It is necessary to pronounce:

no bulletin, no hospital bulletins; two trinkets, beautiful trinkets, no jack, discard jacks.

note also on the pronunciation of words in which emphasized vowels, consonants and combinations of sounds are often unjustifiably omitted: apoplexic, pastime, boil, when, compost, troll bead, ankle, corkscrew and etc.

As noted in colloquial speech(with an incomplete, non-oratorical type of pronunciation) it is allowed to “swallow” individual sounds, but in an official setting, in an oratorical type of pronunciation, this is unacceptable.

4. Unjustified insertion of vowels and consonants in words.
No less often in common speech there is an unjustified insertion of vowels and consonants.

An extra consonant n can be pronounced between the highlighted letters in the words:

unprecedented, incident, gelatin, ascertain, compromise, jacket;

extra consonant l - between the selected letters in the word blessing;

extra vowel - in the words:

unrestrained, future, omniscient, ruble, crane, handful.

Quite a lot of erroneous insertions of vowels are observed in borrowed, Old Church Slavonic and book words:

gentleman(not properly - dzhente lmen), perspective(not properly - perspective).

Quite often in speech there is an unjustified insertion of the consonant t in words doso chka, cf am, consonant d in the word nr ab. In common speech, the unjustified insertion of the consonant to in the adjective is very common. donkey(covered with slime).

The reason for the unjustified insertion of a vowel, consonant may be a misunderstood etymology (origin) of a word or a combination of sounds that is difficult to pronounce. For example, for the Russian language, a large confluence of consonants is uncharacteristic - this can lead to an erroneous insertion of a vowel sound. On the other hand, the so-called gaping, that is, the arrangement of several vowels in a row, is uncharacteristic of the Russian language. Therefore, in common parlance, in loanwords, a consonant may be inserted between two vowels.

Wed: about instead of literary radio.

Sometimes an unjustified insertion of sound is associated with a misunderstood word-formation structure of the word, with incorrect convergence given word with other words that are close in meaning.

For example, a noun grapefruit often pronounced with an extra consonant to in the final syllable, incorrectly bringing it closer to the generic concept fruit. Similar reasons are the erroneous insertion of the consonant b in verbs wasps to wash(not properly - oh dare), wasps to wash(not properly - about to look): in this case, the prefix o- is erroneously replaced by the prefix ob-, which is close in meaning. For the same reason, in common speech, an extra consonant d is often pronounced in the verb pos slip(not properly - under slip). The same reasons caused an erroneous pronunciation instead of a noun bottle forms - glass bottle.

I would like to emphasize that the incorrect pronunciation is based on an incorrect understanding of the word-formation structure of the word. It is no coincidence that this can be reflected in the letter. Spelling errors are often made in these words.

5. Unjustified replacement of one sound by another.
This phenomenon is usually observed in borrowed, bookish and obsolete words, the etymology of which is unknown to the speaker and is mistakenly associated with some other word in the Russian language. This, for example, caused the pronunciation [s] instead of [and] in the Greek word vi juicy. Nothing to do with adjective high it doesn't have. Nouns are also different in meaning: bid it for milk and bet it for construction. The same reasons are caused by the incorrect pronunciation of such borrowed words as plec seaglas(colloquially - weaving needle), renegade(incorrect plural - renegades).

Sometimes the replacement and rearrangement of sounds can be caused by associations that seem to the speaker not too "decent".

Cf .: erroneous pronunciation of the word stupid hose how dru hose.

In addition, the colloquial replacement of one sound with another can be caused by the convenience of pronunciation.

For example, very often in the speech of uneducated people it is allowed to replace the sound [m] with [n] with a special combination of sounds: tram wai, compliment, am bar, im bir, seal, som brero, som nam bula. Pronunciation tran wai or con pliment is not only unacceptable, but also indicates a very low culture of the speaker. Reverse substitution is also possible. So, the frequency is the erroneous pronunciation - comfort fork instead of the normative fork burner.

Quite often in speech there is an erroneous replacement of a hard consonant with a soft one (for example, pronunciation kliz ma instead of the normative enema ma), and vice versa, replacing a soft consonant with a hard one (for example, instead of normative - urgent, power, generality- pronunciation - dry, capacity, totality).

So, the pronunciation belongs to the category of colloquial introductory word to mean(So it was necessary) instead of the normative - means.

1. The sound [g] before vowels, voiced consonants and sonorants is pronounced as a voiced consonant explosive: mountain, where, hail; before deaf consonants and at the end of the word - like [k]: burned, burned [Λzh "oks" b], [Λzhok]. The pronunciation of a fricative sound ([ã]) is possible in limited cases, and with fluctuations: in the forms of the words God, Lord; in interjections yeah, wow, ege, gop, goplya.

2. In place of the letters w, w, c in all positions are pronounced solid sounds[g], [w], [c]: parachute, brochure - [prΛshut], [brΛshur]; end, end, calico - [end], [end], [s "and bm]. but in the word of the jury, the pronunciation [zh "yar" and] is preferable.

3. In place of the letters h, u, soft consonants are always pronounced (h], (uTj or (shh]: hour, choh, chur - [h "as", [h "oh], [h "ur]; grove, Shchors , twitter, pike - [ro "b], [" ors], [ "fuck" bt], [ "uk".

4. In place of the letter and after w, sh and c, the sound [s] is pronounced: lived, awl, cycle - [zhyl], [shyl], [cycle].

5. In place of the letter c in affixes -sya - -s is pronounced soft sound[c]: I'm afraid, I was afraid, I was afraid - [bΛjus"], [bΛjals"b], [bΛjal's"].

6. In place of all consonants (except w, w, c) before [e], the corresponding soft consonants are pronounced (sat, sang, chalk, affairs, tel, etc.) [s "el", [p "el] , [m "el], [d" el], [t" el], etc. (for the pronunciation of these combinations in foreign words, see § 83).

Pronunciation of individual grammatical forms

1. Unstressed ending nominative case units h. masculine adjective names -th, -th are pronounced according to the spelling: [kind], [proud], [pr "ezhn" and], [lower" and].

The pronunciation of the ending -y after [k], [g], [x] is preferable in a soft version: [n" claim "and], [wretched" and], [quiet" and].

2. In place of the letter g at the end of the genitive singular. h. masculine and neuter adjectives -th and -its, a fairly distinct sound [v] is pronounced with the corresponding reduction of vowels: sharp, this, the one whom - [island], [ety], [tΛvo], [kΛvo]. The sound [v] is pronounced in place of the letter g in the words: today, today, total.

3. The unstressed endings of adjectives -th, -th coincide during pronunciation: kind, kind [good b - good b].

4. The ending (unstressed) of adjectives -th - -th is pronounced in accordance with the spelling: warm, summer - [t "oplu y], [l "et" n "y].

5. Endings -s, -s in the nominative case pl. hours of adjectives, pronouns, participles are pronounced as [yi], [ii]: good, blue - [kind], [sin "ii].

6. On site unstressed ending 3rd person pl. part of the verbs of the 2nd conjugation -at - -yat is pronounced [bt]: breathe, walk - [breathe], [hod" yt].

7. Forms of verbs on - nod, - givat, - hivat are pronounced with soft [k], [g], [x]: [jump" ivl], [shudder" ivl], [rΛzmah" ivl].

Features of the pronunciation of foreign words

Many words of foreign origin are firmly assimilated by the Russian literary language, have entered the national language and are pronounced in accordance with existing orthoepic norms. A less significant part of foreign words related to various fields of science and technology, culture and art, to the field of politics (also foreign proper names), when pronounced, deviate from generally accepted norms. In addition, in some cases there is a double pronunciation of foreign words (cf .: s [o] no - s [a] no, b [o] le-ro - b [a] lero, etc.). Pronunciation options with [o] in such cases characterize the pronunciation as deliberately bookish. Such pronunciation does not meet the norms accepted in the literary language.

Deviations from the norms in the pronunciation of foreign words cover a limited layer of vocabulary and come down mainly to the following:

1. In unstressed syllables (pre-stressed and stressed) in foreign words, in place of the letter o, the sound [o] is pronounced: [o] tel, b [o] a, p [o] et, k [o] mmunique, m [o] derat [o], sake [o], ha [o] s, kaka [ï], p [o] etessa; in proper names: B[o]dler, V[o]lter, Z[o]la, T[o]rez, Zh[o]res, etc.

2. Before e in foreign words, predominantly dental consonants [t], [d], [h], [s], and [n], [p] are pronounced firmly: hotel, atelier, parterre, subway, interview; model, neckline, code; highway, meringue, morse; scarf, pince-nez; Sorrento; Thorez, Jaures, also Flaubert, Chopin.

3. In unstressed syllables of foreign words with a hard consonant before [e], in place of the letter e, the vowel [e] is pronounced: at [e] lie, at [e] ism, mod [e] lier, etc. In place of the letter e after and in the following foreign words, [e] is pronounced: di [e] ta, pi [e] tizm, pi [e] tet, di [e] z.

4. In place of the letter e at the beginning of the word and after vowels, [e] is pronounced: [e] ko, [e] pos, po [e] t, po [e] tessa, po [e] tic.

GRAPHICS AND SPELLING

Russian graphics

The concept of graphics

Writing emerged as a means of communication, complementary to oral speech. A letter associated with the use of graphic signs (drawing, sign, letter) is called descriptive writing. Modern writing at various stages of development had various forms and types and correlated differently with the sound language.

Descriptive writing originated in the form of pictography, i.e. drawing letters. Pictography did not have an alphabet and thus was not associated with spoken language. A remnant of pictography in everyday life are, for example, signboards of trade and craft establishments in the form of drawings that have survived in some places. The lack of connection with oral speech makes it possible to read, for example, a sign-drawing "Boot" in different ways: "Shoemaker", "A shoemaker lives here", "Shoe repair", etc.

At the next stage in the development of writing - in ideography - the drawing is preserved, but first appears in a conditional meaning, and then turns into a symbolic sign - a hieroglyph. With such writing, the inscriptions do not convey words in their grammatical and phonetic design, but the meanings of words (cf .: road signs as ideograms: zigzag - “turn”, cross - “crossroads”, exclamation mark - “carefully!” etc.).

Attempts to simplify ideographic writing led to the emergence of phonography, a specific feature of which is the connection between inscriptions and oral speech. With this method of writing, oral speech is analyzed, divided into sounds and sound complexes, denoted by means of certain symbolic signs - letters.

A letter that conveys the sound side of the language with conditional outlines - letters, is called sound or speech.

Russian writing is sound. However, it contains elements of both pictography and ideography. The pictographic elements of our letter include, for example, mathematical signs(+, - , ×, : , Δ, etc.). Among the written characters that are used as hieroglyphs are numbers, spaces between words, quotation marks, capital letters after a period and in proper names, a question mark.

Written form of modern Russian literary language does not simply convey the sound side of the language through letters, but in this transmission is associated with the concept of correctness, the norms of the literary language. In other words, the written form of speech is determined both by the graphic system of the language and by the spelling system.

Graphics represent the inventory used when writing (letters of the alphabet, conventions: arrows, dots, brackets, etc. punctuation marks). Spelling regulates the means of graphics in the written transmission of speech.

Graphics is an applied field of knowledge about the language, which establishes the composition of the styles used in the letter, and the sound meanings of the letters.

Russian language graphics and graphics Latin are different, although they have a significant number of letters that are outwardly similar. Outwardly similar letters in Russian and Latin graphics denote different sounds. Therefore, words written in Russian are read differently in Latin: the Russian words turnip, syrup, dew can be read in Latin as foam, coupon, bye.

Composition of the Russian alphabet

A complete list of letters used in writing and arranged in a generally accepted order is called the alphabet. The sequence of letters in the alphabet is completely arbitrary, but practically justified when using alphabetical listings, dictionaries.

There are 33 letters in the modern Russian alphabet, and each of them has two varieties - uppercase and lowercase; in addition, the letters have some differences in printed and handwritten form.

Once a hare, a bear, a fox, a wolf, a squirrel and a hedgehog gathered in a forest clearing. We decided to show each other how well they can sing. The fox sang: a-a-a. Wolf: uuu. Bear: s-s-s. Squirrel: i-i-i. Hedgehog: uh-uh. How did the animals sing?

Children put on masks. Repetition by children of "songs" of animals with a change in the strength and pitch of the voice.

We sang different sounds for the animals. Speech sounds sound different. Rrr, d-d-d (loudly), p-p-p, t-t-t (quietly), f-f-f (with a voice), sh-sh-sh (without a voice).

Acquaintance with the organs of the articulatory apparatus

What do you think helps us to make sounds? (tongue, lips). That's right, we pronounce sounds with our mouths. Our mouth is the house of sounds.

In this house

red doors,

Next to the doors

White animals.

love animals

Sweets and buns.

N.V. Novotvortseva

Every house has a door, and not even one. The first door is lips, the second is teeth. Make a sound p-p-p This sound is pronounced with the lips. Make a sound b-b-b. This sound is also pronounced... (lips). Make a sound l. See how our tongue pressed against our lips. The house has a ceiling. This is the sky. Click your tongue. Lift it by the upper teeth and tap: d-d-d. Did you feel how the tongue knocks on the tubercles? These are alveoli.

Put your hand on your throat. Say: d-d-d-b-b-b. This is where the voice lives. Sometimes he sleeps and you can't hear him. Make a sound to. Did you hear a voice? (Not). Now make a sound G. The voice woke up, sang so loudly that the wall of the house trembled. So what helps us to make sounds? (Lips, teeth, palate, tongue, alveoli.) How should we take care of our mouth? (Brush your teeth. Rinse your mouth after eating. Do not bite hard objects.)

Articulation gymnastics

To pronounce sounds beautifully, you need to teach your lips and tongue to perform various exercises. Pull out your lips with a tube, and now smile.

Exercises for lips and tongue.

You also need to learn how to breathe properly. Breathing exercise "ball-fossa".

Summary of the lesson

What did we listen to? (Sounds.) What were we listening to? (Ears.) How do we make sounds? (Mouth.)

Theme "Introduction to the word"

GARDEN. FOREST. SOUND LOCKS

Material. Subject pictures (inhabitants of the forest, fruits, flowers); plot pictures "Garden", "Forest"; Sound locks in red, blue and green; circles - symbols of sounds; doll.

Lesson progress

Orgmoment

Children, let's play now.

The game "Frogs" is being played for the development of speech hearing. Get in a circle. Let's say together:

Here are the frogs along the path

They jump with their legs outstretched.

Saw a mosquito

They screamed. "Kwa-kva-kva!"

Children imitate jumping frogs.

Olya, stand in a circle, close your eyes and find out who is speaking.

One of the children speaks. "Qua-qua-qua". The girl says the child's name.

Psychogymnastics. Draw frogs that hunt mosquitoes. They hid and froze. Caught a mosquito, happy. Now imagine that one of the frogs jumped into your palm. What will you do? (I will carefully plant her on the grass.) Show how you will hold the frog in your palm and plant it on the grass.

2. Consolidation of the concept "sound"

Several panels are exhibited: Sound locks - red, blue and green. In the windows of the locks there are circles of the same color. The doll is brought in.

Mashenka came to our lesson. She told me this story. One day, a kind sorceress invited Masha to the fabulous Sound City. In this city she saw such beauty

gray castles. What color are they? This castle... (red). This... (green). And this one... (blue). Masha saw circles in the windows of the castles. She wanted to touch them. She approached the Red Castle, touched the first circle, and it sounded: "A-ah-ah" Touched another circle and heard: "Whoo." And the third circle gave a voice: "I-i-i." The fourth chant: "Ltd". Masha came up to the Blue Castle. From his windows came other songs: "D-d-d, sh-sh-sh, w-w-w, b-b-b. In the Green Castle, the songs sounded softer: "L-l" -l", m"-m"-m"". Together with Masha, I click on the circles, and different songs sound: "Ltd, woo, a-a-a." Let's sing them together. Mashenka thinks: “What interesting circles, you click on them and hear different sounds.” Have you guessed what we will designate with such circles? (Sounds.) These circles will denote speech sounds. Do songs sound the same in different castles? (Differently.) Sounds are different, some of them are pronounced with lips, others with tongue (r-r-r), some sounds are sung (ah-ah-ah, ooh-ooh)

3. Introduction to the concept "word" The sorceress invited Mashenka to her garden.

The picture "Garden" is exhibited.

What did Mashenka see in the garden? (Trees, pears, apples, flowers.) What flowers grow in the garden? (Poppies, roses, tulips.) You have named many things. You spoke the words.

Everything is given a name

Both the animal and the object.

There are a lot of things around,

And there are no names!

And all that only the eye sees -

Above us and below us

And all that is in our memory,

Signified by words.

A. Shibaev

The sorceress invites Mashenka and us to the forest. Who did we see in the forest? (Fox, squirrel, hedgehog.) What did you see in the forest? (Firs, mushrooms, berries.) You said a lot... (words). Mashenka asks: why do the words sound? (Because they have sounds.) Words are made up of sounds.

Pronunciation of words with exaggerated emphasis on each sound.

Fold your hands in a “cup”, “collect” sounds. I will say the words slowly, quietly, and you - loudly and quickly: Mmmaaal "l" l "iiin-na, l" l "l" iissaa. (Raspberry, fox.)

The picture "Poppy" is exposed, and under it - three circles.

Listen to how the circles come to life, they turn into sounds m, a, k. Sounds can be scattered. "Throw" the sound to the left m, in front of you - sound a, right - sound to. Let's collect them again - m, a, k. Happened word ... (poppy). All words are from sounds.

Fizminutka

Children, let's play now. I will name the word - the name of the animal, and you will depict it with movement, facial expressions and gestures.

The words are called hare, wolf, fox, bear.

And now you will depict the trees and leaves that the breeze shakes. A light breeze is blowing, the leaves are barely moving.

Children imitate a light breath of wind and move their fingers slightly.

Strong wind- Trees sway. Body tilts.

Autumn leaves are sitting on branches

Autumn leaves say to children

Aspen "A-ah-ah." Rowan "I-i-i."

Birch- "Ltd". Oak "Whoo."

5. Differentiation of concepts "sound- word"

Let's sit down in the forest clearing. We will say goodbye to the leaves until next spring and together with them we will say: "A-o-o-o." Masha asks: what did you pronounce words or sounds now? (Sounds.) Now say two words. I will "put" your words in this beautiful chest.

Children call the words, the speech therapist puts the stripes in the chest.

6. Assimilation of concepts "alive- inanimate." Understanding the questions “Who is this?”, “What is this?”

The doll is on display.

Children, what is different doll Masha from our girls? (She is- inanimate. She is- doll.) Nina, who are you? (Girl.) Misha, who are you? (Boy.) You all... (children). You, me, mothers, fathers, uncles, aunts, grandparents - we are all living people.

Pictures depicting animals are exhibited. These are living beings. If we do not know the name of the animal, then we ask: "Who is it?" What common to all Living creatures?

Children's answers.

All animals have organs. They can move, hear, breathe, see, feel cold and warm. Look how many things are around us. They stand, do not move themselves, they have neither eyes nor ears. These are inanimate objects. About these things we ask, "What is this?"

Exhibited pictures depicting living and inanimate objects. Children ask questions “Who is this?”, “What is this?”

Among other norms of Russian pronunciation, which quite often cause difficulties, the following can be distinguished.

1. Pronunciation of the pronoun what and derivatives from it.

The literary norm is the pronunciation [ w then]. Pronunciation [ h o] is considered dialectal and colloquial; [ h then] is typical for the speech of Petersburgers, but it also belongs to non-literary ones. Most of the derivatives of this pronoun are pronounced in the same way - something, anything to.

Exception makes an indefinite pronoun with a prefix not- in which it sounds [h], –something.

2. Pronunciation of the combination -ch- in the middle of a word.

Most words with this phrase sound the same as they are written (with a consonant). [h]):final, legal.

• However, in a number of words it is pronounced [w] on the spot h . This is the so-called old Moscow pronunciation. It was widespread in the XIX and in the first half of the XX century. And now in the speech of native Muscovites one can notice a fairly stable tradition of pronunciation of the combination ch how [sn](for example, often say: shooting [w] naya group). But such a pronunciation is not normative, although it is not such a gross mistake as the pronunciation [h] in pronoun what.
• Currently the number of words in which the pronunciation is saved [w] in the literary language, is rapidly declining. It remains obligatory in the words:

end [w] but, on purpose [w] but boring [w] but boring [w] ny, boring [w] new, empty [w] ny, laundry [w] nah, oh [w] nick, ouch [w] ny, starling [w] nickname, starling [w] nitsa, starling [w] ny, egg [w] nitsa, girl [w] Nick.

• In a number of words, the pronunciation [w] is the main literary variant, and the pronunciation [h] allowed:

bakery, dvoechnik, troechnik.

• Options with [w] and [h] equal in terms of:

penny, decent.

• Noun housemaid, at the adjective brown the main pronunciation is the variant with [h] while the pronunciation [w] valid, but considered obsolete. The same can be said for the words kalachny, kalachnik. Mostly [w] pronounced in the proverb: with cloth snout in kalach [w] row.

3. Unjustified omission of sounds in individual words. Quite often in common speech there is an unjustified omission of vowels and consonants, and sometimes entire combinations of sounds.

note on the pronunciation of words in which the emphasized vowel is unjustifiably lost quite regularly: combin e zones, wire about ka, lane and petia, on yo m, ish and ace, surname and I.

• In common speech, the pronunciation of nouns is quite common. bulletin e uh, brel about k, shaft e t in indirect cases without vowels [o] and [e]. Many Russian words are characterized by vowel fluency in oblique cases ( day - day, hammer - hammer). But these nouns are foreign and do not obey this pattern. It is necessary to pronounce:

no bulletin e yah, sick leave e neither; two brel about ka, beautiful brel about ki, no shaft e ta, dump the shaft e you.

note also on the pronunciation of words in which emphasized vowels, consonants and combinations of sounds are often unjustifiably omitted: apo P lexical, time pre conducting, in boil, to G yes, compos t troll th beads, shchikolo t ka, darn about R and etc.

• As noted, in colloquial speech (with an incomplete, non-oratorical type of pronunciation), it is allowed to “swallow” individual sounds, but in an official setting, in an oratorical type of pronunciation, this is unacceptable.

4. Unjustified insertion of vowels and consonants in words.
No less often in common speech there is an unjustified insertion of vowels and consonants.

• extra consonant n can pronounce between the highlighted letters in words:

unpredictable units entny, ints id ent, yellow at in, const at compromise, compromise no irovat, p id jacques;

• extra consonant l - between the selected letters in the word blessing ve nie;
• extra vowel - in the words:

unrestrained w oh, bud yi oh, omniscient yi y, ru bl uh, jerk ow b, burn sh I.

• Quite a lot of erroneous insertions of vowels are observed in borrowed, Old Church Slavonic and book words:

Jen tl change(not properly - djent e lmen), ne rs perspective(not properly - lane e perspective).

• Quite often in speech there is an unjustified insertion of a consonant t in words before co chka, Wed am, consonant d in the word nr av. In common parlance, the unjustified insertion of a consonant is very common. to in adjective about sl runny(covered with slime).
• The reason for the unjustified insertion of a vowel, consonant may be a misunderstood etymology (origin) of a word or a combination of sounds that is difficult to pronounce. For example, for the Russian language, a large confluence of consonants is uncharacteristic - this can lead to an erroneous insertion of a vowel sound. On the other hand, the so-called gaping, that is, the arrangement of several vowels in a row, is uncharacteristic of the Russian language. Therefore, in common parlance, in loanwords, a consonant may be inserted between two vowels.

Wed: for the sake of in about instead of literary glad and about .

• Sometimes an unjustified insertion of a sound is associated with a misunderstood word-building structure of a word, with an incorrect convergence of this word with other words that are close in meaning.

For example, a noun grapefruit often pronounced with an extra consonant to in the final syllable, incorrectly bringing it closer to the generic concept frou to t. Similar reasons are the erroneous insertion of a consonant b into verbs os to wash(not properly - about dare), os wash yourself(not properly - about look): in this case, the prefix about- erroneously replaced by a prefix similar in meaning about- . For the same reason, an extra consonant is often pronounced in vernacular d in verb P os slip(not properly - on d slip). The same reasons caused an erroneous pronunciation instead of a noun bottle forms - With those vial.

• I would like to emphasize that the incorrect pronunciation is based on an incorrect understanding of the word-formation structure of the word. It is no coincidence that this can be reflected in the letter. Spelling errors are often made in these words.

5. Unjustified replacement of one sound by another.
This phenomenon is usually observed in borrowed, bookish and obsolete words, the etymology of which is unknown to the speaker and is mistakenly associated with some other word in the Russian language. This, for example, causes the pronunciation [s] instead of [and] in a Greek word in and juice. Nothing to do with adjective high it doesn't have. Nouns are also different in meaning: bi d it's for milk and be t it is for building. The same reasons are caused by the incorrect pronunciation of such borrowed words as play to siglas(colloquially - play st needle), renegade t (incorrect plural - renegade d s).

• Sometimes the replacement and rearrangement of sounds can be caused by associations that seem to the speaker not too "decent".

Cf .: erroneous pronunciation of the word stupid hose how other hose.

• In addition, the colloquial replacement of one sound with another can be caused by the convenience of pronunciation.

For example, very often in the speech of uneducated people it is allowed to replace the sound [m] on the [n] with a special combination of sounds: tra m wai, ko m pliment, and m bar, and m bir, plo m beat, with m brero, co m on the m bula. Pronunciation tra n wai or to n pliment is not only unacceptable, but also indicates a very low culture of the speaker. Reverse substitution is also possible. So, the frequency is the erroneous pronunciation - to m fork instead of the normative to n fork.

• Quite often in speech there is an erroneous replacement of a hard consonant with a soft one (for example, pronunciation kli sz ma instead of the normative kli h ma), and vice versa, replacing a soft consonant with a hard one (for example, instead of normative - nasu sch ny, mo sch ness, about sch ness- pronunciation - nasu w ny, mo w ness, about w ness).

So, the pronunciation of the introductory word belongs to the category of colloquial mean be (So it was necessary) instead of the normative - mean t .

Section 2 Morphological norms
2.1. General remarks

As in the field of pronunciation, in morphology and syntax there are strong and weak norms. The strong ones are respected by everyone who speaks Russian as a mother tongue. Weak ones are easily influenced from the outside, poorly absorbed and often distorted. Their presence is determined by many reasons, in particular, the peculiarities of the development of the phonetic and grammatical systems of the Russian language.

For example, in the Old Russian language, there were originally ten types and subtypes of declension, and the type of declension was determined by the final sound of the stem and the meaning of the word.

In modern Russian - three declensions(depending on the gender of the noun and the ending of the word). The first declension is mostly nouns female on the -a ; the second is masculine zero ending and neuter on -about and -e , third declension - feminine nouns with zero ending . From the point of view of the distribution of nouns according to declensions, depending on the gender, the third declension turns out to be “superfluous”. That is why in speech quite often nouns of the third declension change gender and begin to decline like nouns of the second declension ( I caught a mouse). On the other hand, masculine nouns with a soft stem can change gender and decline in speech like third declension nouns ( i bought a new shampoo).

Similar reasons are due to fluctuations in the forms of the nominative case plural for masculine nouns of the second declension. In modern Russian, several endings are fixed, which go back to different Old Russian forms.

primordial ending -and survived only in a few words with a solid basis:

hell - hell, neighbor - neighbors.

The ending -a originally was the end of the dual number. Now it is preserved in words denoting paired concepts, but is perceived as a plural ending:

sleeves, shores, eyes.

Type forms brothers, friends, leaves ascend to forms of collective feminine nouns.

Compare: the Old Church Slavonic version of one of these forms preserved in modern Russian: monastic brethren.

note on what forms on -ya retain a collective connotation of meaning (cf.: sheets - leaves; teeth - teeth).

Finally the ending -e on nouns -anine primordial, since these nouns already in the Old Russian language belonged to the category of heterogeneous and in the plural had special endings:

peasant - peasants, Christian - Christians.

Many similar examples can be given for other forms and other parts of speech.

So, in common speech, the absence of alternation of consonants in the forms of the present and simple future tenses is very frequent ( water those to et instead of normative water those h et; she is not to eat bread instead of normative she is not h eat bread). This is due to the general trend towards so-called warp leveling. Already in Old Russian period the language strove to make the stem the same in all forms of a single word.

This process went through quite consistently in nouns. And instead of the original forms - about pasta With e, young pasta With and- we use the forms now - about pasta X e, young pasta X and. In the verb, this process is much slower. In some forms, the alternation of consonants is lost (we say ne to and bread instead of the original Old Russian - P yts and bread), in others - the alternation of consonants is preserved in the literary language ( I am not to have bread; she is not h eat bread), but may be lost in dialects and vernacular ( she is not to eat bread).

There are other reasons that influence the appearance of a whole system of variants in morphology. The greatest difficulties are usually caused by the distribution of some nouns by gender, the formation of plural forms of nouns, the formation of a number of forms of verbs. Let's dwell on some of them in more detail.

gender of nouns

1. Determining the gender of inflected nouns is usually not difficult if this noun names a person:

mother- feminine, dad- masculine.

• The distribution of inanimate nouns and nouns denoting animals can no longer be based on the meaning of the word and is traditional:

ceiling- masculine wall- feminine, window– neuter gender, mole- masculine mouse- feminine.

• It is characteristic that it is inanimate nouns that quite often change gender over time.

For example, feminine nouns previously included nouns a new boot, a high jackboot, a silver bracelet, a southern sanatorium, a military hospital, a steel rail, Petrovsky's table of ranks, a high poplar tree, an interesting film. These are now masculine nouns: a new boot, a high jackboot, a silver bracelet, a southern sanatorium, a military hospital, a steel rail, a school report card, a tall poplar tree, an interesting film.

• The reverse process is observed for nouns: snow-white cuff, small attic, favorite dachshund, ancient citadel. They used to refer to masculine words, while now they refer to feminine nouns. Noun epaulette- feminine, but at the present time the masculine form remains acceptable, although an outdated option - epaulet.

• Similar fluctuations are observed now. Equal in the literary language are generic variants: banknotes and banknote, aviary and aviary, fluffy desman and fluffy muskrat, dahlia and dahlia, burr and hangnail, pancakes and pancake, Spanish and spanish padespany(ballroom dance) pilaster and pilaster, spasm and spasm, old and ancient psalter(book of psalms) plane tree and plane tree.
• As the main and additional, usually obsolete, forms are opposed:

toast and toast, giraffe and giraffe, key and keys.

• Interesting history of the noun Hall. Now the only literary option is the masculine form - Hall. However, old forms can be found in the texts hall and hall:

The hall of the restaurant has turned into a hall of a noble assembly(Lermontov).

• Literary (normative) forms and colloquial forms, which are erroneous from the point of view of the norms of the modern Russian literary language, should be distinguished from literary variants of generic forms. Especially many errors are fixed among nouns, which are rarely used in the form singular, for example, among the names of paired items:

slippers, shoes, sandals etc.

note on the ancestry the following paired nouns: women's sandal, rubber bot, old boot, football boot, warm boots, sports gaiter, comfortable sneaker, leather moccasin, officer's epaulette, steel rail (!), light sandal, children's sandal, house slipper(Not recommended - slippers!), house slipper (!), shoe(not properly - shoes!),lacquered shoe.

• In addition, quite often errors are recorded in speech when using the gender of the following nouns:

transparent guipure, thick curtain, antique candelabra, significant correction, beautiful monisto, hard bast (!), delicious fritters (!), delicious marmalade (!), railway reserved seat, red tomato(not properly - tomato!), white sheet, my last name(very big mistake) surname!), scary scarecrow, long tentacle.

• There are many such errors among words with a zero ending with a base for a soft consonant or hissing.

pay special attention to the gender of the following nouns: comfortable mezzanine, heavy parcel post, dark veil, antique cello, heavy dumbbell, geometric diagonal, yellow rosin, tasty potatoes (!), white tile, thin calico(unfinished chintz), stepped on a favorite corn (!), exotic vegetable, new hotel, black piano, oblique fathom, sharp scalpel, roofing felt, chocolate truffle, transparent tulle (!), delicious beans, white queen, warm flannel, new shampoo (!).

2. The gender of indeclinable common nouns is determined by the following criteria:

• most inanimate indeclinable nouns are neuter regardless of the meaning and the final consonant (!):

Only a few nouns have gender motivated by the meaning of the generic concept or by old forms:

fifth Avenue(the outside), delicious kohlrabi(cabbage), ground coffee(old forms: coffee, coffee motivated by the generic concept - "drink"; the form black coffee acceptable, but still undesirable even in an informal setting!) delicious salami(sausage), another penalty(free kick), sultry sirocco(African wind);

• the gender of nouns that name persons depends on the real gender of the designated person:

English dandy, real lady;

• nouns that call a person by profession are masculine, although they can also call females:

military attache, experienced entertainer, old maestro(a similar phenomenon is observed among inflected nouns: experienced associate professor Orlova, young doctor Novikov);

• names of animals and birds are usually masculine:

African zebu, small hummingbird, cheerful chimpanzee.

But when referring to a female, these nouns are used in a special context:

the chimpanzee was feeding the cub.

Only in a few words the gender is determined by the meaning of the generic concept:

tasty iwashi(herring), African tsetse(fly).

3. The gender of indeclinable proper names is determined by the gender of the common noun, which acts as a generic concept:

sunny Sochi(city), picturesque Capri(island), liberal news chronicle(newspaper).

4. The gender of compound words (abbreviations) is usually determined by the gender of the main word in the full name:

The UN adopted a resolution(United Nations); Russia was represented at the forum by a special delegation (Russian Federation); RIA reported(Russian news agency).

• If the word is reduced to the first sounds and declined, then its gender is determined not by the main word, but on a general basis - by the final sound of the stem and ending:

enroll in a technical university(cf .: higher educational institution).

• Sometimes the same principle applies among indeclinable compound words:

TASS is authorized to announce(Telegraph agency of the Soviet Union).

5. The genus of compound words of the type butterfly admiral, sofa bed, cafe-restaurant, snack bar usually defined by a word that expresses more general concept:

beautiful butterfly-admiral, a new snack-machine.

• If the concepts are equivalent, then the genus is determined by the first of them:

a comfortable chair-bed, a new cafe-restaurant.

• If the first part of the compound word has lost its change, then the gender is determined by the second, changed part:

comfortable raincoat, in a comfortable raincoat; a new vacuum lamp, about a new vacuum lamp; interesting novel-newspaper, in an interesting novel-newspaper.

note that words like cafe Restaurant do not obey this rule, since they have the first part ( Cafe) initially has no declension! Noun sofa bed in oblique cases allows both the declension of the first part ( on the sofa bed), and its use in the form of the nominative case ( on the sofa bed). But the gender in this case is still determined by the first word ( on a comfortable sofa bed).

There are special terms for each type of violation. If a pronunciation defect occurs, then we are talking about sigmatism, rotacism, etc.; when replacing the sound, the prefix "para-" is added to the name of the defect.

1. Sigmatism whistling- disadvantages of pronunciation [s-s "], [s-s"], [c] (see Fig. 1, 2). Further explanations.

When pronouncing the sound [s], the lips are stretched into a smile, the front teeth are visible. The tip of the tongue rests on the front incisors, the front part of the back of the tongue is curved. The lateral edges of the tongue are adjacent to the molars, a round gap is formed between the tip of the tongue and the front upper teeth. A groove forms along the midline of the tongue, along which a strong stream of exhaled air passes, forming a whistling noise. The narrower the gap, the higher the sound. The soft palate is raised and closes the passage to the nasal cavity, g
the vocal folds do not produce voice.

When pronouncing [with "], the lips stretch more and tighten. The anterior-middle part of the back of the tongue rises higher, moves forward a little, and the noise becomes even higher.

When pronouncing [ц], the lips take the position of the next vowel. The sound begins with a stop element (as with [t]). The tip of the tongue is lowered, touching the lower teeth, and the front part of the back of the tongue is raised to the alveoli or upper teeth, forming a bow with them. The lateral edges of the tongue are pressed against the molars. The sound ends with a slotted sound, as with [s], which sounds short. The exhaled stream is strong and cold. The articulation of the sound [ц] is shown in fig. 2.

There are several types of whistling sigmatism.

Interdental sigmatism- the most common type of sigmatism. The tongue is inserted between the teeth, there is no characteristic whistle, instead of a round gap, a flat gap is observed. The same defect extends to [s] and [ts].

Labio-tooth sigmatism. In addition to the tongue, the lower lip is involved in the formation of the gap; the sound becomes like [f].

Lateral sigmatism characterized by the fact that the lateral edges of the tongue are not adjacent to the molars and the exhaled air stream does not pass through the middle of the tongue, but along the sides. The tip of the tongue and the front of the back form a bond with the alveoli, and noise is heard instead of [s]. The defect extends to [s], [ts] and paired soft

Tooth parasigmatism. Instead of a gap, the tongue forms a bow; a sound like [t] or [d] is heard. The sound [c] loses one of the elements ([t] or [s]).

Hissing parasigmatism- the tongue assumes a position as when pronouncing [w] or a shortened [w].

Techniques for making whistling sounds

Corrective work is carried out depending on what type of violation is present in the child.

With labio-tooth sigmatism, the child is shown the correct articulation in front of the mirror and the lower lip is removed from the teeth.

With interdental sigmatism, the child is asked to pronounce the syllable "sa" with clenched teeth.

With lateral sigmatism, special preparatory work is carried out to activate the muscles of the tongue.

When staging whistling sounds, such articulatory gymnastics exercises as “Smile”, “Let's brush the lower teeth”, “Groove”, etc. are used. The child’s ability to strongly blow air through the mouth and control exhalation with the palm of a cotton wool or strips of paper is practiced. The air jet should be cold and strong. You can use speech therapy probes or sticks. You need to ask the child to smile, rest his tongue on the lower teeth. Put a stick along the tongue so that it presses only the front of it. part. Close your teeth and blow hard. Fix pronunciation of sound [With] You can first with a stick, and then without it.

The sound [c] can be imitated if the pronunciation of [t] and [s] is good. With the tip of the tongue lowered, the child is asked to pronounce [t] with a strong exhalation. The front of the back of the tongue is pressed against the upper incisors. Usually [ц] is put in the reverse position, and the consolidation begins with reverse syllables.

When setting voiced pairs, the voice is additionally turned on.

2
.Sigmatism of hissing- violation of pronunciation [w], [g], [h], [u]. On fig. 3, 4 shows the articulation of these sounds.

When pronouncing the sound [w], the lips are extended forward and rounded, there is a distance of 4-5 mm between the teeth. The tip of the tongue is raised to the alveoli, the lateral edges are pressed against the molars, the middle part of the back of the tongue bends, the palatine curtain is raised and closes the passage into the nasal cavity. Warm air passing through the middle of the tongue. The sound [g] has the same articulation, but with the addition of a voice. There are several types of
hissing igmatism.

"cheek" pronunciation[and], and [w]. Articulation occurs without the participation of the tongue, the teeth are very close together or compressed, the corners of the mouth are pressed against the teeth. A "dull" noise is generated. When pronouncing [g], a voice is added to it. With this type of disorder, the cheeks are usually swollen.

"Lower" pronunciation[g] and [w]. hissing ones acquire a soft shade, as with [u].

Posterior pronunciation[g] and [w]. In this case, the gap is formed by the convergence of the hard palate with the back of the back of the tongue. There is a noise resembling noise at the sounds [x] or [g].

Sometimes there may be cases of replacing hissing sounds with others, for example, whistling.

Techniques for setting sounds[w] and [g]. First put [w], and then - [g].

Lip exercises are used: “Donut” - round the lips, as if pronouncing [o]. Exercises for the tongue: "Cup", "Delicious jam", "Focus", etc.

The sound [w] can be put from the sound [s]. The child is asked to say the syllable "sa" several times. At this time, the speech therapist smoothly, using a probe, spatula or spoon, raises the tip of the tongue towards the alveoli. As it rises, the noise changes and acquires a character corresponding to [w]. The speech therapist fixes the child's attention on this position. Later, the child tries to independently take the correct articulatory position.

If the pronunciation of the sound [r] is not disturbed in the child, then the sound [w] can also be put from him. The child is asked to pronounce the syllable "ra". At the moment of its pronunciation, the speech therapist touches the lower part of the tongue with a spatula and slows down its vibration. If the child speaks in a whisper, then “sha” is heard, with a loud pronunciation, “zha” is heard. The sound [g] can be delivered from the sound [w] with the inclusion of voice or from [h] as [w] from [s].

Disadvantages of pronunciation of the sound [u].

The articulation of this sound is similar to the articulation of the sound [w]: the lips are located in the same way, the tip of the tongue is raised up, but slightly lower than with [w]. The front part of the back of the tongue bends, and its middle part rises to the hard palate. The back is lowered and moved forward. The palatine curtain is up. Exhaled air passes in the middle of the tongue into the resulting gap. The air jet is long and warm.

Sound u can be put from the saved sound [w] by imitation.

Another way of staging is from the sound [s "]. The child is asked to say the syllable "si" or "sya" several times with a long whistling. With the help of a spatula, the tongue is slightly pushed back until the desired sound is obtained.

If the sound [h "] is pronounced correctly, then it is easy to put [u] from it. The child pronounces the sound [h"] elongated, resulting in [u]. This sound must immediately be introduced into syllables, and then into words.

Disadvantages of pronunciation of sound [h].

Sound articulation [h "]: lips are pushed forward and rounded, teeth are drawn together or closed, the tip of the tongue is lowered and touches the lower teeth. The sound begins with a stop element and ends with an explosive element that sounds short. The soft palate is raised and closes the passage to the nose, the sound deaf and soft.

Pronunciation flaws are usually the same as other sibilants. Sometimes instead of the sound [h "] a soft affricate [ts"], [t"] or [sh"] is pronounced.

The sound [h "] is set from [t"]. The child is asked to pronounce the syllable “at "” several times, and at this time the speech therapist, using a probe or spatula, slightly pushes back the tip of the tongue. The sound [h "] is easier to put in reverse syllables.

3
. Disadvantages of pronunciation of sounds [l] and [l "] - lambdacism and paralambdacism. See the articulation of these sounds in fig. 5.

When articulating the sound [l], the lips are neutral and take the position of the next vowel. The tip of the tongue is raised and may be in contact with the alveoli. A gap is formed on the sides of the tongue through which air passes. The air stream is weak, warm. The soft palate is raised and closes the passage to the nose. The anterior middle part of the back of the tongue is lowered, and its root part is raised and pulled back, forming a spoon-shaped depression.

When articulating a soft [l "], the lips are somewhat pulled to the sides, and the anterior-middle part of the back of the tongue rises to the hard palate and moves forward, the back of the back of the tongue is significantly advanced and lowered.

Among the violations of pronunciation [l] there is sound distortion: a two-labial sonorant sound is pronounced, reminiscent of a short [y] or English [w].

Much more common are cases of paralambdacism, when [l] is replaced by a short [s] or [l "] and [j] .

When setting the sound [l] use the exercises "Chatterbox", "Cup".

The child is invited to pronounce the combination "ya" with a short pronunciation [s]. As soon as the child learns the desired pronunciation, he is asked to pronounce these sounds again, but at the same time the tongue should be clamped between the teeth. Then the combination "la" is clearly heard.

It happens that already knowing how to pronounce the sound correctly, the child continues to hear his former sound. Therefore, it is necessary to involve auditory attention to the sound that is obtained when staging.

4
. Disadvantages of pronunciation p and [p "] - rotacism and pararotacism. Articulation is shown in fig. 6.

When pronouncing [p], the lips are open and take the position of the next vowel, the distance between the teeth is 4-5 mm. The tip of the tongue is raised and vibrates at the alveoli with a hard [p] or at the upper incisors with a soft [p "]. The root part of the tongue is lowered, the lateral edges of the tongue are pressed against the upper molars, the air stream is strong and passes in the middle.

Rotacism is of several types:

♦ [r] is not pronounced at all;

♦ velar [r] - not the tip of the tongue vibrates, but the palatine curtain, to which the root of the tongue is close;

♦ uvular [p] - a small tongue vibrates;

♦ lateral rotacism - one of the lateral edges of the tongue vibrates, as a result of which a combination of sounds “rl” is heard;

♦ coachman [r] - closed lips vibrate, and it turns out "prr";

♦ single-hit [r] - instead of vibration, a single blow of the tip of the tongue against the alveoli occurs, and an apparent sound [r] is formed, similar to the sound [d];

♦ buccal [r] - one or both cheeks vibrate due to the fact that a gap for the exhaled jet is formed between the lateral edge of the tongue and the upper molars.

There are several types of pararotacism:

♦ [r] is replaced by the sound [v], pronounced without vibration, with lips;

♦ [p] is replaced by the sound [d];

♦ [r] is replaced by the sound [s];

♦ [p] is replaced by the sounds [l], [g] or [y].

When staging the sound [p], the exercises “Fungus”, “Horses”, “Coachman”, etc. are used.

Usually the sound [r] is set mechanically using a speech therapy probe. The child is asked to raise the tongue to the alveoli, the lateral edges should be pressed against the molars. Say “tdd”, “ddd” repeatedly at a fast pace.

When the child has mastered the pronunciation of these combinations well, he is asked to blow strongly on his tongue, and at this moment a vibration should occur.

Another way of staging this sound is to pronounce "tzh" with an elongated second element. When the child pronounces these sounds, the speech therapist inserts a probe with a ball at the end under the tongue, touching the lower surface, and moves the probe right and left with quick movements.

The technique of setting the sound [r] from the combination “zzz-a” turns out to be effective. The child moves the tongue up, continuing to pronounce this combination of sounds. At this moment, the speech therapist with the help of a probe produces fluctuations of the tongue to the right and left, reaching the vibration of the tongue. The sound [p "] is put similarly from the syllable "zi".

5. Disadvantages of pronunciation of sounds k, g, x, [k "], [g"], [x"] - cappacism, gamacism, chitism. The articulation of these sounds is shown in Fig. 7, 8.

When pronouncing the sound [k], the lips take the position of the next vowel, the distance between the teeth is about 5 mm. The tip of the tongue is lowered and distant from the lower teeth, the back of the back of the tongue closes with the palate. At the moment of pronouncing the sound, the bow between the sky and the tongue explodes, and air flows through the resulting passage, forming a characteristic noise.

When articulating the sound [x], the back of the back of the tongue does not completely close with the palate: a gap is formed in its middle part, through which air escapes, producing noise.

When pronouncing soft pairs of these sounds, the tongue moves slightly forward, towards the middle part of the hard palate.

With cappacism, instead of the sound [k], a laryngeal click is heard, with gamacism, a voice is added to it. With chitism, a faint guttural noise is heard.

Paracapacism includes substitutions such as replacing [k] with [t] or with [x].

The production of the sound [k] can be done by imitation or mechanically. With mechanical action, the child is asked to pronounce the syllable "ta" repeatedly. At this time, the speech therapist, using a spatula, advances the child's tongue back, pressing on the front of the tongue. First, the syllable "ta" is transformed into the syllable "tya", then into the syllable "kya", and then the syllable "ka" is heard.

When correcting paracapacism, the child's attention should be drawn to the difference in sounds, i.e. on their differentiation, along with the production of sound [k].

The shortcomings of the pronunciation of the sounds [g] and [x] are generally similar to the described varieties of cappacism and paracapacism.

The techniques for correcting and staging these sounds are the same as when staging the sound [k]. The sound [g] is put from the syllables “yes - dya - gya - ha”; sound [x] from the syllables "sa - xia - hya - ha".

This is followed by exercises on consolidation, automation and differentiation of sounds, if substitutions of sounds were observed.

6. Disadvantages of sound pronunciation ([th]) Usually the child replaces this sound with a soft [l "].

When pronouncing the sound [th "], the lips are stretched, but less than when [and]. The tip of the tongue lies at the lower teeth, the middle part of the back of the tongue is strongly raised to the hard palate, and the back part is pushed forward. The edges of the tongue rest against the upper lateral teeth. The vocal folds vibrate and create a voice, the exhaled stream of air is weak.

There are two ways to fix the sound. With the first method, the sound can be put from the vowel [and]. The child is asked to pronounce the vowel combinations “ai”, “aia”, “oi”, “io”, increasing the exhalation at the moment of pronouncing [and]. Gradually, the child is asked to pronounce [and] more briefly, reaching the desired sound [th].

Another way to set the sound [and] is to set it from soft [z "] with mechanical help. The child pronounces the syllable "zya" several times, and at this time the speech therapist pushes the tongue back with a spatula or probe until the desired sound is obtained.

Dysgraphia- a specific violation of the processes of writing. Children with dysgraphia are characterized by violations of visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations, phonemic, syllabic analysis and synthesis, division of sentences into words, disorders of mental processes, emotional-volitional sphere.

It is customary to distinguish several types of dysgraphia.

1. Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia. With her, the child both pronounces words and writes them. It manifests itself in substitutions, omissions of letters, similar to the omissions of sounds in oral speech. Occurs with dysarthria, rhinolalia.

2. Acoustic dysgraphia - dysgraphia resulting from violations in the differentiation of phonemes. The child replaces letters that sound similar. Most often, whistling - hissing, voiced - deaf, affricates and their components are replaced. Sometimes children incorrectly indicate softness in writing, as a result of a violation of the differentiation of hard and soft consonants.

This type of dysgraphia is most clearly manifested in sensory alalia, when letters that are distant in articulation and acoustically can be mixed.

3. Dysgraphia as a result of a violation of language analysis and synthesis. It manifests itself in distortions of the structure of words and sentences. Due to violations of phonemic analysis, the sound-letter structure of the word is especially affected. The following errors may be observed: omissions of consonants during their confluence; omissions of vowels; permutations of letters or their addition; omissions, permutations and additions of syllables. Violations at the sentence level are manifested in the continuous spelling of words, especially words with prepositions, separate spelling of words, for example, separating the root from the prefix.

4. Agrammatic dysgraphia is associated with underdevelopment of the grammatical structure of speech. It manifests itself at the level of words, phrases, sentences and texts. The child breaks the sequence of sentences that do not match the sequence of events. In sentences, the morphological structure of the word is violated, prefixes, suffixes, case endings, prepositions and the number of nouns are replaced. In addition, the child has difficulty constructing complex sentences.

5. Optical dysgraphia. It manifests itself as a result of underdevelopment of visual gnosis, analysis, synthesis and spatial representations. When writing, letters are distorted and replaced. Most often, letters similar in spelling are interchanged, which consist of the same elements, but are arranged differently when writing (“v” and “y”); letters that have the same elements, but differ in some additional elements (“l” and “m”). There is a mirror spelling of letters; omissions of elements, especially when connecting letters, which may contain the same, extra elements or incorrectly located elements.

Dysgraphia can also be accompanied by non-verbal symptoms.

7. Dyslexia is a partial specific violation of the reading process. Dyslexia occurs as a result of the lack of formation of higher mental functions and manifests itself in persistent errors. The causes of dyslexia can be organic and functional in nature. Most often, dyslexia manifests itself in speech and neuropsychiatric disorders. Children with dyslexia have difficulties in spatial orientation, in determining the right and left sides, top and bottom. In the psychological aspect of the study of dyslexia, it is considered as a violation of the operations of the reading process, namely, visual perception and distinguishing letters, choosing a phoneme, merging sounds into syllables, synthesizing syllables into a word, and words into sentences.

There are several types of dyslexia.

Phonemic dyslexia associated with the underdevelopment of the phonemic system of the language. The following functions of the phonemic system are distinguished: a semantic function, when a change in one phoneme or one feature can lead to a change in meaning; auditory differentiation of phonemes - one phoneme differs from another articulatory and acoustically; phonemic analysis or decomposition of a word into phonemes. Phonemic dyslexia is divided into two forms. The first one is associated with the underdevelopment of phonemic perception, which manifests itself in the difficulties of assimilation of letters and the replacement of letters that are similar in articulation and acoustically (“k-g”, “sh-s”, etc.). The second form of reading disorders is associated with a violation of phonemic analysis. At the same time, violations of the sound-syllabic structure and letter-by-letter reading are observed. A child can skip letters when consonants collide, insert extra vowels between consonants, rearrange letters and syllables in words.

semantic dyslexia It manifests itself in the fact that the child does not understand the meaning of what is read with a safe reading of the text. These difficulties arise in a child as a result of a violation of sound-syllabic synthesis and fuzzy ideas about syntactic relationships in a sentence. In the process of reading, the child divides words into syllables and, as a result, does not understand the meaning of what they read. Children are not able to combine successively pronounced syllables into a single whole. They read mechanically, without understanding the meaning. Children with such a disorder cannot pronounce a word that is pronounced separately by sounds with short pauses between them (c, o, d, a); reproduce a word divided by voice into syllables (ma-shi-na-e-ha-la). In the process of reading, words are perceived out of touch with the rest of the sentence.

Agrammatical dyslexia arises as a result of underdevelopment of the grammatical structure of speech, syntactic, morphological generalizations. With this type of dyslexia, changes in case endings and the number of nouns are observed, nouns incorrectly agree in gender, number and case with adjectives; incorrectly used generic endings of pronouns; verb forms change.

mnestic dyslexia It manifests itself in the fact that it is difficult for a child to learn letters and it is difficult to differentiate them. It is caused by a disturbed process of establishing a connection between a sound and a letter and a violation of speech memory. It is difficult for children to reproduce a chain of 4-5 sounds or words. Even if they reproduce them, there are gaps in sounds, their substitutions, a violation of the sequence of sounds.

Optical dyslexia manifests itself in the difficulties of assimilation and mixing of letters that are graphically similar. This type of dyslexia is similar to optical dysgraphia in its manifestations, but here the letters are not capitalized, but printed. Children mix [l] and [d], which differ from each other in additional elements; they mix [n] and [n], which differ from each other in that the same elements of these letters are located differently in space. This happens because the child's optical-spatial perception is underdeveloped, visual gnosis, analysis and synthesis are disturbed, there is no differentiation of ideas about similar forms.

Non-verbal manifestations can also be observed: when drawing complex objects, the child misses, distorts some details of the drawing. It is difficult for children to construct a letter from its elements, complete one or more elements and make another letter, because all these operations require a certain analysis and synthesis. In literal optic dyslexia, impairments occur in isolated letter recognition, while in verbal optic dyslexia, impairments occur in reading.

Tactile dyslexia observed in blind children. It is based on difficulties in tactile differentiation of Braille letters. When reading, there is a mixture of letters that have the same number of dots or dots that are mirrored; points below or above, or those that differ by one point.

When examining children, the state of vision, hearing, nervous system, and cognitive activity are taken into account. The survey is carried out comprehensively, with the involvement of various specialists.

The types of disorders in dysgraphia and dyslexia are largely similar, so the methods of correctional work have much in common and are considered together.

First, work is underway to develop phonemic perception, which is especially impaired in phonemic dyslexia, articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia, and dysgraphia based on phoneme recognition disorders. The work is carried out in two stages. At the first stage, the pronunciation and auditory images of the sounds that are mixed are refined. The work is carried out based on visual, auditory, tactile analyzers: the sound is distinguished in syllables, its place in the word is determined, its place in relation to other sounds, it is distinguished from the text and the sentence. At the second stage, a comparison of sounds that were mixed by ear and by pronunciation is carried out. Differentiation occurs in the same way as at the first stage, but the speech material should not contain an isolated sound, but mixed sounds. In the process of work, each practiced sound is associated with a specific letter and written exercises are carried out that contribute to the differentiation of sounds. Before starting work on the elimination of articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia, the sound pronunciation is corrected.

When correcting phonemic dyslexia and dysgraphia due to a violation of language analysis, the development of language analysis and synthesis is carried out. For this, the following types of exercises are offered: come up with a sentence based on a plot picture and count how many words it contains. A number is called, and the child must make a sentence with that many words. Then it is proposed to increase or decrease the number of words in the sentence. Draw up a sentence scheme, indicate the place in the sentence of the named word, etc.

Work on the development of analysis and synthesis in syllables should begin with non-speech techniques: ask the child to tap or slap the number of syllables in a word. Gradually, the child is taught to distinguish vowels in words and explain to him that there are as many syllables in a word as there are vowels. Previously, the child must be able to distinguish vowels from consonants. For this, various techniques and methods are used. Work begins with monosyllabic words, gradually becoming more complex.

Various exercises are carried out for consolidation. For example:

♦ the speech therapist calls the word, the child must raise the number corresponding to the number of syllables in the word;

♦ name the first syllables in the names of objects depicted in the proposed pictures, write them down. Read the word or sentence that came out;

♦ find out the missing syllable with the help of a picture;

♦ select from the text words with a certain number of syllables.

In the formation of phonemic analysis and synthesis, it is necessary to first use only vowel sounds, and then gradually introduce consonants to them. Initially, this work is carried out with the help of auxiliary tools - chips and graphic diagrams. The child learns to isolate sounds and fill in graphic schemes with the help of chips.

At the next stage, phonemic analysis is performed on speech material, the child determines the number of sounds in words, names the first and subsequent sounds in words.

At the third stage, the child no longer pronounces syllables, but performs all actions mentally, i.e. work goes at the level of representations.

Here the principle of complication is applied: from easy to complex. Written works are widely used: insert a letter into a word; write out words with a certain number of syllables; transform words by adding sound, rearranging sound, changing sound; make graphic schemes of proposals.

At the initial stages of work, pronunciation occurs, which is gradually reduced. All subsequent work takes place in the mental plane, according to the idea.

When eliminating agrammatic dysgraphia and dyslexia, the task is to form morphological and syntactic generalizations in the child, ideas about the structure of the sentence.

Work begins on refining the structure of proposals. First, simple two-part sentences are taken, consisting of a noun and a verb in the third person of the present tense (The boy is walking). Then the sentences are supplemented with a direct addition (Mom washes the frame. Daughter writes a letter to dad). It is useful to add words denoting a sign of an object to sentences.

When constructing a proposal, it is necessary to rely on graphic diagrams. First, instead of a sentence, the child draws up a graphic diagram, and then writes it under the sentence.

Additionally, such types of tasks as answering a question, making sentences orally and in writing are used.

The function of inflection is formed, i.e. the change of nouns by cases, numbers, gender is explained to the child; agreement of nouns with adjectives and verbs, etc. This includes written and oral work.

The same work is carried out in the elimination of semantic dyslexia, which is due to the underdevelopment of the grammatical structure of speech. Semantic dyslexia is manifested in an inaccurate understanding of the sentences read. If semantic dyslexia manifests itself at the word level during syllabic reading, then it is necessary to develop sound-syllabic synthesis. You can use the following exercises:

♦ name a word pronounced separately by sounds;

♦ name the word, pronounced in syllables together;

♦ to form a word from the syllables given in disorder.

At the same time, you need to carry out exercises for reading comprehension: read the word and find a picture for it; choose from the text the sentence corresponding to the picture; read the sentences and be able to answer questions on them.

When eliminating optical dysgraphia and dyslexia, work takes place in several directions. First, it is necessary to develop visual perception, recognition of shape, size, color. First, the work is based on various images of the contour of the object, and then the transition to letter recognition is gradually carried out (for example, find a letter in a number of others, correlate printed and written letters, add or remove elements of letters, etc.).

Children's ideas about size, shape and color are refined and developed. To complete these tasks, you need to have geometric shapes of different colors and shapes. Tasks are selected to clarify any of the features.

With this form of dyslexia and dysgraphia, it is necessary to develop visual memory. To do this, use the game "What has changed?", "What is gone?" and others that require the development of memory.

Work on the formation of spatial representations and the designation of these relations in speech is also considered necessary. First, the child is taught to navigate own body and then in the surrounding space.

To develop orientation in the surrounding space, the child first determines the place of objects relative to himself, then relative to objects located on the side, then the spatial relationships between 2-3 objects or their images are determined. Then the speech therapist offers the child instructions on how to place the object in space. The child must follow this instruction, and then say how the objects are located relative to each other and relative to him.

Gradually, the transition to the spatial arrangement of letters and numbers is carried out. Sample tasks:

♦ draw a circle, below - a dot, and on the left - a square;

♦ write letters to the right or left of the dash, etc.

At the same time, work is being carried out to develop a visual analysis of letters and images, to decompose letters into separate elements, to identify similarities and differences between letters and their elements.

When eliminating optical dyslexia and dysgraphia, a great place is occupied by work on the differentiation of optical images of letters that are mixed. For better memorization of images, these letters are correlated with the image of any objects or animals (for example: O - donut, F - beetle, F - eagle owl). Techniques for constructing letters from their elements, various riddles about letters are used.

First, children learn to distinguish letters in isolation, then - in syllables, words, sentences and texts.

These types of work involve as many different analyzers as possible.

8. Stuttering is a violation of the tempo-rhythmic organization of speech, which is due to the convulsive state of the muscles of the speech apparatus. Allocate predisposing and producing causes leading to stuttering. Predisposing reasons may be:

♦ neuropathic burden of parents;

♦ neuropathic features of a stuttering child;

♦ constitutional predisposition of the child;

♦ hereditary burden plus adverse environmental effects, which include physical weakness of children, accelerated development of speech, insufficiency of positive emotions and development of motor skills, a sense of rhythm;

♦ brain damage in fetal development or in the postnatal period of development due to infectious diseases.

The group of producing causes consists of numerous anatomical and physiological causes: injuries, concussions, organic brain disorders, the consequences of childhood diseases, diseases of the nose, pharynx and larynx, etc.; mental and social causes: one-time or short-term trauma, most often fright or fear, improper upbringing in the family as a long-term psychological trauma, acute psychological trauma, incorrect formation of speech in childhood, excessive speech overload, age mismatch with the requirements, polyglossia (simultaneous mastery of several languages ), imitation of stutterers, retraining of left-handedness.

There are two groups of symptoms in stuttering. Physiological symptoms include speech convulsions, disorders of the nervous system, speech and general motor skills. Psychological symptoms include speech stutters and various disorders of expressive speech; the child fixes attention on his defect, logophobia, various speech tricks can develop.

The main symptom of stuttering is speech spasms. They are tonic - short jerky or prolonged muscle contraction - tone (n-finger); clonic - rhythmic repetition of the same convulsive muscle movements - clonus (pa-pa-finger). Depending on where the convulsions predominate, they can be respiratory, vocal and articulatory.

When stuttering, three forms of respiratory failure are noted: convulsive exhalation, convulsive inhalation, convulsive inhalation and exhalation, sometimes with a break in the word.

Convulsions in the speech apparatus are also different, they can be closing, opening, vocal. In the articulatory apparatus, convulsions can be labial, lingual, convulsions of the soft palate.

Stuttering is characterized by disorders of general and speech motility, manifested in a variety of tics, violent movements and speech tricks.

When stuttering, children can be divided into 3 groups based on the degree of fixation on their defect.

1. Zero degree of painful fixation: children do not experience discomfort from the consciousness of their defect or do not notice it at all. They are not shy, touchy, and do not try to correct their speech.

2. Moderate degree of painful fixation. Older children are aware of their defect, are shy, hide it, avoid communication.

3. Pronounced degree of painful fixation. In children, most often adolescents, there are constant worries about the defect, there is a feeling of inferiority. They have a fear of communication and care in a painful state.

There are three degrees of stuttering: mild, when stuttering occurs only in an excited state or when trying to speak quickly, it is overcome quickly; medium, in which in a calm and familiar environment they stutter a little and speak easily, and in emotional situations a strong stutter is manifested; severe degree, when they stutter constantly, throughout the speech.

Stuttering can be permanent; undulating, i.e. sometimes intensify, sometimes weaken, but not completely disappear, and recurrent - it can disappear, and then reappear.

Examination of children is carried out in a complex, together with a psychologist, a neuropathologist, if necessary, specialists of various medical profiles are involved.

Treatment is also complex and includes drug treatment, physiotherapy and psychotherapeutic effects.

Drug treatment aims to normalize the activity of the nervous system, eliminate convulsions and improve the body as a whole.

Psychotherapeutic influence is carried out directly and indirectly. Direct influence implies the impact of the word in the form of clarification, persuasion and training. Indirect impact is the impact through the collective, the world, nature, mode, etc. All types of psychotherapy are aimed at eradicating the fear of speech and situations in stutterers, the feeling of inferiority and fixation on their defect.

Speech therapy work is the pedagogical part of an integrated approach and includes a system of various speech therapy classes, work with educators and parents. This work can also take place with direct and indirect impact. Direct impact is carried out during speech therapy classes, individual or group. Indirect influence involves a system of speech therapy for all regime moments in a child's life and the attitude of his environment towards him. Particular importance is attached in this work to the speech mode of the child.

Speech therapy classes are conducted sequentially, in stages, taking into account the degree and type of stuttering, personal and psychological characteristics of the child, based on the activity and consciousness of the child. Are used various methods training, including visual and technical aids.

An important section of this work is the use of speech therapy rhythms, which is a complex of musical and motor exercises for speech therapy correction.

When organizing all types of work, it is important to take into account the age of the child and know that for preschoolers the main place is occupied by gaming and educational activities, to a lesser extent - drug treatment; in adolescents and adults, on the contrary, more importance is attached to medical influence and psychotherapy, and less importance is attached to pedagogical methods.

Speech therapy classes use technical and visual teaching aids. The visual ones include textbooks, board games, filmstrips, records, etc. Special technical means include devices that help in working with stuttering children: for example, the Derazhnya proofreader, the Echo apparatus, and tape recorders.

The Derazhnee apparatus works on the muting effect. Noises of different strengths are fed through special tubes, ending with olives immediately into the ear canal, and drown out one's own speech. This makes it easier to carry out various auditory exercises, because. hearing control is turned off. Gradually, the force of muffling decreases, and children learn to speak without the device.

This type of correction is not shown to everyone, because. some react painfully to extraneous noises.

In speech therapy work, tape recordings are widely used. First, the stutterer listens to samples of correct speech on a tape recorder, then his own speech is recorded. After that, the child, together with a speech therapist, listens to the recording and analyzes it. Sometimes the performances of artists are listened to, and the child imitates them in his performance. Classes with a tape recorder are usually carried out in cases where the child has a fixation on his defect and awareness of his incorrect speech.

All methods of speech therapy work with stutterers are divided depending on age: work with preschoolers, work with schoolchildren, adolescents and adults.