Bronze or Iron Age. What does "Iron Age" mean?

The abundance of secrets is hidden in world history, and until now, researchers do not give up hope to discover something new in the known facts. The moments seem exciting and unusual when you realize that once upon a time dinosaurs lived on the same lands that we now walk on, knights fought, set up camps for the production of tools and manufacturing technology. In accordance with these principles, the concepts of "Stone Age", "Bronze Age", "Iron Age" appeared. Each of these periodizations has become a step in the development of mankind, the next round of evolution and knowledge of human capabilities. Naturally, there were no absolutely passive moments in history. From time immemorial to today there is a regular replenishment of knowledge and the development of new ways to obtain useful materials.

World history and the first methods of dating time periods

The natural sciences have become a tool for dating time spans. In particular, one can cite the radiocarbon method, geological dating, and dendrochronology. The rapid development of ancient man made it possible to improve existing technologies. Approximately 5 thousand years ago, when the written period began, other prerequisites for dating arose, which were based on the time of existence of various states and civilizations. It is tentatively believed that the period of separation of man from the animal world began about two million years ago, until the fall of the Western Roman Empire, which happened in 476 AD, there was a period of Antiquity. Before the Renaissance, there were the Middle Ages. Until the end of the First World War, the period of New History lasted, and now the time of the Newest has come. Historians of different times put their "anchors" of reference, for example, Herodotus paid special attention to the struggle of Asia with Europe. Scientists of a later period considered the establishment of the Roman Republic as the main event in the development of civilization. Many historians agree in their assumption that for the Iron Age, culture and art were not of great importance, since the tools of war and labor came to the fore.

Metal era background

In primitive history, the Stone Age is distinguished, including the Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic. Each of the periods is marked by the development of man and his innovations in stone processing. At first, the hand ax was the most widely used among the tools. Later, tools appeared from the elements of the stone, and not the whole nodule. During this period, the development of fire, the creation of the first clothes from skins, the first religious cults and housing arrangements took place. During the period of a semi-nomadic lifestyle of a person and hunting for large animals, more advanced weapons were required. A further round of development of stone processing technologies occurred at the turn of the millennium and the end of the Stone Age, when agriculture and cattle breeding spread, and ceramic production appeared. In the era of metal, copper and its processing technologies were mastered. The beginning of the Iron Age laid the foundation for work for the future. The study of the properties of metals consistently led to the discovery of bronze and its spread. The Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages are a single harmonious process of human development based on mass movements of peoples.

Era Length Evidence

The distribution of iron belongs to the primitive and early class history of mankind. Trends in metallurgy and the production of tools become characteristic features of the period. Even in the ancient world, an idea was formed about the classification of centuries according to the material. The early Iron Age was studied and continues to be studied by scientists in various fields. In Western Europe, voluminous works were published
Görnes, Montelius, Tischler, Reinecke, Kostshevsky, etc. In Eastern Europe, Gorodtsov, Spitsyn, Gauthier, Tretyakov, Smirnov, Artamonov, Grakov published the corresponding textbooks, monographs, and maps. Often considered the distribution of iron feature tribes that lived outside civilizations. In fact, all countries at one time survived the Iron Age. The Bronze Age was only a prerequisite for this. It has not occupied such a vast amount of time in history. Chronologically, the Iron Age spans from the 9th to the 7th century BC. At this time, many tribes of Europe and Asia received an impetus to the development of their own iron metallurgy. Since this metal remains the most important material of production, modernity is also part of this century.

period culture

The development of the production and distribution of iron quite logically led to the modernization of culture and all social life. There were economic prerequisites for working relationships and the collapse of the tribal way of life. Ancient history marks the accumulation of values, the growth of wealth inequality and the mutually beneficial exchange of parties. Fortifications spread widely, the formation of a class society and state began. More funds became the private property of a select minority, slavery arose and the stratification of society progressed.

How did the age of metal manifest itself in the USSR?

At the end of the second millennium BC, iron appeared on the territory of the Union. Among the most ancient places of development, one can note Western Georgia and Transcaucasia. Monuments of the early Iron Age have been preserved in the southern European part of the USSR. But metallurgy gained mass fame here in the first millennium BC, which is confirmed by a number of archaeological artifacts made of bronze in Transcaucasia, cultural relics of the North Caucasus and the Black Sea region, etc. During excavations of Scythian settlements, priceless monuments of the early Iron Age were discovered. The finds were made at the Kamenskoye settlement near Nikopol.

History of materials in Kazakhstan

Historically, the Iron Age is divided into two periods. This is the early, which lasted from the 8th to the 3rd century BC, and the late, which lasted from the 3rd century BC to the 6th century AD. Each country has a period of iron distribution in its history, but the features of this process are highly dependent on the region. Thus, the Iron Age on the territory of Kazakhstan was marked by events in three main regions. Cattle breeding and irrigated agriculture are widespread in South Kazakhstan. Climatic conditions did not consider farming. And Northern, Eastern and Central Kazakhstan was inhabited by people adapted to the harsh winter. These three regions, radically different in living conditions, became the basis for the creation of three Kazakh zhuzes. Southern Kazakhstan became the place of formation of the Senior Zhuz. The lands of Northern, Eastern and Central Kazakhstan have become a haven. Western Kazakhstan is represented by the Younger Zhuz.

Iron Age in Central Kazakhstan

Endless steppes Central Asia have long been a place of residence for nomads. Here, the ancient history is represented by burial mounds, which are priceless monuments of the Iron Age. Especially often in the region there were mounds with paintings or "whiskers", which, according to scientists, perform the functions of a lighthouse and a compass in the steppe. The attention of historians is attracted by the Tasmolin culture, named after the area in the Pavlodar region, where the first excavations of a man and a horse were recorded in a large and small mound. Archaeologists of Kazakhstan consider the burial mounds of the Tasmolin culture to be the most common monuments of the Early Iron Age.

Features of the culture of Northern Kazakhstan

This region is distinguished by the presence of a large cattle. locals from farming they switched to settled, and the Tasmolin culture is also revered in this region. Birlik, Alypkash, Bekteniz mounds and three settlements: Karlyga, Borki and Kenotkel attract the attention of researchers of early Iron Age monuments. On the right bank of the Esil River, a fortification of the early Iron Age has been preserved. The art of melting and processing of non-ferrous metals was developed here. Produced metal products were transported to Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Kazakhstan was several centuries ahead of its neighbors in the development of ancient metallurgy and therefore became a communicator between the metallurgical centers of its country, Siberia and Eastern Europe.

"Guarding the Gold"

The majestic mounds of East Kazakhstan mainly accumulated in the Shilikty valley. There are more than fifty of them here. In 1960, a study was made of the largest of the barrows, which is called the Golden. This peculiar monument to the Iron Age was erected in the 8th-9th century BC. The Zaisan region of East Kazakhstan allows you to explore more than two hundred largest mounds, of which 50 are called Tsar's and may contain gold. In the Shilikty valley there is the oldest royal burial in Kazakhstan, dating back to the 8th century BC, which was discovered by Professor Toleubaev. Among archaeologists, this discovery made a noise, just like the third "golden man" of Kazakhstan. The buried person was wearing clothes decorated with 4325 golden figurative plates. The most interesting find is a pentagonal star with lapis lazuli rays. Such an object symbolizes power and greatness. This became another proof that Shilikty, Besshatyr, Issyk, Berel, Boraldai are sacred places for performing ritual rites, sacrifices and prayers.

Early Iron Age in the culture of nomads

documentary evidence of ancient culture Not much has been preserved in Kazakhstan. Mostly information is obtained from and excavations. Much has been said about the nomads regarding song and dance art. Separately, it is worth noting the skill in the manufacture of ceramic vessels and painting on silver bowls. The spread of iron in everyday life and production was the impetus for the improvement of a unique heating system: a chimney, which was laid horizontally along the wall, evenly warmed the whole house. Nomads invented many things that are familiar today, both for domestic use and for use in war time. They came up with trousers, stirrups, a yurt and a curved saber. Metal armor was developed to protect horses. The protection of the warrior himself was provided by iron armor.

Achievements and discoveries of the period

The Iron Age was third in line behind the Stone and Bronze Ages. But by value, no doubt, it is considered the first. Until modern times, iron has remained the material basis of all inventions of mankind. All important discoveries in the field of production are connected with its application. This metal has a higher melting point than copper. In its pure form, natural iron does not exist, and it is very difficult to carry out the process of smelting from ore because of its infusibility. This metal caused global changes in the life of the steppe tribes. Compared with previous archaeological epochs, the Iron Age is the shortest, but the most productive. Initially, mankind recognized meteoric iron. Some original products and decorations from it were found in Egypt, Mesopotamia and Asia Minor. Chronologically, these relics can be attributed to the first half of the third millennium BC. In the second millennium BC, a technology for producing iron from ore was developed, but for quite a long time this metal was considered rare and expensive.

Palestine, Syria, Asia Minor, Transcaucasia and India began to engage in a wide production of weapons and tools from iron. The spread of this metal, as well as steel, provoked a technical revolution that expands the power of man over nature. Now the clearing of large forest areas for crops has been simplified. Modernization of labor tools and improvement of land cultivation were carried out promptly. Accordingly, new crafts were quickly learned, especially blacksmithing and weapons. Shoemakers, who received more advanced tools, did not stand aside. Stonemasons and miners began to work more efficiently.

Summarizing the results of the Iron Age, it can be noted that by the beginning of our era, all the main varieties of hand tools were already in use (with the exception of screws and hinged scissors). Thanks to the use of iron in production, the construction of roads became much simpler, military equipment advanced a step forward, and a metal coin entered circulation. The Iron Age accelerated and provoked the collapse of the primitive communal system, as well as the formation of a class society and statehood. Many communities during this period adhered to the so-called

Possible ways of development

It is worth noting that it existed in small quantities even in Egypt, but the spread of the metal became possible with the start of ore smelting. Initially, iron was smelted only when such a need arose. So, fragments of metal inclusions were found in the monuments of Syria and Iraq, which were erected no later than 2700 BC. But after the 11th century BC, the blacksmiths of Eastern Anatolia learned the science of systematically making objects from iron. The secrets and subtleties of the new science were kept secret and passed down from generation to generation. The first historical finds confirming the widespread use of metal for the manufacture of tools were recorded in Israel, namely in Gerar near Gaza. A huge number of hoes, sickles and coulters made of iron dating back to the period after 1200 BC have been found here. Smelting furnaces were also found at the excavation sites.

Special metal processing technologies belong to the masters of Western Asia, from whom they were borrowed by the masters of Greece, Italy and the rest of Europe. The British technological revolution can be attributed to the period after 700 BC, and there it began and developed very smoothly. Egypt and North Africa showed interest in mastering the metal around the same time with the further transfer of skill to the south side. Chinese craftsmen almost completely abandoned bronze, preferring turned iron. European colonists brought their knowledge of metalworking technology to Australia and the New World. After the invention of blower bellows, iron casting became widespread on a massive scale. Cast iron became an indispensable material for creating all kinds of household utensils and military equipment, which was a productive impetus for the development of metallurgy.

iron age- the third major archaeological period after the Stone and Bronze Ages. Its first stage is called the Early Iron Age.

This was the name of the most important era in the history of mankind, the beginning of which coincides with the beginning of the widespread use of this metal. From the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. up to the present time, iron is the basis of the material culture of all mankind. All important discoveries in the field of production technology of this time are associated with this metal.

Iron is a special metal. It has a higher melting point than copper. In its pure form, iron does not exist in nature, and the process of smelting it from ore is very difficult because of its infusibility.

The beginning of the early Iron Age in Kazakhstan falls on the VIII-VII centuries. BC.

With the onset of the early Iron Age, truly global changes in the life of the steppe ethnic groups take place in the expanses of Eurasia. This era coincided with the transition of pastoral, pastoral and agricultural tribes living in the steppes from Mongolia in the east to the Danube in the west, to mobile forms of pastoralism, which are based on a strict system of seasonal regulation of pastures and water sources. These special forms of running a steppe pastoral economy in the Eurocentric science of modern and recent times are called "nomadic", "semi-nomadic economy".

The transition to new forms of cattle breeding was the result of the development of the economy of the tribes of the Bronze Age, who lived in the special conditions of the steppe ecosystems. The foundations of this form of management were already formed during the final Bronze Age, in the Begazy-Dandybaev era. According to experts, the transition to mobile forms of cattle breeding was facilitated not only by the internal development of the steppe population, but also by the drying up of the steppes due to gradual climate change. For that era, this transition was a progressive phenomenon, it made it possible to maximize the use of the natural resources of the steppes.

With the beginning of the Early Iron Age, large tribal associations were formed in the steppes of Eurasia. The clash of their interests, specific relationships with the surrounding settled agricultural peoples give rise to a certain militarization of their societies. Peoples appear on the historical arena, which the Greeks and Persians will call "Scythians", "Saks", "Sauromatians". Thanks to ethnic kinship, the same level of development and way of life, close ties, close cultures are created. In the Scythian-Saka era, special types of weapons, horse equipment appeared in the material culture of the tribes, a kind of art became widespread, which was called the "Scythian-Saka animal style." Sometimes these three aspects of the material culture of the steppe population of the early Iron Age are called the "Scythian triad".

The steppe population of the early Iron Age is developing rapidly, metallurgy and trade are flourishing. Representatives of the rich tribal elite appear: "kings", the military nobility. Large “royal” burial mounds, complex tombs are spreading, where items of significant value are buried with the deceased representatives of the nobility, including jewelry, weapons, etc.

AT modern science opinions are expressed about the achievement of the society of the steppe population of the early Iron Age at the early state level. Regarding the level of development of the steppe peoples of the 1st millennium BC. e. Siberian scientists proposed the term "Steppe civilization".

On the territory of Central Kazakhstan, this era is represented by monuments Tasmolin archaeological culture. The famous Kazakh archaeologist M.K. Kadyrbaev determined its chronological framework by the 7th-3rd centuries BC, distinguishing two stages in its development. characteristic type monuments of Tasmolin culture are the so-called barrows with a mustache". These are complex burial and memorial complexes built of stone. They usually consist of three parts: a large mound, a small mound and stone paths in the form of semi-arcs (“whiskers”), 60 to 200 m long. These “whiskers” adjoin the mounds and always face east. Under a large mound in a soil pit, about two meters deep, there is a human burial. In a small mound, as a rule, there are the remains of horses - skeletons, or parts of them, clay vessels. And sometimes only traces of fire in the form of coals and burnt soil.

Why were mounds with "moustaches" built? There is a well-known hypothesis of the astronomical purpose of mounds with "whiskers". According to the biologist and archeology enthusiast P.I. Marikovsky, mounds with "whiskers" were ancient observatories and served to monitor starry sky, sun and moon, to determine the seasons. It is possible that complexes with "whiskers" could be used for astronomical determinations, but this was hardly the main thing in their construction. Sometimes such burial mounds are located at a distance of several kilometers from each other, on some burial grounds there are two burial mounds with "whiskers". Why build two "observatories" when one is enough to observe the sky? The opinion of M.K. Kadyrbaev, who believed that complexes with stone "whiskers" were structures for funeral and ritual purposes and reflected the ideas of the solar cult that existed among the Tasmolin tribes.

To date, the main area of ​​mounds with "whiskers" has been conditionally determined. According to temporary data, over 300 monuments have been discovered on the territory of Kazakhstan. These data are updated annually. The main range covers Central and Northern Kazakhstan (Kokshetau), as well as the steppe spaces of the western part (Abyraly, Shyngystau, Shubartau) of the modern East Kazakhstan region. More than 80% of the total number of mounds with "whiskers" of Kazakhstan is concentrated here.

The geography of this main mass of mounds with "whiskers" is associated with the area of ​​the Tasmolin culture.

Generally, tasmolin culture studied on the basis of burial mound materials. The data that formed the basis of the characteristics of this culture form three well-known blocks: a) weapons; b) horse harness; c) cult items, jewelry and household items. In the Tasmolin society there were excellent masters of bronze casting. It is from bronze that all the leading categories of material culture are made. Iron products (knives, cheek-pieces, plaques) appear already at the first stage (7th-6th centuries BC). Tasmolin arrowheads of the early stage - two-pronged socketed and three-pronged with a relatively long petiole - genetically date back to the tips of the Begazy-Dandybaev culture. Daggers with bar-shaped, mushroom-shaped pommel and figured hilt are characteristic; combat type-setting belts. The horse bridle includes bits with stirrup-shaped ends, bronze or horn cheek-pieces with three holes. Among the objects of worship there are disk-shaped bronze mirrors with a loop handle on the back, stone altars-altars, flat or on 4, 6 low legs. Applied arts are typical of golden figurines of tigers, bronze sculptures of tauteke, figures of a wild boar and an elk engraved on a bronze mirror, horn buckles in the form of coiled wild boars. The handle of one massive mirror with a figured border is molded in the shape of a wild boar. By the end of the early stage, multi-figured compositions appeared in the style of the so-called "zoological puzzle". One of them - a plot on a horn buckle - finds a surprising analogy in the Aldybel monuments of Tuva. Jewelry items decorated with granulation and inlay techniques have been found. At the second stage, changes in material culture occur: the standard form of bronze three-blade socketed arrowheads comes, mirrors are reduced, iron is used much more widely, etc. The third, Korgantas stage, is the period of completion of the Tasmolin culture. Along with the preservation of some old elements of culture (arrowheads, bridle plaques, etc.), a number of innovations appear, especially in the funeral rite (intra-grave head altars).

Tasmolin culture of the early Iron Age existed throughout the territory of the Kazakh uplands. The studied monuments define the western border of culture in the region of the Ulytau mountains, the southern - along the Northern Betpakdala and Northern Balkhash, the eastern - along the Shiderta and Bayanaul steppes and further south to Shubartau. It is within these limits that the open and famous burial mounds of the Tasmolin culture are located. There are adjacent territories where the discovery of monuments of this culture is expected in the future (steppe spaces up to the Shyngystau ridge).

On this large territory, the tribes of the early Iron Age settled unevenly. The main part of the population was concentrated in the mountain-steppe regions.

In the early Iron Age, when the Tasmolin tribes lived, a new progressive type of management was widespread - nomadic cattle breeding. For almost three millennia, it has become the main occupation of the inhabitants of the steppes. The nomads mastered the entire territory of the steppes, created powerful nomadic associations, which became the prototypes of future nomadic empires.

Archaeological era from which the use of objects made from iron ore begins. The earliest iron-making furnaces dating back to the 1st floor. II millennium BC found in western Georgia. In Eastern Europe and the Eurasian steppe and forest-steppe, the beginning of the era coincides with the time of the formation of early nomadic formations of the Scythian and Saka types (approximately VIII-VII centuries BC). In Africa, it began immediately after the Stone Age (there is no Bronze Age). In America, the beginning of the Iron Age is associated with European colonization. In Asia and Europe it began, almost simultaneously. Often, only the first stage of the Iron Age is called the early Iron Age, the boundary of which is the final stages of the era of the Great Migration of Peoples (IV-VI centuries AD). In general, the Iron Age includes the entire Middle Ages, and based on the definition, this era continues to this day.

The discovery of iron and the invention of the metallurgical process were very complex. While copper and tin are found in nature in pure form, iron is found only in chemical compounds, mainly with oxygen, as well as with other elements. No matter how long you keep iron ore in the fire, it will not melt, and this way of "accidental" discovery, possible for copper, tin and some other metals, is excluded for iron. Brown loose stone, which is iron ore, was not suitable for making tools by upholstering. Finally, even reduced iron melts at a very high temperature - more than 1500 degrees. All this is an almost insurmountable obstacle to a more or less satisfactory hypothesis of the history of the discovery of iron.

There is no doubt that the discovery of iron was prepared by several thousand years of development of copper metallurgy. Especially important was the invention of bellows for blowing air into melting furnaces. Such furs were used in non-ferrous metallurgy, increasing the flow of oxygen into the hearth, which not only raised the temperature in it, but also created conditions for a successful metal reduction chemical reaction. A metallurgical furnace, even a primitive one, is a kind of chemical retort in which not so much physical as chemical processes take place. Such a furnace was made of stone and covered with clay (or it was made from clay alone) on a massive clay or stone base. The wall thickness of the furnace reached 20 cm. The height of the furnace shaft was about 1 m. Its diameter was the same. There was a hole in the front wall of the furnace at the bottom level, through which the coal loaded into the mine was set on fire, and through it the cracker was taken out. Archaeologists use the old Russian name for a furnace for "cooking" iron - "domnitsa". The process itself is called cheese-making. This term emphasizes the importance of blowing air into a blast furnace filled with iron ore and coal.

At cheese process more than half of the iron was lost in the slag, which at the end of the Middle Ages led to the abandonment of this method. However, for almost three thousand years this method was the only way to obtain iron.

Unlike bronze objects, iron objects could not be made by casting, they were forged. By the time iron metallurgy was discovered, the forging process had a thousand-year history. Forged on a metal stand - an anvil. A piece of iron was first heated in a forge, and then the blacksmith, holding it with tongs on an anvil, hit the place with a small hammer-handbrake, where his assistant would then strike, hitting the iron with a heavy hammer-sledgehammer.

Iron was first mentioned in the correspondence of the Egyptian pharaoh with the Hittite king, preserved in the archives of the 14th century. BC e. in Amarna (Egypt). From this time, small iron products have come down to us in Mesopotamia, Egypt and the Aegean world.

For some time, iron was a very expensive material used to make jewelry and ceremonial weapons. In particular, a gold bracelet with iron inlay and a whole series of iron items were found in the tomb of Pharaoh Tutankhamun. Iron inlays are also known elsewhere.

On the territory of the USSR, iron first appeared in Transcaucasia.

Iron things began to quickly replace bronze ones, since iron, unlike copper and tin, is found almost everywhere. Iron ores occur both in mountainous regions and in swamps, not only deep underground, but also on its surface. At present, swamp ore is not of industrial interest, but in ancient times it had importance. Thus, the countries that occupied a monopoly position in the production of bronze lost their monopoly on the production of metal. Countries that are poor copper ores, with the discovery of iron, they quickly caught up with the countries that were advanced in the Bronze Age.

Scythians

Scythians is an exoethnonym of Greek origin, applied to a group of peoples who lived in Eastern Europe, Central Asia and Siberia in the era of antiquity. The ancient Greeks called the country where the Scythians lived Scythia.

In our time, the Scythians in the narrow sense are usually understood as Iranian-speaking nomads who in the past occupied the territories of Ukraine, Moldova, South Russia, Kazakhstan and parts of Siberia. This does not exclude a different ethnicity of some of the tribes, which the ancient authors also called the Scythians.

Information about the Scythians comes mainly from the writings of ancient authors (especially the "History" of Herodotus) and archaeological excavations in the lands from the lower reaches of the Danube to Siberia and Altai. The Scytho-Sarmatian language, as well as the Alanian language derived from it, were part of the northeastern branch of the Iranian languages ​​and was probably the ancestor of the modern Ossetian language, which is indicated by hundreds of Scythian personal names, names of tribes, rivers, preserved in Greek records.

Later, starting from the era of the Great Migration of Peoples, the word "Scythians" was used in Greek (Byzantine) sources to name all peoples of completely different origin who inhabited the Eurasian steppes and the northern Black Sea region: in the sources of the 3rd-4th centuries AD, "Scythians" are often called and Germanic-speaking Goths, in later Byzantine sources they called Scythians Eastern Slavs- Russia, the Turkic-speaking Khazars and Pechenegs, as well as the Alans, related to the most ancient Iranian-speaking Scythians.

Emergence. The supporters of the Kurgan hypothesis are actively studying the underlying basis of the early Indo-European, including the Scythian, culture. The formation of a relatively generally recognized Scythian culture, archaeologists date back to the 7th century BC. e. (Arzhan burial mounds). There are two main approaches to the interpretation of its occurrence. According to one, based on the so-called "third story" of Herodotus, the Scythians came from the east, expelling what can be interpreted archaeologically as coming from the lower reaches of the Syr Darya, from Tuva or some other region of Central Asia (see Pazyryk culture).

Another approach, which can also be based on the legends recorded by Herodotus, suggests that the Scythians by that time lived in the territory of the Northern Black Sea region for at least several centuries, standing out from the environment of the successors of the Srubna culture.

Maria Gimbutas and scientists of her circle attribute the appearance of the ancestors of the Scythians (horse domestication cultures) to 5-4 thousand BC. e. According to other versions, these ancestors are associated with other cultures. They also appear to be the descendants of the bearers of the Srubnaya culture of the Bronze Age, who advanced from the 14th century. BC e. from the Volga region to the west. Others believe that the main core of the Scythians came thousands of years ago from Central Asia or Siberia and mixed with the population of the Northern Black Sea region (including the territory of Ukraine). The ideas of Marija Gimbutas extend in the direction of further research into the origins of the origin of the Scythians.

Grain farming was of considerable importance. The Scythians produced grain for export, in particular to the Greek cities, and through them - to the Greek metropolis. Grain production required the use of slave labor. The bones of murdered slaves often accompany the burials of Scythian slave owners. The custom of killing people at the burial of masters is known in all countries and is characteristic of the era of the emergence of the slave economy. There are known cases of blinding slaves, which is not consistent with the assumption of patriarchal slavery among the Scythians. Agricultural tools are found in Scythian settlements, in particular sickles, but arable tools are extremely rare, probably all of them were wooden and did not have iron parts. The fact that the agriculture of the Scythians was arable is judged not so much by the finds of these tools, but by the amount of grain produced by the Scythians, which would be many times less if the land was cultivated with a hoe.

Fortified settlements appear relatively late, at the turn of the 5th and 4th centuries. BC e., when the Scythians received sufficient development of crafts and trade.

According to Herodotus, the royal Scythians were dominant - the easternmost of the Scythian tribes, bordering the Sauromatians along the Don, also occupied the steppe Crimea. To the west of them lived Scythian nomads, and even to the west, on the left bank of the Dnieper - Scythian farmers. On the right bank of the Dnieper, in the basin of the Southern Bug, near the city of Olbia, the Callipids, or Hellenic-Scythians, lived, to the north of them - the Alazons, and even to the north - the Scythians-plowmen, and Herodotus points to agriculture as differences from the Scythians the last three tribes and specifies that if the Kallipids and Alazons grow and eat bread, then the Scythian plowmen grow bread for sale.

The Scythians already fully owned the production of ferrous metal. Other types of production are also presented: bone carving, pottery, weaving. But so far only metallurgy has reached the level of craft.

There are two lines of fortifications on the Kamensky settlement: external and internal. Inner part archaeologists call the acropolis by analogy with the corresponding division of Greek cities. On the acropolis traced the remains of stone dwellings of the Scythian nobility. Ordinary dwellings were mainly ground houses. Their walls sometimes consisted of pillars, the bases of which were dug into specially dug grooves along the contour of the dwelling. There are also semi-dugout dwellings.

The oldest Scythian arrows are flat, often with a spike on the sleeve. They are all socketed, that is, they have a special tube where the arrow shaft is inserted. Classical Scythian arrows are also socketed, they resemble a trihedral pyramid, or three-bladed - the edges of the pyramid seem to have developed into blades. The arrows are made of bronze, which has finally won its place in the production of arrows.

Scythian ceramics was made without the help of a potter's wheel, although the circle was widely used in the Greek colonies neighboring the Scythians. Scythian vessels are flat-bottomed and varied in shape. Scythian bronze cauldrons up to a meter high, which had a long and thin leg and two vertical handles, were widely used.

Scythian art is well known mainly from objects from burials. It is characterized by the depiction of animals in certain poses and with exaggeratedly noticeable paws, eyes, claws, horns, ears, etc. Ungulates (deer, goat) were depicted with bent legs, predators of cat breeds curled up into a ring. In Scythian art, strong or fast and sensitive animals are represented, which corresponds to the desire of the Scythian to overtake, to strike, to be always ready. It is noted that some images are associated with certain Scythian deities. The figures of these animals, as it were, protected their owner from trouble. But the style was not only sacred, but also decorative. The claws, tails and shoulder blades of predators were often shaped like the head of a bird of prey; sometimes full images of animals were placed on these places. This artistic style was called the animal style in archeology. In the early times in the Trans-Volga region, the animal ornament was evenly distributed between representatives of the nobility and privates. In IV-III centuries. BC e. the animal style is degenerating, and objects with similar ornaments are presented mainly in the graves. Scythian burials are the most famous and best studied. The Scythians buried the dead in pits or in catacombs, under mounds. lol know. The famous Scythian mounds are located in the area of ​​the Dnieper rapids. In the royal burial mounds of the Scythians, gold vessels, artistic items made of gold, and expensive weapons are found. Thus, a new phenomenon is observed in the Scythian burial mounds - a strong property stratification. There are mounds small and huge, some burials without things, others - with a huge amount of gold.

The era of human history, distinguished on the basis of archeological data and characterized by the leading role of iron products and its derivatives.

How right-vi-lo, J. v. came-ho-dil to replace the armor-zo-in-mu-ve-ku. Na-cha-lo Zh. v. in different regions from-but-sit-sya to different-time-me-no, moreover, yes-ti-ditch-ki of this pro-cess near-approx zi-tel-ny. For-ka-for-te-lem of the beginning of Zh. c. yav-la-et-sya regular use of ore-no-go-zhe-le-za for from-go-to-le-of tools and weapons, dis-pro-stra -non-black metal-lur-gy and kuz-nech-no-go de la; mass-co-use of the iron-iron-ny from de-li oz-on-cha-et a special stage of development already within the framework of Zh. v., in not -something-ryh cul-tu-rah from de-lyon-ny from na-cha-la Zh.v. not-how-ki-mi-hundred-le-tiya-mi. The end of Zh. not-rarely count on-stu-p-le-tion of tech-no-logic. epoch, associated with prom. pe-re-in-ro-tom, or pro-dle-va-yut it to the present.

Shi-ro-something out-dre-zhe-le-for ob-slo-vi-lo the possibility of pro-from-va mass series of tools of labor-yes, which from- ra-zi-elk on the improvement and further races-pro-country of the earth-le-de-lia (especially ben-but in the forest regions, on heavy for about-ra-bot-ki soil-wah, etc.), progress in construction. de-le, re-myo-slah (in part-st-no-sti, po-vy-li-pi-ly, na-pil-ni-ki, shar-nir-nye in-st-ru-men-you etc.), to-by-che metal-loving and other raw materials, from-go-to-le-nii wheel-no-go transport, etc. Raz-vi- tie pro-from-water-st-va and trans-port-that led to the race-shi-re-niyu trade-whether, in-yav-le-niyu mo-no-you. Use-pol-zo-va-nie mas-so-in-go-lez-no-go voo-ru-zhe-niya su-shche-st-ven-but said-for-moose on pro-gres-se in military de le. In many societies, all this is a way of diversifying the first-in-life-from-but-she-ni, arising-nick- but-ve-niyu go-su-dar-st-ven-no-sti, include-che-niu in the circle of qi-vi-li-za-tsy, the oldest of some of them are many th older J. c. and did they have a level of development, pre-elevating, many others. general-st-va per-rio-yes-lez-no-go-ve-ka.

Raz-whether-cha-yut early and late Zh. c. For many cultural tour, pre-zh-de of all-ev-ro-pey-skih, gra-ni-tsu me-zh-du ni-mi, like right-vi-lo, from-no-syat to the era the crash of an-tich-noy qi-vi-li-za-tion and on-stu-p-le-niya Sred-ne-ve-ko-vya; a series of ar-heo-lo-gov co-from-no-sit fi-nal ran-not-go J. v. with the beginning of the influence of Rome. cul-tu-ry on pl. on-ro-dy Ev-ro-py in the 1st century. BC e. - 1 in. n. e. In addition to that, different regions have their own internal. per-rio-di-za-tion iron-lez-no-go-ve-ka.

Understanding “J. in." use-pol-zu-et-sya pre-zh-de everything for the study of the first-in-everyday-societies. Processes connected with the sta-nov-le-ni-em and the development of the go-su-dar-st-ven-no-sti, for-mi-ro-va -no-eat modern. on-ro-dov, as right-vi-lo, ras-smat-ri-va-yut is not so much within the framework of ar-heo-logich. cultural tour and "centuries", how many in the context of is-to-rii co-from-vet-st-vu-ing states and ethno-owls. Namely, but with them co-from-but-syat-sya pl. ar-heo-logic. cul-tu-ry of the late J. c.

Ras-pro-country-non-black metal-lur-gy and metal-lo-ob-ra-bot-ki. The most ancient center of metal-lur-gyi zhe-le-za was the region of Lesser Asia, East. Middle-di-earth-but-sea, Za-kav-ka-zya (2nd half of the 2nd millennium BC). Swi-de-tel-st-va about shi-ro-com is-pol-zo-va-nii same-le-for-yav-la-yut-sya in texts from ser. 2nd millennium. -right-ke-ko-slave-la, on-gru-women-but-go-le-zom (late 14th - early 13th centuries). Means. the number of iron-lez-nyh from de-ly nay-de-but on ar-heo-logic. pa-myat-ni-kah 14-12 centuries But in the Hittite kingdom, steel from the West in Pa-le-sti-not from the 12th century, in Cyprus from the 10th century. One of the ancient-shih-na-ho-dok met-tal-lur-gi-che-so-gor-na from-no-sit-sya to ru-be-zhu on the 2nd and 1st thous. -le-ta. On the rub-be-same 2 - 1st thousand. on-stu-drank in Me-so-po-ta-miya and Iran; so, during the digging of the palace of Sar-go-on II in Khor-sa-ba-de (4th quarter of the 8th century) about-on-ru-same-but ca. 160 t same-le-za, in the main. in the form of krits (ve-ro-yat-no, tribute from sub-authority ter-ri-to-ry). Possibly, from Iran to the beginning. 1st millennium black metal-lur-giya raced to India (where on-cha-lo shi-ro-ko-go is-pol-zo-va- niya zhe-le-za from-no-syat to the 8th or 7/6th centuries), in the 8th century. - on Wednesday. Asia. In the steppes of Asia, the same-le-zo in-lu-chi-lo shi-ro-some race-pro-country not earlier than 6/5 centuries.

Through the Greek. the city-ro-yes of Lesser Asia iron-lezo-de-la-tel-nye-on-you-ki races-pro-country-ni-lis in con. 2nd millennium to the Aegean Islands and approx. 10th c. to mainland Greece, where from this time on, there are var-nye kri-tsy, iron swords in gre-be-ni-yah. In Zap. and Center. Ev-ro-pe Zh. v. on-stu-drank in the 8th-7th centuries, in the South-West. Ev-ro-pe - in the 7th-6th centuries, in Bri-ta-nii - in the 5-4th centuries, in Scan-di-na-wii - fak-ti-che-ski in ru-be-same er .

All in. Near-black-but-sea-rye, to the North. Kav-ka-ze and in the south-but-ta-ezh-nom Vol-go-Ka-mye per-ri-od per-vich-no-go os-voi-niya same-le-for-ver-shil -Xia in the 9th-8th centuries; on-a-row with things, from-go-tov-len-ny-mi in the me-st-tra-di-tion, here from the West from de-lia, created-dan -nye in the trans-Caucasian-Kaz-s-tra-di-tion became-whether (ce-men-ta-tion). Na-cha-lo so-st-ven-but Zh.v. in the indicated and used-py-tav-shih their influence in the regions of the East. Ev-ro-py from-no-syat to 8-7 centuries. Then su-shche-st-ven-but you-grew-lo-liche-st-in-iron-th-me-ths, we receive them from-go-to-le-of- ha-ti-lis on-you-ka-mi for-mo-voch-noy co-ki (with the help of special press-press-ni-kov and stamps), weld-ki vna-whip and me-to-house pa-ke-ti-ro-va-nia. On Ura-le and in C-bi-ri Zh. v. earlier than everything (by the middle of the 1st millennium BC) on-stepped in the steppe, forest-steppe and mountain-forest regions. In the tay-ge and on the Far East Vos-to-ke and in the 2nd floor. 1st millennium BC e. fak-ti-che-ski continued the Bronze Age, but on-se-le-nie was closely connected with the cul-tu-ra-mi Zh. in. (except for northern tea. part of tai-gi and tun-d-ru).

In China, the development of black metal-lur-gy went separately. Because of you-so-tea-she-th level of bron-zo-li-tei-no-go pro-from-water-st-va J. v. started here not earlier than ser. 1st millennium BC e., although ore-noe-le-zo would-lo from-west-but long before that. Whale. mas-te-ra per-you-mi na-cha-whether tse-le-on-right-len-but pro-from-to-dit chu-gun and, using it, easy-to-float- bone, from-go-to-la-li pl. from de-liya not co-coy, but pour-eat. In Ki-tai, rise-nick-la prak-ti-ka you-ra-bot-ki of co-ko-go-le-za from chu-gu-on the way reduce-the-same-niya so-der -niya corner-le-ro-yes. In Korea Zh. on-step-drank in the 2nd floor. 1st millennium BC e., in Japan - approx. 3-2 centuries, in Ying-do-ki-tai and Ying-do-ne-zii - to ru-be-zhu er or a little later.

In Af-ri-ke Zh. v. earlier than all-go mustache-ta-no-vil-sya in the Middle-di-earth-but-sea (by the 6th century). All R. 1st millennium BC e. he began on the territory of Nu-bii and Su-da-na, in a number of districts of the Zap. Af-ri-ki; in East-precise-noy - on ru-be-same er; in the South - closer to the middle. 1st millennium AD e. In a number of districts of Af-ri-ki, in Amer-ri-ke, Av-st-ra-lea and on the islands of Ti-ho-go, approx. J. c. on-stu-drank with the arrival of the ev-ro-pey-tsev.

The most important cul-tu-ry ran-not-go-lez-no-go-ve-ka for pre-de-la-mi qi-vi-li-za-tsy

Following the st-vie of the shi-ro-koi race-pro-country-nen-no-sti and compare-no-tel-noy-no-no-no-no-ko-sti of the development of iron ores bronze -li-tey-nye centers-try in step-pen-but ut-ra-chi-va-li mo-no-po-lyu on pro-from-in-metal-la. Many earlier regions from the old regions became-whether to-know according to tech-no-logic. and so-qi-al-no-eco-no-mich. level-nu old cultural centers. Co-from-vet-st-ven-but from-me-no-moose paradise-they-ro-va-nie oh-ku-me-ny. If for the era of early-not-go-metal-la, an important cultural-tu-ro-ob-razu-ing fact-rum would be belonging to metal -lur-gi-che-sky province or to the zone of its influence, then in Zh. in the for-mi-ro-va-nii cul-tur-no-is-to-rich. in general, the role of et-no-y-zy-ko-vyh, ho-zyay-st-ven-no-kul-tour-nyh and other connections has been strengthened. Shi-ro-some race-pro-country-non-ef-fek-tiv-no-go vo-ru-same-niya from iron -nyu pl. communities in gra-bi-tel-skie and for-grab-nich. howl-us, co-pro-in-g-give-mas-so-you-mi mi-gra-tion-mi. All this led to the card-di-nal-ny from-me-not-no-pits of et-but-cultural-tour-noy and military-en.-po-li-tich. pa-no-ra-we.

In a number of cases, on the basis of the data of lin-gwis-ti-ki and letters. is-toch-no-kov can-but talk about do-mi-ni-ro-va-nia within the framework of op-re-de-lyon-ny cul-tours-but-is-to- rich. general-no-stey J. in. one or a group of people close in language, sometimes even linking a group of ar-heo-logich. pa-myat-ni-kov with a concrete-ny on-ro-house. One-to-one written sources for many others. re-gio-new are scarce or from-sut-st-vu-yut, yes-le-ko, not for all communities it is possible to get data, I-let-ly- co-from-not-sti them with the lin-gvis-ti-che-class-si-fi-ka-qi-her na-ro-dov. It should be borne in mind that but-si-te-li pl. languages, maybe, yes, whole families of languages, not os-ta-vi-whether direct their from-no-she-nie to the well-known et-but-I-zy-ko-y-you general-no-ties gi-po-te-tich-but.

Southern, Western, Central Europe and the south of the Baltic region. After the collapse of the Cri-to-Mi-Ken-sky qi-vi-li-za-tion, the beginning of the Zh. century. in Ancient Greece coincided with the temporary decline of the "dark ages". Subsequently, shi-ro-something out-dre-nie-le-for-s-s-s-in-va-lo but-in-mu-e-mu-e-mu eco-no-mi-ki and society, with -leading to the for-mi-ro-va-niyu an-tich-noy qi-vi-li-za-tion. On the territory of Italy for na-cha-la Zh. v. you de la ut many ar-heo-lo-gich. cul-tu-ry (not-some-rye of them sfor-mi-ro-va-lis in the bronze ve-ke): on the se-ve-ro-for-pas-de - Go- la-sec-ka, co-from-no-si-muyu with a part of li-gu-ditch; on average those-che-nii river. By - Ter-ra-mar, on the se-ve-ro-vos-to-ke - Es-te, co-post-tav-lyae-muyu with ve-not-that-mi; all in. and center. parts of the Apen-nin-sko-th peninsula - Vil-la-no-va and others, in Kam-pa-niya and Ka-lab-rii - "pit-nyh in-gre-be-ny" , pa-myat-ni-ki Apu-lii is connected with me-sa-na-mi (near-ki il-li-riy-tsam). In Si-qi-lii from west-na kul-tu-ra Pan-ta-li-ka and others, in Sar-di-nii and Kor-si-ke - nu-rag.

On the Pi-re-nei-sky peninsula, su-sche-st-vo-va-li are large centers of pre-chi-non-ferrous metals, which ob-slo-vi-lo long-term pre-ob-la-da-nie from de-lie from bronze (cult-tu-ra Tar-tess, etc.). In the early Zh. here fik-si-ru-yut-sya are different in ha-rak-te-ru and in-ten-siv-no-sti waves of mi-gra-tsy, they appear-la-yut-sya pa -mint-no-ki, from-ra-zhayu-shchy me-st-nye and priv-not-sen-nye-tra-di-tions. On the basis of these traditions, sfor-mi-ro-va-las was the culture of the ple-men of the Iber-ditch. In the greatest step-pe-neither its-ob-ra-zie tra-di-tsy-stored-elk in the pri-at-lan-ti-che-sky regions (“kul -tu-ra go-ro-disch ", etc.).

For the development of a cultural tour of the Middle-di-earth-but-sea-rya, a strong influence of the eye-for-whether fi-ni-ki-sky and Greek. ko-lo-ni-za-tion, the color of the culture and the ex-pan-sia of et-ru-skov, the second of the cel-ts; later Middle-earth m. became an internal-ren-nim for Rome. im-pe-rii (see Ancient Rome).

On means. hour Zap. and Center. Ev-ro-py re-re-move to J. c. pro-is-ho-dil in the era-hu Gal-state. Gal-shtat-sky cultural-tur-naya region de-lit-Xia on mn. cultural groups and cultural groups. Some of them are in the East. zo-not co-from-no-syat with groups-pa-mi il-li-riy-tsev, in the west - with kel-ta-mi. In one of the regions of the app. zones of sfor-mi-ro-va-las kul-tu-ra La-ten, then ras-pro-country-niv-shay-sya on the big-rum-noy ter-ri-to-rii in ho -de ex-pan-si and the influence of the Celts. Their dos-ti-same-nia in metal-lur-gy and metal-lo-about-ra-bot-ke, for-im-st-in-van-nye sowing. and east. co-se-dya-mi, ob-us-lo-vi-whether the state of iron-lez-nyh from de-ly. Epo-ha La-ten op-re-de-la-et is a special per-ri-od ev-rop. is-to-rii (c. 5-1 centuries BC), its fi-nal is associated with ex-pan-si-her Ri-ma (for ter-ri-to-riy to se- ve-ru from the culture of La-ten this era is still called “pre-Roman”, “early iron-lez-no-go-ka”, etc. P.).

On the Bal-ka-nah, east of the il-li-riy-tsev, and to the north to the Day-st-ra, the culture-tu-ry, ties- vae-mye with fra-ki-tsa-mi (their influence-i-nie dos-ti-ha-lo of the Dnieper, Sev. wa). To designate at the end of the Bronze Age and at the beginning of the Zh. century. the generality of these cultures is used by the term “Fra-Ky-sky Gal-State”. OK. ser. 1st millennium BC e. usi-li-va-et-sya own-ob-ra-zie of the “Fra-ki-sky” cultural tour of the sowing. zones, where warehouses-va-yut-sya ob-e-di-non-niya get-tov, then yes-kov, in the south. zo-not ple-me-on fra-ki-tsev enter-pa-whether in close contacts-so-you with gre-ka-mi, move-gav-shi-mi-sya here-yes group- pa-mi-ski-fov, kel-tov, etc., and then would-whether we-so-di-ne-na to Rome. im-pe-rii.

At the end of the Bron-zo-vo-th century in Yuzh. Scan-di-on-wii and from-part-to-the-south-her fic-si-ru-yut drop-dock culture-tu-ry, and a new rise in connection-zy-wa-yut with race-pro -stra-not-no-eat and shi-ro-kim is-pol-zo-va-ni-eat same-le-za. Many cultures Zh. v. to the se-ve-ru from the cel-ts it is impossible to co-from-not-sti with the well-known groups-pa-mi on-rod-dov; more-more-reliably-but co-posting for-mi-ro-va-niya of the Germans or their significant part from the Yas-torf culture -Roy. To the east-ku from its area-la and the top-ho-viy El-by to the bass-this-on the Vis-la, the passage to Zh.v. pro-is-ho-dil within the framework of the Luzhitsy-koi-cul-tu-ry, at the later stages of the groin-some-swarm-whether-va-elk-of-a-ra-zie lo- calcium groups. On the basis of one of them, there was a formation of mi-ro-va-las in the sea culture-tu-ra, ras-pro-country-niv-shay-sya in the middle. 1st millennium BC e. on a significant part of the Lu-zhits-to-area-la. Closer to the end of the La-ten era in Polish. In the sea, sfor-mi-ro-va-las ok-syv-skaya kul-tu-ra, to the south - pshe-vor-skaya kul-tu-ra. In the new era (within the framework of the 1st-4th centuries AD), according to the best names. “Roman-im-per-sky”, “pro-vin-tsi-al-no-Roman-influences”, etc., to the se-ve-ro-east-to-ku from gra- prostrate Im-pe-rii ve-du-schey with the power of a hundred-but-vyat-sya decomp. unification of the Germans.

From Ma-zur-th Po-lake-rya, part of Ma-zo-via and Pod-lya-shya to the lower-zo-viy Pre-go-whether in La Ten-time you- de la ut so-called. kul-tu-ru zapad-but-Baltic kur-ga-nov. Her co-from-no-she-nie with the next-blowing-mi-cul-tu-rams for a number of re-gio-new disputes. In Rome. time here fic-si-ru-yut-sya cul-tu-ry, connected-zy-vae-my with na-ro-da-mi, from-but-si-we-mi to ball-there, in the number of someone-ryh - ga-lin-dy (see Bo-ga-chev-skaya cul-tu-ra), su-da-you (su-di-ny), es-tii, co- post-tav-lyae-my with sam-biy-sko-na-tan-gskoy kul-tu-swarm, etc., but for-mi-ro-va-nie pain-shin-st-va from-west- nyh na-ro-dov app. and the eastern ones (“le-to-li-tov-sky”) bal-tov from-no-sit-sya already to the 2nd floor. 1st millennium AD e., i.e., late-no-mu-lez-no-mu-ku.

The steppes of Ev-raz-zia, the forest zone and the tun-d-ra of Eastern Europe and Si-bi-ri. To na-cha-lu Zh. v. in the steppe belt of Ev-razia, pro-tya-nuv-shem-sya from Wed. Du-naya to Mon-go-liya, it was ko-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-t-o. Mobility and or-ga-ni-zo-van-ness, along with the mass-co-s-tu of effective-no-go (including iron-lez- but-go) weapons and sleep-rya-zhe-niya, became-whether at-chi-noy in-en.-po-li-tich. signifi-c-mo-sti ob-e-di-non-niy ko-chev-ni-kov, not-rarely ras-pro-country-nav-shih power to neighboring settled ples- me-na and the former-shih-ser-ez-noy-ug-ro-zoy for the state-states from the Middle-di-earth-but-sea-rya to the Far-not-go Vos-to-ka.

in european rap. steppe with ser. or con. 9 to early 7th century BC e. do-mi-ni-ro-va-la commonality, with someone swarm, according to me, a number of research-sle-do-va-te-lei, connected with kim-me- rii-tsy. With her on-ho-di-lissed in a close con-so-those ple-me-on le-so-step-pi (black-no-les-sky cul-tu-ra, bon-da-ri- Khin-skaya kul-tu-ra, etc.).

By the 7th c. BC e. from Pri-du-na-vya to Mont-go-liya sfor-mi-ro-val-sya "ski-fo-si-bir-sky world", within the framework of someone-ro-go you-de -la-yut Scythian ar-heo-lo-gi-che-skuyu kul-tu-ru, sav-ro-mat-skuyu ar-heo-lo-gi-che-skuyu cul-tu-ru, sa- ko-mas-sa-get-sko-go kru-ga cul-tu-ry, pa-zy-ryk-kulk-tu-ru, yuk-kulk-tu-ru, ta-gar cul-tu -ru (single-st-ven-nuyu, so-preserved-niv-shui pro-of-you-so-ko-ka-che-st-vein-bron-zo-out-of-de-ly) and others, in a different step-pe-ni co-from-but-si-my with ski-fa-mi and on-ro-da-mi "ge-ro-to-to-howl" Ski-fii , sav-ro-ma-ta-mi, sa-ka-mi, mas-sa-ge-ta-mi, yuech-zha-mi, usu-nya-mi, etc. Pre-hundred-vi-te-li this community would be pre-im. ev-ro-peo-i-dy, ve-ro-yat-but, it means. some of them go-vo-ri-la in Iranian languages.

In close con-so-those with the "Kim-Me-riy-sky" and "Scythian" common-no-stay-were there a tribe on the Crimea and from-li-chav- neck-sya you-with-kim-level metal-lo-about-ra-bot-ki on-se-le-nie Sev. Kav-ka-za, south-no-ta-hedgehog-no-go Vol-go-Ka-mya (ki-zil-ko-bin-skaya kul-tu-ra, me-ot-skaya ar-heo-lo -gi-che-skaya kul-tu-ra, ko-ban-skaya kul-tu-ra, anan-in-skaya kul-tu-ra). Significantly, the influence of the “Kim-Me-riy-sky” and the Scythian cultural tour on the na-se-le-nie of the Middle and Lower Po-du-na -vya. That's why you-de-lyae-we are "kim-me-ry-sky" (aka "pre-Scythian-sky") and "Scythian" epoch is used-pol-zu-yut-sya when researching, before-va-nii, not only the cul-tour of the steppe.

In the 4th-3rd centuries. BC e. in the steppes of Ev-ro-py, Kazah-sta-on and South. For-hurray-lea to replace the Scythian and Sav-ro-ma-tskaya par-ho-dyat Sar-mat-skie ar-heo-lo-gi-che-cult-tu-ry, op-re - de-laying epoch-hu, sub-raz-de-laying-muyu for early, middle, late periods and lasting up to the 4th century. n. e. Means. the influence of the Sar-Mat-sky cultural tours about-follow-zh-va-et-sya on the North. Kav-ka-ze, which from-ra-zha-et both re-re-se-le-nie part of the step-no-go on-se-le-niya, and trans-for-ma-tion under his influence-ni-eat me-st-nyh cultures. Sar-ma-you about-no-ka-li and yes-le-ko in the le-so-steppe regions - from the Dnieper-ro-vya to the North. Kazakh-sta-on, in various forms of con-so-tee-ruya with the local on-se-le-ni-em. Large sta-tsio-nar-nye in-se-le-niya and re-mess-len-nye centers to the east from Wed. Du-naya are connected with sar-ma-ta-mi Al-fol-da. From-hour-to-continuing tra-di-tion of the pre-she-st-vuyu-schey epoch, in the mean-chit. step-pe-ni sar-ma-ti-zi-ro-van-naya and el-li-ni-zi-ro-van-naya, the so-called. late-Scythian kul-tu-ra was preserved in the lower-calls of the Dnieper and in the Crimea, where the kingdom arose with a hundred tsey in Ne-apo-le Scythian, part of the Scythians, according to the letters. is-toch-no-kam, skon-tsen-tri-ro-va-las on the Lower Danube; to the “late-non-Scythian” a number of studies-before-va-te-lei from-no-syat and some-some groups of pa-myat-nik-kov east.-ev- rop le-so-step-pi.

To the Center. Asia and South. C-bi-ri end of the era "ski-fo-si-beer-sko-go mi-ra" is associated with the rise-higher-ni-em volume-e-di-ne-niya hun - well, in the con. 3 in. BC e. under Mao-du-ne. Ho-tya in ser. 1 in. BC e. it dis-pas-moose, south. hun-nu-pa-li in or-bi-tu whale. influence, and sowing. hun-well, would windows-cha-tel-but once-thunder-le-na to ser. 2 in. n. e., the "Xiongnu" era-hu pro-dle-va-yut to ser. 1st millennium AD e. Pa-myat-ni-ki, co-from-but-si-mye with xion-nu (hun-nu), from-west-na to mean-chit. part of Za-bai-ka-lya (for example, Ivol-gin-sky ar-heo-lo-gi-che complex, Il-mo-vaya pad), Mon-go-li, steppe Noah Man-chzhu-rii and wi-de-tel-st-vu-yut about the complex eth-no-cultural-tour co-hundred-ve of this association. On-row-du with pro-nick-but-ve-ni-em hun-nu, in the South. C-bi-ri continued the development of local traditions [in Tu-ve - noise-rak-skul-tu-ra, in Kha-ka-si - Te-sin-sky type (or stage) and Tash-tyk-skaya culture, etc.]. Eth-nothing and in-en.-po-li-tich. is-th-riya Center. Asia in Zh. v. in many ways based on the sve-de-no-yah whale. letters. is-point-no-kov. You can follow the same movement of one or more volumes of e-di-no-ko-chev-ni-kov, dis-pro-country -shih power over vast expanses of countries, their disintegration, absorption of the next-blowing-mi, etc. (dun-hu, tab-ga- chi, zhu-zha-not, etc.). The complexity of the composition of a hundred of these volumes is e-di-non-ny, the weak study of a number of regions of the Center. Asia, labor-no-sti da-ti-rov-ki, etc. de-la-yut their comparison with ar-heo-logic. pa-myat-no-ka-mi very gi-po-te-tich-ny-mi.

The next epoch of the is-to-rii of the steppes of Asia and Europe is connected with do-mi-ni-ro-va-ni-em but-si-te-ley Turk -skih languages, about-ra-zo-va-ni-em Türk-ko-go ka-ga-na-ta, replacing his other Middle Ages. in-en.-po-li-tich. ob-e-di-non-ny and state-su-darstvo.

Culture-tu-ry settled-lo-go on-se-le-niya le-so-step-pi Vost. Ev-ro-py, Ura-la, Si-bi-ri not-rarely enters-di-whether in “ski-fo-si-bir-sky”, “sar-mat-sky”, “hun-sky "" "worlds", but could it make up cultural communities with the forest-we-ple-me-na-mi or about-ra-zo-you-va-li own. cultural regions.

In the forest zone of the Upper-no-go Po-no-ma-nya and Pod-vi-nya, Po-dnepr-ro-vya and Po-ochya tradition of bron-zo-vo-go -ka pro-dol-zha-la stroke-ho-van-noy ke-ra-mi-ki cul-tu-ra, on the basis of-no-ve pre-im. local cultures were formed by the Dnieper-ro-Dvin-skaya cul-tu-ra, Dyakovskaya cul-tu-ra. At the early stages of their development, the same-le-zo ho-cha and it was-lo-ra-pro-country-not-but, but did not become-lo-mi-ni-ruyu-schim raw materials -eat; pa-myat-no-ki of this circle-ha ar-heo-lo-gi according to the mass-co-you-on-the-walk-kams of the kos-ty-nyh from de-ly on the main. object-ek-tah ras-ko-pok - go-ro-di-shah ha-rak-te-ri-zo-wa-li as “kos-te-nos-nye go-ro-di-sha”. Mas-co-use-pol-zo-va-nie is the same-le-for here on-chi-on-et-xia ok. con. 1st millennium BC e., when they pro-is-ho-dyat from-me-not-niya and in other areas of culture, from-me-cha-yut-sya mi-grace. In this way, for example, in from-no-she-nii kul-tour shtri-ho-van-noy ke-ra-mi-ki and dia-kov-is-sle-do-va-te- do you de-la-yut as different about-ra-zo-va-niya co-from-vet-st-vu-shchy "early" and "late" cultures.

According to the pro-is-ho-zh-de-nia and ob-li-ku of the early dia-kov-kul-tu-re near the pri-we-kav-shay from the east-ka-go-ro -dets-kaya kul-tu-ra. To the ru-be-zhu er pro-is-ho-dit su-sche-st-ven-noe race-shi-re-nie of its area to the south and north, to those regions in re-whose Vet-lu-gi. Eye-lo ru-be-zha er in her are-al about-mov-ga-et-sya on-se-le-nie because of the Volga; from Su-ra to rya-zan-sko-go Po-ochi for-mi-ru-ut-sya cultural groups associated with tra-di-qi-ey An-d- re-ev-sko-go chicken-ha-on. On their foundations, cul-tu-ry of the late Zh. -kov.

South the zone of the forest-no-go Po-Dnep-ro-vya for-ni-ma-li mi-lo-grad-skaya cul-tu-ra and Yukh-novskaya cul-tu-ra, in which trace-va- et-sya means. the influence of the Scythian culture and La-te-na. Several waves of mi-graces from the Vist-lo-Oder-region-on led to the appearance on Vo-ly-no in the sea and psh-vor- skoy cultural tour, for-mi-ro-va-niyu on the b. part of the south of the forest-no-go and le-so-step-no-go Po-dnep-ro-vya for-ru-bi-nets-koy kul-tu-ry. Her, on-a-row with Ok-Ksyv-skaya, Pshe-Vor-Skoy, Poya-Nesh-ti-lu-Ka-shev-Kul-tu-swarm, you-de-la-yut in the circle "la -te-ni-zi-ro-van-nyh ”, from me-tea, the special influence of the La-ten culture. In the 1st century n. e. for-ru-bi-nets-kaya kul-tu-ra ne-re-zhi-la dis-pad, but on the basis of its traditions, with the participation of more sowing. on-se-le-niya, for-mi-ru-yut-sya pa-myat-no-ki late-not-for-ru-bi-net-go-go-ri-zon-ta, lay down in the OS-no-woo of the Kiev culture-tu-ry, op-re-de-lyav-shey cultural appearance of the forest-no-go and part of the le-so-step-no th Po-Dnep-ro-vya in the 3rd-4th centuries. n. e. On the basis of the Vo-Lyn-sky pa-myat-ni-kov of the Pshe-Vor-kul-tu-ry in the 1st century. n. e. for-mi-ru-et-sya tooth-retz-kay kul-tu-ra. With cul-tu-ra-mi, re-taking-shi-mi com-po-nen-you in a maritime cul-tu-ry, pre-zh-de everything according to the so-called. for-ru-bi-net-coi-lines, explore-follow-to-va-te-whether connections-zy-va-yut for-mi-ro-va-nie slav-vyan.

All R. 3 in. n. e. from the Lower Danube to the Northern Don, there was a black-nya-khov-ska cul-tu-ra, in what is the significant role of the play-ra- la vel-bar-sky kul-tu-ra, ras-pro-stra-non-nie-some-swarm to the south-east is connected with mi-gra-tsiya-mi go-tov and ge -pi-dov. The collapse of society-in-li-tich. structures-tour, correlated with the black-nya-khov-sky kul-tu-swarm, under the blow-ra-mi of the gunns in the con. 4th c. n. e. signified on-cha-lo a new-howl of the epoch in the history of Ev-ro-py - We-whether-to-re-re-se-le-niya on-ro-dov.

On the se-ve-ro-east-to-ke Ev-ro-py na-cha-lo Zh.v. connection-for-but with Anan-in-sky kul-tu-r-but-historical. area. On the territory of the north-west. Russia and parts of Finland-land-dia races-pro-countries of culture-tu-ry, in some com-po-nen-you anan-in-sky and tech-style- noy ke-ra-mi-ki cul-tour pe-re-ple-ta-yut-sya with me-st-ny-mi (luu-kon-sa-ri-ku-do-ma, late car- go-pol-sky cul-tu-ra, late-not-white-lo-sea, etc.). In the basins of the rivers Pe-cho-ry, You-che-gdy, Me-ze-ni, Sev. Move-we-yav-la-yut-sya pa-myat-ni-ki, in ke-ra-mi-ke some-ryh-long-did-moose development-vi-tie gre-ben-cha -that or-on-men-tal-noy tra-di-tion, connected with the Le-byazh-sky kul-tu-swarm, while the new ornamental mo-ti- you testify to mutually-mo-de-st-vii with pri-kam-ski-mi and beyond-Ural-ski-mi groups on-se-le-niya.

By the 3rd c. BC e. on the basis of the Anan-In-storage warehouse-dy-va-yut-sya of the community of the Pya-no-Bor culture-tu-ry and the glya-de-novskaya culture (see . Look-but-in). The upper-her gra-ni-tsey kul-tour of the pya-no-bor-sko-go-kru-ha row is-sle-to-va-te-lei count-ta-yut ser. 1st millennium AD e., others you de la ut for 3-5 centuries. ma-zu-nin-skul-tu-ru, aze-lin-skul-tu-ru, etc. A new stage is-to-rich. development is associated with a number of mi-graces, including in-yav-le-ni-em pa-myat-ni-kov circle Ha-ri-no, at- leading to the for-mi-ro-va-niyu middle-age. cultural tour associated with no-si-te-la-mi modern. Permian languages.

In the mountain-but-forest and ta-ezh-nyh districts of Ura-la and Zap. CBC in the early J. century. would there be a race-pro-country-not-us of the cross-howl ke-ra-mi-ki cul-tu-ra, it-kull cul-tu-ra, gre-ben-cha-to-yamoch -noy ke-ra-mi-ki kul-tu-ra za-pad-but-si-bir-sko-th-circle, Ust-po-lui-skaya kul-tu-ra, ku-lay-skaya kul -tu-ra, be-lo-yar-sky, but-vo-che-kin-sky, bo-go-chanov-sky, etc .; in the 4th c. BC e. here the ori-en-ta-tion was preserved on the colored metal-lo-ob-ra-bot-ku (the center is connected with the - zhav-shi pl-rays, including steppe, raw materials and from de-li-mi from copper), in some cultures of races - pro-country of black metal-lurgy from-no-sit-Xia to the 3rd third of the 1st millennium BC. e. This cultural circle of connection-zy-va-yut with the pre-ka-mi but-si-te-lei part of the modern. Ugric languages ​​and Sa-mo-Diy languages.

To the south of it, there was a region of forest-steppe cultures Zap. CBC, Sev. pe-ri-fe-rii mi-ra ko-chev-ni-kov, connections-zy-vae-may with the south. vet-view ug-ditch (vo-rob-yov-ska and no-si-lov-sko-bai-tov-skaya cul-tu-ry; their change is sar-gat-skaya cul-tu-ra , go-ro-hov-skaya kul-tu-ra). In the forest-steppe-nom Pri-Ob in the 2nd floor. 1st millennium BC e. races-pro-countries of ki-zhi-rov-sky, old-ro-alei-sky, ka-men-sky cul-tu-ry, some-rye sometimes ob-e-di- nya-yut in one-well generality. Part of the le-so-step-no-go on-se-le-niya was-la in-vle-che-na in mi-gra-tion ser. 1st millennium AD e., the other part along the Ir-ty-shu re-re-moved-well-laid to the north (pot-che-your-kul-tu-ra). Along the Ob to the south, up to Al-tai, there was a ra-pro-country of the Ku-Lai-kul-tu-ry (upper-not-Ob-kul-tu-ra). Ost-av-neck-sya on-se-le-nie, connected with the tra-di-tion-mi of the Sar-gat and Ka-men-sky cultural tour, in the era of the Middle -ve-ko-vya would-lo tur-ki-zi-ro-va-no.

In the forest cultures of Vost. Si-bi-ri (late ymy-yakh-takh-skaya kul-tu-ra, pya-sin-skaya, tse-pan-skaya, Ust-mil-skaya, etc.) from de-lia from bron -zy not-many-numbers-len-us, pre-im. im-port-nye, about-ra-bot-ka-leza-yav-la-et-sya not earlier con. 1st millennium BC e. from the Amur and Primorye. These cul-tu-ry os-tav-le-ny under-vizh-ny-mi groups-pa-mi hunters and fish-bo-lo-vov - ancestors of yuka-gir, sowing. hour-ti tun-gu-so-Manchurian peoples, chuk-chey, ko-rya-kov, etc.

Eastern regions of Asia. Grew up in culture. Far from the East, se-ve-ro-east-to-ka of China and Korea, the bronze age is not as bright as in Si- bi-ri or in more south. districts, but already on the ru-be-same 2-1st millennium BC. e. here on-cha-moose os-voi-zhe-le-za within the framework of the Uril-kul-tu-ry and Yan-kovskaya kul-tu-ry, and then replacing them ta-la-kan-sky, ol-gin-sky, pol-tsev-sky cul-tu-ry and other cultural tours close to them from the ter-ri-to-rii of China (wan-yan- he, gong-tu-lin, feng-lin) and Ko-rei. Some of these cultures are connected with the pre-southern ones. hour-ti tun-gu-so-Manchurian peoples. More sowing. pa-myat-ni-ki (Lakh-tin-skaya, Okhot-skaya, Ust-Bel-skaya and other culture-tu-ry) yah-tah-sky culture-tu-ry, some in the middle. 1st millennium BC e. dos-ti-ga-yut Chu-kot-ki and, mutually-mo-dey-st-vuya with pa-leo-es-ki-mo-sa-mi, teaching-st-vu-yut in for-mi- ro-va-nii of the ancient-not-be-rin-go-marine culture. About the presence of iron incisors of the sw-de-tel-st-vu-yut pre-g-de of everything made with their help in the mouth -nye on-ko-nech-no-ki bone gar-pu-nov.

On the ter-ri-to-ri Ko-rei from-go-to-le-ni-tools from stone pre-ob-la-da-lo on the pro-ty-the-same-bron-zo-vo- go ve-ka and na-cha-la J. v., from metal-la de la-li in the main. weapons, some-some-rye types of uk-ra-she-niy, etc. Ras-pro-country-no-le-le-for from-but-syat to ser. 1st millennium BC e., when there are warehouses-dy-va-moose association Cho-son; more later history of these cultures is connected with the whale. for-how-wa-niami, for-mi-ro-wa-ni-em and the development of local states (Ko-gu-ryo, etc.). On the Japanese Islands, the same-le-zo po-moose and-lu-chi-lo races-pro-country-not-nie in the course of the development of the Yayoi culture, within the framework of someone swarm in the 2nd century. n. e. folded tribal unions, and then the state. about-ra-zo-va-nie Yama something. In the South East. Asian na-cha-lo G. v. when-ho-dit-sya on the epo-hu for-mi-ro-va-niya of the first states.

Africa. In the mid-earth-but-sea regions, that means. part of the bass-this-on Ni-la, at the Kras-no-go m. pro-is-ho-di-lo on the os-no-ve cul-tour bron-zo-vo-go-ve-ka, within the framework of qi-vi-li-za-tsy (Egi-pet Ancient, Me-roe), in connection with the emergence of co-lo-ni from Phi-ni-kiya, the race of Kar-fa-gen-na; to con. 1st millennium BC e. middle-di-earth-but-sea Af-ri-ka became a part of Rome. im-pe-rii.

Especially-ben-no-stu development-vi-tia more south. cultural tour yav-la-et-sya from-day-st-vie bron-zo-vo-th-ve-ka. Pro-nick-but-ve-nie metal-lur-gyi zhe-le-za south of Sa-kha-ra part of the study-to-va-te-lei connection-zy-va-yut with influence - no-eat Me-roe. More and more ar-gu-men-tov speaks out in favor of other points of view, according to some important role in this game -cut Sa-haru. So-ko-you-mi could be “do-ro-gi ko-forest-nits”, re-con-st-rui-rue-my on-rock-pictures-bra-same-ni-pits , could they pass through Fets-tsan, and also where the ancient state of Ga-na was formed, etc. In a number of cases, cha-ev about-from-in-the-le-for-could-lo-so-mid-to-that-chi-vat-sya in sp-tsia-li-zir. district-onakh, mo-but-po-li-zi-ro-va-sya their lives-te-la-mi, and kuz-not-tsy - about-ra-zo-you-vat castles-well-tye with -general-st-va; ob-schi-us different eco-no-mich. sp-tsia-li-za-tion and the level of development of co-sed-st-in-va-li. All this, as well as the weak ar-geo-lo-gich. the study of the con-ti-nen-ta de-la-yut is our representation of the development of the Zh.v. here. all-ma gi-po-te-tich-nym.

In Zap. Af-ri-ke of the ancient-shie svi-de-tel-st-va pro-from-water-st-va-iron-nyh from-de-liy (2nd half of the 1st millennium BC AD) connections with the cul-tu-swarm Nok, its co-from-no-she-nie with synchronous-mi and later-no-mi cul-tu -ra-mi in many ways is not clear, but not later than the 1st floor. 1st millennium AD e. same-le-zo would-lo from-west-but in the whole Zap. Af-ri-ke. One-on-one, yes, on pa-myat-ni-kah, connected with the state. about-ra-zo-va-niya-mi con. 1st thousand - 1st half. 2nd millennium AD e. (Ig-bo-Uk-wu, Ife, Be-nin, etc.), from-de-ly from zhe-le-for not-much, in-lo-ni-al-ny per-ri- once it was one of the pre-meth imports.

To the east in-be-re-zhe Af-ri-ki to J. c. from-no-syat of the culture of Aza-niya, moreover, in their from-no-she-nii there is information about them-por-the same-le-za. An important stage in the history of the region is connected with the development of trade settlements with the participation of walkers from the south app. Asia, pre-g-de of all mu-sul-man (such as Kil-wa, Mo-ga-di-sho, etc.); centers for pro-from-water-st-vu same-le-for-west-us for this time by letters. and ar-heo-lo-gich. is-tot-no-kam.

In bass-this-not Kon-go, ext. district-onah Vost. Af-ri-ki and south-her races-pro-country-not-the same-le-for connection-zy-va-yut with kul-tu-ra-mi, at-above-le-zha-schi-mi tra-di-tions “ke-ra-mi-ki with a bent bottom” (“pit-koy at the bottom”, etc.) and close-ki-mi to her tra-di-tion-mi. Na-cha-lo metal-lur-gyi in otd. the places of these regions are from-no-syat to different cut-offs of the 1st floor. (not later than se-re-di-na) of the 1st millennium AD. e. Mi-grants from these lands, ve-ro-yat-but, for the first time brought the same-le-zo to the South. Af-ri-ku. A number of rising “empires” in the basin of the rivers Zam-bezi, Kon-go (Zim-bab-we, Ki-ta-ra, etc.) would be connected us with ex-port of gold-lo-ta, layer-new-bone, etc.

A new stage in the history of Af-ri-ki south of Sa-kha-ra is associated with the appearance of ev-rop. ko-lo-ny.

Additional literature:

Mon-gait A. L. Ar-geo-logia of Western Europe. M., 1973-1974. Book. 1-2;

Coghlan H. H. Notes on prehistoric and early iron in the Old World. Oxf., 1977;

Waldbaum J. C. From bronze to iron. Gott., 1978;

The coming of the age of iron. New Haven; L., 1980;

Iron Age Af-ri-ki. M., 1982;

Ar-geo-logia of Za-ru-beige Asia. M., 1986;

Steppe of the European part of the USSR in ski-fo-sar-mat-time. M., 1989;

Tylecote R. F. A history of metallurgy. 2nd ed. L., 1992;

Steppe in-lo-sa of the Asian-At-th part of the USSR in the ski-fo-sar-mat-time. M., 1992;

Shchu-kin M. B. On the rub-be-same er. SPb., 1994;

Essays on the history of the ancient same-le-zo-ob-ra-bot-ki in Eastern Europe. M., 1997;

Collis J. The European Iron age. 2nd ed. L., 1998;

Yal-çin Ü. Early iron metallurgy in Anatolia // Anatolian Studies. 1999 Vol. 49;

Kan-to-ro-vich A. R., Kuz-mi-nykh S. V. Early Iron Age // BRE. M., 2004. T.: Russia; Tro-its-kaya T. N., No-vi-kov A. V. Ar-geo-logia of the West-Siberian equal. But-in-Sib., 2004.

Illustrations:

Iron knives from gre-be-niya near Mount Olympus. 11th-8th centuries BC e. Ar-heo-lo-gi-che-sky museum (Di-on, Greece). BDT archive;

BDT archive;

BDT archive;

Sword in a scabbard with an anthropomorphic handle. Je-le-zo, bronze. Culture Laten (2nd half of the 1st millennium BC). Met-ro-po-li-ten-mu-zey (New York). BDT archive;

Para-rad-ny battle-howl then-por from chickens-ha-on Ke-ler-mes-1 (Ku-ban). Zhe-le-zo, zo-lo-that. Con. 7 - early 6th century BC e. Er-mi-tage (St. Petersburg). BDT archive;

Iron-on-ko-nech-nick arrows, in-kru-sti-ro-van-ny gold and silver-rum, from kur-ha-on Ar-zhan-2 (Tuva). 7th c. BC e. Er-mi-tage (St. Petersburg). BDT archive;

Iron iz-de-liya from the mo-gil-ni-ka Bar-sov-sky III (Sur-gut-skoe Pri-Ob). 6th-2nd/1st centuries BC e. (according to V. A. Bor-zu-no-wu, Yu. P. Che-mya-ki-nu). BRE archive.

iron age

period in the development of mankind, which began with the spread of iron metallurgy and the manufacture of iron tools and weapons. Replaced the Bronze Age mainly in the beginning. 1st millennium BC e. The use of iron gave a powerful stimulus to the development of production and accelerated social development. In the Iron Age, the majority of the peoples of Eurasia experienced the decomposition of the primitive communal system and the transition to a class society.

iron age

an era in the primitive and early class history of mankind, characterized by the spread of iron metallurgy and the manufacture of iron tools. The idea of ​​three ages: stone, bronze and iron ≈ arose in the ancient world (Titus Lucretius Car). The term "J. in." was introduced into science around the middle of the 19th century. Danish archaeologist K. Yu. Thomsen. The most important studies, the initial classification and dating of the monuments of Zh. in Western Europe they were made by the Austrian scientist M. Görnes, the Swedish one by O. Montelius and O. Oberg, the German one by O. Tischler and P. Reinecke, the French one by J. Dechelet, the Czech one by I. Peach, and the Polish one by J. Kostszewski; in Eastern Europe by the Russian and Soviet scientists V. A. Gorodtsov, A. A. Spitsyn, Yu. V. Gotye, P. N. Tretyakov, A. P. Smirnov, H. A. Moora, M. I. Artamonov B. N. Grakov and others; in Siberia, by S. A. Teploukhov, S. V. Kiselev, S. I. Rudenko, and others; in the Caucasus, by B. A. Kuftin, A. A. Iessen, B. B. Piotrovsky, E. I. Krupnov, and others; in Central Asia, by S. P. Tolstov, A. N. Bernshtam, A. I. Terenozhkin, and others.

The period of the initial spread of the iron industry was experienced by all countries in different time, however, to Zh. Usually, only the cultures of primitive tribes that lived outside the territories of ancient slave-owning civilizations that arose in the Eneolithic and Bronze Ages (Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, India, China, etc.) are usually attributed. J. c. compared with previous archaeological epochs (Stone and Bronze Ages) is very short. Its chronological boundaries: from the 9th-7th centuries. BC e., when many primitive tribes of Europe and Asia developed their own iron metallurgy, and until the time when a class society and state arose among these tribes. Some modern foreign scholars, who consider the time of the appearance of written sources to be the end of primitive history, attribute the end of the Zh. Western Europe to the 1st century. BC e., when Roman written sources appear containing information about Western European tribes. Since iron remains to this day the most important metal, from the alloys of which tools are made, the term “early Zh. century” is also used for the archaeological periodization of primitive history. On the territory of Western Europe, early Zh. only its beginning is called (the so-called Hallstatt culture). Initially, meteoric iron became known to mankind. Separate items made of iron (mainly jewelry) 1st half of the 3rd millennium BC. e. found in Egypt, Mesopotamia and Asia Minor. A method for obtaining iron from ore was discovered in the 2nd millennium BC. e. According to one of the most probable assumptions, the cheese-making process (see below) was first used by the tribes subordinate to the Hittites living in the mountains of Armenia (Antitaur) in the 15th century. BC e. However, long time iron remained a rare and very valuable metal. Only after the 11th c. BC e. rather extensive production of iron weapons and tools began in Palestine, Syria, Asia Minor, Transcaucasia, and India. At the same time iron becomes known in the south of Europe. In the 11th-10th centuries. BC e. individual iron objects penetrate into the region north of the Alps and are found in the steppes of the south of the European part of the modern territory of the USSR, but iron tools begin to predominate in these regions only from the 8th to 7th centuries. BC e. In the 8th c. BC e. iron products are widely distributed in Mesopotamia, Iran and somewhat later in Central Asia. The first news about iron in China dates back to the 8th century. BC e., but it spreads only from the 5th c. BC e. In Indochina and Indonesia, iron prevails at the turn of our era. Apparently, from ancient times iron metallurgy was known to various African tribes. Undoubtedly, already in the 6th c. BC e. iron was produced in Nubia, Sudan, Libya. In the 2nd century BC e. J. c. arrived in central Africa. Some African tribes passed from the Stone Age to the Iron Age, bypassing the Bronze Age. America, Australia and most of the islands Pacific Ocean iron (except meteoric iron) became known only in the 16th-17th centuries. n. e. with the advent of Europeans in these areas.

In contrast to the relatively rare deposits of copper and especially tin, iron ores, however, most often low-grade (brown iron ore), are found almost everywhere. But getting iron from ores is much more difficult than copper. The smelting of iron was beyond the reach of ancient metallurgists. Iron was obtained in a paste-like state by means of a cheese-blowing process, which consisted in the reduction of iron ore at a temperature of about 900≈1350╟C in special furnaces - forges with air blown by bellows through a nozzle. At the bottom of the furnace, a ridge was formed - a lump of porous iron weighing 1≈5 kg, which had to be forged for compaction, as well as removal of slag from it. Raw iron is a very soft metal; tools and weapons made from pure iron, had low mechanical properties. Only with the discovery in the 9th-7th centuries. BC e. methods of manufacturing steel from iron and its heat treatment, the wide distribution of the new material begins. The higher mechanical qualities of iron and steel, as well as the general availability of iron ores and the cheapness of the new metal, ensured the displacement of bronze, as well as stone, which remained an important material for the production of tools in the Bronze Age. It didn't happen right away. In Europe, only in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium BC. e. iron and steel began to play a really significant role as a material for the manufacture of tools and weapons. The technical revolution caused by the spread of iron and steel greatly expanded man's power over nature: it became possible to clear large forest areas for crops, expand and improve irrigation and reclamation facilities, and improve land cultivation in general. The development of crafts, especially blacksmithing and weapons, is accelerating. Improved wood processing for housing construction, production Vehicle(ships, chariots, etc.), the manufacture of various utensils. Artisans, from shoemakers and masons to miners, also received better tools. By the beginning of our era, all the main types of handicraft and agricultural. hand tools (except for screws and articulated scissors), used in the Middle Ages, and partly in modern times, were already in use. The construction of roads was facilitated, military equipment was improved, exchange expanded, and the metal coin spread as a means of circulation.

The development of productive forces associated with the spread of iron, over time, led to the transformation of the entire social life. As a result of the growth of labor productivity, the surplus product increased, which, in turn, served as an economic prerequisite for the emergence of the exploitation of man by man, the collapse of the tribal primitive communal system. One of the sources of the accumulation of values ​​and the growth of property inequality was the expanding in the era of Zh. century. exchange. The possibility of enrichment through exploitation gave rise to wars for the purpose of robbery and enslavement. At the beginning of the Zh. fortifications spread widely. In the era of Zh. the tribes of Europe and Asia were going through the stage of disintegration of the primitive communal system, were on the eve of the emergence of class society and the state. The transition of certain means of production into the private ownership of the ruling minority, the emergence of slave ownership, the increased stratification of society, and the separation of the tribal aristocracy from the bulk of the population are already features typical of early class societies. Many tribes social order this transitional period took political form so-called. military democracy.

J. c. on the territory of the USSR. On the modern territory of the USSR, iron first appeared at the end of the 2nd millennium BC. e. in Transcaucasia (Samtavr burial ground) and in the south of the European part of the USSR. The development of iron in Racha (Western Georgia) dates back to ancient times. The Mossinois and Khalibs, who lived next to the Colchians, were famous as metallurgists. However, the widespread use of iron metallurgy on the territory of the USSR dates back to the 1st millennium BC. e. In Transcaucasia, a number of archaeological cultures of the late Bronze Age are known, the heyday of which dates back to the early Zh. century: the Central Transcaucasian culture with local centers in Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan, the Kyzyl-Vank culture (see Kyzyl-Vank), Colchian culture, Urartian culture (see Urartu). In the North Caucasus: the Koban culture, the Kayakent-Khorochoev culture and the Kuban culture. In the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region in the 7th century. BC e. ≈ first centuries AD. e. inhabited by the Scythian tribes, who created the most developed culture of the early Zh. century. on the territory of the USSR. Iron products were found in abundance in the settlements and mounds of the Scythian period. Signs of metallurgical production were found during excavations of a number of Scythian settlements. The largest number of remnants of the iron-working and blacksmith trades were found at the Kamenskoye settlement (fifth-third centuries BC) near Nikopol, which was apparently the center of a specialized metallurgical region of ancient Scythia (see Scythians). Iron tools contributed to the wide development of various crafts and the spread of plowed agriculture among the local tribes of the Scythian time. The next after the Scythian period of the early Zh. in the steppes of the Black Sea region, it is represented by the Sarmatian culture (see Sarmatians), which dominated here from the 2nd century. BC e. up to 4 c. n. e. In the previous period from the 7th c. BC e. Sarmatians (or Savromats) lived between the Don and the Urals. In the first centuries A.D. e. one of the Sarmatian tribes - the Alans - began to play a significant historical role, and gradually the very name of the Sarmatians was supplanted by the name of the Alans. By the same time, when the Sarmatian tribes dominated the Northern Black Sea region, the cultures of the “burial fields” (Zarubinetskaya culture, Chernyakhovskaya culture, etc.) that spread in the western regions of the Northern Black Sea region, the Upper and Middle Dnieper and Transnistria belong to. These cultures belonged to agricultural tribes who knew the metallurgy of iron, among which, according to some scientists, were the ancestors of the Slavs. The tribes living in the central and northern forest regions of the European part of the USSR were familiar with iron metallurgy from the 6th-5th centuries. BC e. In the 8th-3rd centuries BC e. in the Kama region, the Ananyin culture was widespread, which is characterized by the coexistence of bronze and iron tools, with the undoubted superiority of the latter at the end of it. The Ananyino culture on the Kama was replaced by the Pyanobor culture (late 1st millennium BC ≈ 1st half of the 1st millennium AD).

In the Upper Volga region and in the regions of the Volga-Oka interfluve to Zh. century. include settlements of the Dyakovo culture (mid-1st millennium BC - mid-1st millennium AD), and in the territory south of the middle reaches of the Oka, west of the Volga, in the basin of the river. Tsna and Moksha, ≈ settlements of the Gorodets culture (7th century BC ≈ 5th century AD), which belonged to the ancient Finno-Ugric tribes. Numerous settlements of the 6th century BC are known in the region of the Upper Dnieper. BC e. ≈ 7 c. n. e., which belonged to the ancient East Baltic tribes, later absorbed by the Slavs. The settlements of the same tribes are known in the southeastern Baltic, where, along with them, there are also the remains of a culture that belonged to the ancestors of the ancient Estonian (Chud) tribes.

In Southern Siberia and Altai, due to the abundance of copper and tin, the bronze industry developed strongly, successfully competing with iron for a long time. Although iron products, apparently, appeared already in the early Mayemir time (Altai; 7th century BC), iron was widely distributed only in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. (Tagar culture on the Yenisei, Pazyryk mounds in Altai, etc.). Cultures Zh. v. are also represented in other parts of Siberia and the Far East. On the territory of Central Asia and Kazakhstan until the 8th-7th centuries. BC e. tools and weapons were also made of bronze. The appearance of iron products both in agricultural oases and in the cattle-breeding steppe can be attributed to the 7th-6th centuries. BC e. Throughout the 1st millennium BC. e. and in the 1st half of the 1st millennium AD. e. the steppes of Central Asia and Kazakhstan were inhabited by numerous Sako-Usun tribes, in whose culture iron became widespread from the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. In the agricultural oases, the time of the appearance of iron coincides with the emergence of the first slave-owning states (Bactria, Sogd, Khorezm).

J. c. on the territory of Western Europe, it is usually divided into 2 periods - the Hallstatt (900-400 BC), which was also called the early, or first Zh. , which is called late, or second. The Hallstatt culture was spread on the territory of modern Austria, Yugoslavia, Northern Italy, partly Czechoslovakia, where it was created by the ancient Illyrians, and on the territory of modern Germany and the Rhine departments of France, where the Celtic tribes lived. The cultures close to the Hallstatt belong to this time: the Thracian tribes in the eastern part of the Balkan Peninsula, the Etruscan, Ligurian, Italic, and other tribes on the Apennine Peninsula; the cultures of the early Zh. century. Iberian Peninsula (Iberians, Turdetans, Lusitans, etc.) and the late Lusatian culture in the basins of the river. Oder and Vistula. The early Hallstatt period is characterized by the coexistence of bronze and iron tools and weapons and the gradual displacement of bronze. In the economic sense, this epoch is characterized by the growth of agriculture, in the social sense, by the disintegration of tribal relations. The Bronze Age still existed at that time in the north of present-day East Germany and West Germany, in Scandinavia, Western France, and England. From the beginning of the 5th c. the La Tene culture spreads, characterized by a genuine flourishing of the iron industry. The La Tène culture existed before the conquest of Gaul by the Romans (1st century BC). La Tène culture is associated with the tribes of the Celts, who had large fortified cities, which were the centers of tribes and places of concentration of various crafts. In this era, the Celts gradually created a class slave society. Bronze tools are no longer found, but iron was most widely used in Europe during the period of the Roman conquests. At the beginning of our era, in the areas conquered by Rome, the La Tene culture was replaced by the so-called. provincial Roman culture. Iron spread to the north of Europe almost 300 years later than to the south. By the end of the Zh. refers to the culture of the Germanic tribes that lived in the territory between the North Sea and the river. Rhine, Danube and Elbe, as well as in the south of the Scandinavian Peninsula, and archaeological cultures, the carriers of which are considered the ancestors of the Slavs. In the northern countries, the complete dominance of iron came only at the beginning of our era.

Lit .: F. Engels, The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State, K. Marx and F. Engels, Soch., 2nd ed., Vol. 21; Avdusin D. A., Archeology of the USSR, [M.], 1967; Artsikhovsky A. V., Introduction to archeology, 3rd ed., M., 1947; World History, vol. 1≈2, M., 1955≈56; Gotye, Yu. V., The Iron Age in Eastern Europe, M. ≈ L., 1930; Grakov B.N., The oldest finds of iron things in the European part of the territory of the USSR, "Soviet archeology", 1958, ╧ 4; Zagorulsky E. M., Archeology of Belarus, Minsk, 1965; History of the USSR from ancient times to the present day, vol. 1, M., 1966; Kiselev S.V., Ancient history of Southern Siberia, Moscow, 1951; Clark D. G. D., Prehistoric Europe. Economic essay, trans. from English, M., 1953; Krupnov E.I., Ancient history of the North Caucasus, M., 1960; Mongait A. L., Archeology in the USSR, M., 1955; Niederle L., Slavic Antiquities, trans. from Czech., M., 1956; Piotrovsky B. B., Archeology of Transcaucasia from ancient times to 1 thousand BC. e., L., 1949; Tolstov S. P., According to the ancient deltas of the Oks and Yaksart, M., 1962; Shovkoplyas I. G., Archaeological records in Ukraine (1917≈1957), K., 1957; Aitchison L., A history of metals, t. 1≈2, L., 1960; CLark G., World prehistory, Camb., 1961; Forbes R.J., Studies in ancient technology, v. 8, Leiden, 1964; Johannsen O., Geschichte des Eisens, Düsseldorf, 1953; Laet S. J. de, La prehistoire de l'Europe, P. ≈ Brux., 1967; Moora H., Die Eisenzeit in Lettland bis etwa 500 n. Chr., 1≈2, Tartu (Dorpat), 1929≈38; Piggott S., Ancient Europe, Edinburgh, 1965; Pleiner R., Staré europské kovářství, Praha, 1962; Tulecote R. F., Metallurgy in archaeology, L., 1962.

L. L. Mongait.

Wikipedia

iron age

iron age- an epoch in the primitive and saxoclass history of mankind, characterized by the spread of iron metallurgy and the maceration of iron tools; lasted from about 1200 BC. e. before 340 AD e.

The idea of ​​three ages (stone, bronze and iron) existed in the ancient world, it is mentioned in the works of Titus Lucretius Kara. However, the term "Iron Age" itself appeared in scientific works in the middle of the 19th century, it was introduced by the Danish archaeologist Christian Jurgensen Thomsen.

All countries have passed the period when iron metallurgy began to spread, however, as a rule, only those cultures of primitive tribes that lived outside the possessions of ancient states formed during the Neolithic and the Bronze Age - Mesopotamia, are usually attributed to the Iron Age, ancient egypt, Ancient Greece, India, China.