Radially circular layout is typical for cities. Abstract types of planning structures of cities

→ Layouts of settlements

Planning structure of settlements

The predominance of one of the factors or the total impact of several determines the type of planning structure: compact, dissected and dispersed. The compact type is characterized by the location of all functional areas of the city in a single perimeter. The dissected type occurs when rivers, ravines or a transit railway cross the territory of the city. The dispersed type involves several urban planning formations interconnected by transport lines. The emergence of a dispersed type is determined by the nature of the city-forming group of enterprises in a given city (for example, the mining industry) or natural and climatic conditions.

The main planning elements of the city include: residential and industrial areas, objects that form the system of urban services (administrative and public, cultural and educational, medical and recreational, sports, commercial and household and mass recreation) and uniting them with a network of streets and squares.

Rice. 1. Schemes, planning structure:
a - compact: b - dissected; c - dispersed

Institutions and public service enterprises in a modern city constitute a single system that includes residential areas, places of work and recreation areas. The modern urban planning trend is aimed at combining service facilities into public centers: citywide, planning areas, residential areas and microdistricts, industrial and industrial and residential areas, public recreation areas. In the largest cities, such as Moscow, Leningrad, Kyiv, the general planning structure includes planning zones with their own community centers.

Rice. 2. Scheme of placement of service centers and institutions in the new city for 500 thousand people.

The training centers include a vocational school, a technical school and a higher education institution, which are cooperating on the same site, i.e., three links of special educational institutions. This makes it possible to organize a single sports center, an economic group, institutions for consumer, medical and cultural services, an integrated group of residential buildings with a kindergarten, a school. All cooperative elements of this complex are being enlarged, which allows them to be improved, better equipped, more expedient to operate (instead of several small first-aid posts - a polyclinic, instead of separate gyms - a sports complex with a swimming pool, etc.). At the same time, such cooperation gives a significant economic effect.

The centers of educational, scientific and industrial associations include a university, a group of research institutes of the same profile, pilot production, possibly also a vocational school, a technical school, an educational plant, as well as residential buildings, dormitories and cultural and community institutions. Such associations are equipped with an enlarged computer station, a library, an information center, a design bureau, they are provided with a single system of economic, cultural, social, medical services and an enlarged sports center. Educational, scientific and production associations create conditions for the fruitful development of science, raising the scientific and production level educational process, contribute to the fastest introduction of scientific achievements into production, the involvement of faculty, graduate students and students in the scientific work of the entire association and in production.

Rice. 3. Planning area training center in Tobolsk (design proposal of TsNIIEP educational buildings):
1 - educational zone of institutes and technical schools; 2 - zone of vocational schools; 3 - cooperative zone of sports facilities; 4- cooperative, residential area for students of institutes and technical schools; 5 - residential area for vocational school students

Educational centers and centers of educational-scientific-industrial associations are new promising urban formations.

Functional zoning of the territory. The modern city is a complex organism in which social, architectural and planning, engineering and economic principles are closely intertwined. In order to conveniently and rationally organize the life of this complex organism, the planning decision of the city is based on the zoning of its territory based on functional features and types of urban construction.

In accordance with SNiP 11-60-75*, the territory of the city is divided into the following zones according to its functional purpose: a residential zone designed to accommodate residential areas, public centers (administrative, scientific, educational, medical, sports, etc.), as well as green plantings of common use;

An industrial zone used to house industrial enterprises and related facilities; a communal warehouse zone, which houses bases and warehouses, garages, tram depots, trolleybus and bus depots, laundry factories, dry cleaning factories, etc.; an external transport zone designed to accommodate transport devices and structures (passenger and freight stations, ports, marinas, etc.).

The industrial and municipal warehouse zones form a single industrial zone of the city. Research and production complexes can also be included here. With this in mind, the term production zone is introduced, covering all areas of material production, the service industry, warehouse and public services.

In some specific cases of urban development, it is possible to allocate a community center zone, as well as organize a separate communal zone or allocate an independent warehouse zone. In cities with a scientific profile, the main zones include the zone of research institutes, and in resort cities - the resort zone, which houses medical and recreational institutions, gardens, parks, beaches, etc. A separate place in urban development is occupied by large sports facilities, hospitals, research institutes. Within the city there are also other lands on which the city subsidiary farms, nurseries, cemeteries, etc. are located.

The territory of rural locality divided into two main zones: residential and industrial. The correct choice of territory for the placement of a particular zone and the functionally justified mutual arrangement of the main zones largely determine the comfort of living for the people of a given settlement and the rational operation of its industrial (manufacturing) enterprises. The most important is the location of the residential and industrial zones, which establishes the relationship between the places of application of labor and housing, that is, the main social cycle of the city's life is "work - life".

Rice. 5. Educational and scientific complex in Rostov-on-Don (project):
a - scheme of the master plan; 1 - university and scientific research center high school; 2 - special laboratory and pilot production; 3 - design office; 4- branch and academic research institutes; 5 - scientific and educational zone (reserve); 6 - common communal - economic zone; 7 - general sports area; b - the main square of the Faculty of Natural Sciences; 1 - Research Institute; 2 - educational faculties; 3 - cooperative premises

Rice. 6. Functional zoning of cities: a - a small town with a manufacturing industry; b - small town - research center; in - a small resort town; d - a medium-sized city of scientific and industrial profile; D - a large city created on the basis of the mining and metallurgical industries; "-residential zone; 2 - industrial zone; 3 - communal storage zone; 4 - research institute and design bureau zone; 5 - university zone; 6 - public centers; 7 - parks; 8 - sanitary protection zone; 9 - other green spaces ; 10 - resort zone; 11 - economic zone of the resort; 12 - ore deposit; 13 - mining and processing plants; 14 - transport areas; 15 - direction of development of the zone

The residential zone is located on the windward side for the prevailing winds, as well as upstream of the rivers in relation to industrial enterprises, which are sources of environmental pollution.

The production zone should be located in such a way that it is possible to organize convenient transport and pedestrian links with the places of residence of workers, that is, with the residential zone. Territories for industrial zones are chosen taking into account their unimpeded connection to external transport lines (railway, water, etc.). However, the crossing of industrial zones by transit railways and roads is undesirable.

Depending on the intensity of the emission of harmful substances by industrial enterprises, the industrial zone is located at a different distance from the residential zone. Sanitary design standards subdivide industrial production into five classes, each of which has its own sanitary protection zone (m): I class - 1000; II - 500; II - 300; IV - 100;, V -50.

In accordance with this classification, in the practice of urban development, three characteristic cases of the relative position of industrial and residential zones were identified. In the first case, the residential zone is located at a considerable distance from the industrial zone, which includes enterprises of classes I and II: ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, petrochemical and chemical, large cement plants, large thermal power plants, etc. nuclear power plants) the width of the protective zone increases to several kilometers. The second case is related to the location of industry near the boundaries of the residential area. With such placement in the industrial zone, it is allowed to include enterprises classified according to the sanitary classification to III and

IV classes, regardless of the size of the cargo turnover, as well as enterprises

Class V, which do not emit industrial hazards, but require the construction of railway tracks. The third case is characterized by the formation of industrial and residential areas in which industrial enterprises are located within the residential area. Such placement is allowed for enterprises of IV and V classes that do not require the installation of railway tracks.

When determining the relative position of industrial and residential areas, the noise level emitted certain types enterprises. It should be noted that the current trend in the field of reducing the effect of harmful emissions and noise is to extinguish and * sources at the enterprise by improving the technology and installing trapping devices. This makes it possible to reduce the area of ​​sanitary protection zones and save expensive urban territory for more efficient use.

The communal warehouse zone of the city is located in a convenient connection with external transport networks. The determination of the approximate size of the territory of communal storage areas is based on the calculation of 2 m2 per 1 person. in the largest and largest cities and 3 m2 - in other settlements. In the communal warehouse zone, areas are allocated for communal and warehouse enterprises. In the largest, largest and big cities such areas should be placed dispersed-dotochenko. General warehouses and fruit and vegetable bases provide good transport links with residential areas and are located apart from the industrial areas of the city. Separate communal enterprises and warehouses (commercial distribution warehouses, supply and distribution warehouses, etc.) can be located in the residential area. For small cities, towns and rural settlements, warehouses are organized centralized and placed, as a rule, in near-station areas.

Rice. 7. Schematic diagram of the transport hub of the city served by various types transport:
1 - city boundary; 2 - expressway; 3 - railway; 4 - railway station, 5 - freight yard; 6 - railway station; 7 - river port; 8 - bus station; 9 - helipad; 10 - the same, station; 11 - airport; 12 - river station; 13 - cargo bus station; 14 - citywide center

The external transport zone includes the territories of railway, road, water and air transport. External transport lines are designed in organic connection with the street and road network of the city and its modes of transport. This integrated approach provides high level comfort of passenger transportation, the rationality of local and transit freight traffic, and also contributes to the cost-effectiveness of the construction of transport facilities and their operation. A complex of transport devices and structures of external and urban significance, performing operations for long-distance, local and urban transportation of passengers and goods, forms a transport hub.

On the territory of the railway transport hub there are stations, passenger, cargo-passenger, cargo and marshalling stations, railway tracks, sidings and passing points. In practice, six basic schemes of railway junctions have developed, determined by operational, economic, geographical and geometric characteristics: with one station, with a series of stations, with parallel passages, triangular, ring, combined.

The station complex, including the station building, the passenger station with its platform tracks, postal and baggage facilities, as well as the station square, should be located from the side of the main part of the residential area, providing convenient transport links with the city center and its residential and industrial zones. Passenger stations are designed, as a rule, of a through type.The use of dead-end stations is allowed only in exceptional cases with an appropriate feasibility study.

The territory of road transport facilities includes intercity passenger bus stations, freight bus stations, motels, service stations, gas stations and highways.

Rice. 8. Basic schemes of railway junctions:
a - with one station; b - with a sequential arrangement of stations; in - with parallel moves; g - triangular; d - ring; e - combined; stations: 1 - passenger; 2 - cargo; 3- cargo-passenger; 4 - sorting; 5 - port; 6 - cargo yard; 7 - industrial area

External highways of the USSR are divided into roads of national, republican and local significance, and in relation to design standards - into five categories, depending on the estimated traffic intensity and their significance in the country's road network.

In urban development, intercity passenger bus stations are located near railway stations, which ensures the convenience of mass transfer of passengers from one mode of transport to another.

When choosing territories for water transport, it is taken into account that sea and river ports must be located outside residential areas. It is desirable to locate river ports and ship repair enterprises downstream of residential developments in order not to pollute the river section and embankments used by residents. Specific recommendations on the dimensions of the coastal area of ​​sea and river ports, as well as on the gaps between the main port facilities (berths, warehouses, ship repair enterprises, etc.) and the residential area are given in SNiP II-60-75 * and the designer's guide "Urban planning".

On the territory of air transport facilities located within the city, city air terminals, passenger agencies, and helicopter stations are located. Airports, including an airfield, passenger and service and technical areas, are located outside the cities. The choice of a location for a new airport, in addition to meeting the technical requirements for the territory, is associated with the solution of a number of urban planning tasks for organizing convenient transport links between the city and the airport and ensuring the protection of populated areas that fall within the airport's zone of influence from aircraft noise and electromagnetic radiation from radar stations.

Network of streets, squares and urban transport. community centers cities, residential and industrial areas, which form gravity zones for the population associated with mass visits by residents of the city and the emergence of large traffic flows, determine the development of urban transport and the organization of a network of streets and squares. In a modern city, several types of mass passenger transport are used: bus, trolleybus, tram, subway. To communicate with suburbs, recreation areas, airports, electrified rail transport is often used, and in the future, monorail transport is expected to be used for these purposes.

The bus is the most maneuverable mode of transport with wide ranges of capacity (from 10 to 120 passengers), frequency of movement (from 10 to 100 units per hour) and traffic volume (from 0.1 to 10 thousand passengers / h). Its disadvantage - a significant emission of exhaust gases that pollute the urban air environment.The trolleybus is free from this disadvantage, but is less maneuverable, requires high-quality street surfaces and is profitable only on sufficiently long lines.The trolleybus provides transportation of up to 8 thousand passengers per hour.Tram is recommended for use on lines with passenger traffic of 8 ... 10 thousand people per hour "peak" in one direction. This is due to high initial investment. With the traffic volume of 12 ... 22 thousand passengers per hour, which occur in large and major cities, it is rational the use of light rail at a speed of 25 ... 30 km / h with an increased number of cars and extended hauls. The subway, which requires very large initial investments, is used in cities with a population of more more than 1 million inhabitants with passenger traffic exceeding 20 thousand people. during rush hour in one direction.

Rice. 9. Schematic diagrams for building street networks:
a - radial; b - radial-annular; s - radial (fan); g - rectangular; d - combined; e - free

Figure 23. Scheme of the street network of Moscow: _ historically developed; b - according to the new master plan

Solution of the problem integrated development of all types of urban transport is closely connected with the construction of the city's street network, consisting of main streets, express roads, streets and roads of local importance.

In practice, there are six main schemes for constructing city street networks: radial, radial-circular, radial (fan), rectangular, combined and free. The first three are typical for historical cities that were formed around kremlins, monasteries and roads leading to them. These include the ancient Russian cities of Pereslavl-Zalessky, Rostov the Great, Pskov, Kostroma, the left-bank part of Novgorod.

The scheme of the Moscow street network changed in an interesting way. At first, Moscow had a purely radial scheme, after the construction of the walls of the White City and Skorodum - a radial-ring scheme, and the implementation of the new general plan of the capital with the introduction of chord high-speed city roads turns the radial-ring scheme into a combined one.

The city of Leningrad has a pronounced ray scheme of the street network with its three main avenues - rays oriented towards the Admiralty.

The rectangular street grid pattern is used in many of the largest cities in the United States. The extreme rationalism of such a decision has a negative impact on the architectural and artistic composition of the city, the development of intracity spaces. The rectangular scheme can find a positive use in the master plans of medium and small towns, characterized by low buildings and good landscaping.

Rice. 10. Plan of the beam street system of the center of Leningrad

The practice of building new modern cities is most often associated with the use of a free layout of street networks (Fig. 26). Such a scheme allows you to locate urban development without violating natural conditions (greenery, relief, water basins), and minimize the cost of vertical planning of the territory.

The street network system is closely intertwined with the placement of city squares. City squares are classified by type: main (in front of public buildings and structures), transport, station, multifunctional transport hubs, pre-factory and collective farm markets.

The main squares are usually located in the central area of ​​the city. They serve for parades, demonstrations, folk festivals. Transit traffic through the main squares is not allowed. A striking example of this type of square is Moscow's Red Square.

The areas in front of large public buildings and structures (theaters, stadiums, exhibition halls, shopping centers, educational institutions, etc.) serve to organize the entrance of passenger transport, distribute pedestrian flows and accommodate car parking. On the square in front of public buildings, green areas with fountains and pools are often provided, where visitors have the opportunity to relax.

Transport areas are intended for purely functional purposes - the distribution of often complexly intertwined traffic flows. Depending on the specific urban situation, such an intersection can be organized in one or more levels. Transport areas cannot be used for car parking and built up with residential and public buildings, the entrances of which face the square.

The main functional task of the station squares is the organization of a convenient connection between the buildings and structures of external transport and the urban transport network. When planning station areas, it is necessary to ensure a clear separation of pedestrian and traffic flows (as a rule, at different levels) and the separation of flows of arriving and departing passengers. Stops are provided at the station squares public transport and car parks connected by safe shortest passages with the station building.

Rice. 11. Plan of the central part of the city of New York. Manhattan Island
1 - urban highway; 2 - roads to the plant; 3 - highway of regional significance; 4 - interdistrict streets; 5 - residential streets; 6 - park road; 7 - expensive in the industrial area; 8 - pedestrian alleys; 9 - transit highway

Rice. 12. Pushkinskaya Square in Moscow

AT last years Increasingly, it became necessary to create areas of multifunctional transport hubs, combining suburban and urban transport stops in one point. Buildings and facilities that ensure the arrival, transfer and departure of passengers are most rationally located in a single multifunctional complex. iB case big bandwidth a transport hub that combines a railway station, a bus station, a metro station, stops of surface urban transport, such a complex will have a multi-level composition that provides the shortest and most accurate connections for complex passenger flows. Complexes of multifunctional transport hubs may also include a number of public service institutions: shops, cafes, hotels, restaurants, post office, telegraph, intercity telephone hubs, savings bank, etc.

Rice. 13. Square in front of the building of Moscow University on the Lenin Hills

The squares of collective farm markets serve to organize the movement of buyers and freight transport, as well as to accommodate car parking and public transport stops.

The purpose of the pre-factory areas is determined by the organization of approaches to the entrances of enterprises, the interchange of traffic and the placement of stopping points for transport and parking areas.

Development of the cladding structure. The most important point when forming the planning structure of the city, it is necessary to take into account its prospective development, which is associated primarily with the expansion of the main functional zones - industrial and residential. Accounting for the prospective development of the city begins at the stage of regional planning, when the given city is considered as an integral part of the group system of settlements. The development of the main zones of the city is envisaged in such a direction that would not interfere with the development of neighboring cities and would not allow territorial merging with them.

Rice. 14. Traffic interchange area:
a - single-level (Star Square in Paris); b- multilevel

Rice. 15. Kursk Station Square:
a - basic planning scheme; b - general form stops; 1 - tram stop; 2 - the same. trolleybus; 3- the same, buses; 4- the same, cars; 5.6 - parking lots for cars and trucks, respectively

Special territories are reserved for the expansion of the city. Their size and location in the general planning structure of the city is determined on the basis of forecasts for the expansion of the city-forming base, the growth of the norm of living space per person, taking into account natural and climatic factors, the economic and geographical position of the city, its administrative, cultural and scientific significance. There are indicative standards for determining the prospective needs for the main areas of the city. They are determined per 1 thousand inhabitants. The area for all types of construction within the main array of urban development is provided based on 15...20 ha/thous. people, for residential areas - 10 ... 12 ha / thousand. people

In practice, several characteristic schemes of territorial and spatial development of the main zones of the city have developed: sectoral, parallel, with two industrial and residential complexes and in a group system of settlements.

In old cities, the scheme of prospective development is largely determined by the historically established structure of the city. In new cities, the scheme of territorial-spatial development is envisaged in the development of the master plan of the city on the basis of taking into account the factors noted above.

Essay on Moscow studies

"The folding of the radial-circular layout of Moscow"

student 9 "D" class of school No. 1061

Demenkov Ilya.

Moscow. 1997

1. Introduction. Moscow layout.

2) History of folding rad.-col. Moscow plans:

a) Economic and geographical location of ancient Moscow and the Kremlin;

b) Kitay-gorod;

c) White City and Earthen City;

d) Kamer-Kollezhsky shaft;

e) District railway;

3) Features of Moscow in connection with its planning.

4) Problems and Prospects.

Introduction.

One of the most important factors influencing the development of the capital of the Russian Federation, the city of Moscow, is its layout - radial-circular or branched-fan. This layout is typical for ancient European cities and is a structure similar to that shown in Fig. one:

This layout is beneficial for settlements that simultaneously perform the roles of a transport and industrial hub and a military tactical center, which were most of the ancient Russian cities, not excluding Moscow, with the only difference that Moscow performed more of a transport function, since it was originally located at the intersection several trade routes, and later itself became a major transport hub.

The radial-ring layout system is a synthesis of a radial layout ideal for transport nodes (Fig. 2) and a classic chain of fortifications (Fig. 3).

fig.2 fig.3

The undoubted advantages of the radial-ring layout include its compactness, the speed of intracity movement and unlimited growth opportunities in all directions. The main disadvantage of this layout is the inevitability of transport overload in the central part of the city.

Along with Moscow, such cities as Paris and Vienna are classic examples of radial-circular planning. It is less pronounced in Berlin and Brussels.

The current radial-circular layout took shape in Moscow far from immediately. How the structure of Moscow has developed over the centuries is described in the second paragraph.

History of folding radial-annular

Moscow plans.

The prerequisites for the formation of a radial-ring structure appeared in Moscow from the very beginning, from the moment the city was founded. The reason for this was that Moscow was founded at the intersection of several trade routes: Torzhok-Tver-Moscow-Ryazan, Uglich-Tver-Moscow-Kursk, etc. But in those days Moscow was not yet "round", that is, it did not have radial - ring layout: the Kremlin walls - from the first wooden ones to those erected by Ivan Kalita - looked like a triangle located on a cape between the Moscow and Neglinnaya rivers. A small trading town, which was then Moscow, has neither the opportunity nor the need to overcome any obstacles in the way of its growth, especially water ones.

On the contrary, the river gave protection better than many fortress walls, and it would be unreasonable to settle beyond its line. Even after the construction of strong stone walls that fixed the size of the Kremlin, the city continued to grow mainly to the east, where in early XVI century, under Ivan Kalite, the wall of Kitay-Gorod arose, which included in the city the settlements that arose even during the first Kremlin walls.

But the moment came when Moscow increased so much that first the small Neglinnaya, and then the large Moscow River, ceased to be an obstacle to its growth. Two new lines of city fortifications, erected at the end of the 16th century, recorded a gradual rounding of the city's borders. The first line - the walls of the White City - resembled a strongly curved horseshoe, the ends of which rested on the Moscow River. The wall, which ran along the river, connected the ends of the horseshoe with the walls of the Kremlin and Kitai-gorod. In general, the White City was an almost complete ring. When its walls were broken a hundred and fifty years later, wide boulevards were laid out in the vacant place. what we now call the Boulevard Ring.

And the first completely closed ring around the city was formed by the walls of the Earthen City, which "stepped over" the Moscow River, embracing Zamoskvorechye. Now on the site of the walls of the Earthen City lies the famous Garden Ring.

The next ring of the "city fence" - Kamer-Kollezhsky Val - was built in the middle of the 18th century not for defensive purposes, but as the customs border of the city - the shaft limited the territory on which the alcohol monopoly of tax-farmers, who acquired the right of exclusive trade in alcohol within Moscow, operated. This "ring" about 37 km long was irregular shape. It receded especially far from the center to the northeast, where important and populous suburbs lay - Preobrazhenskoye and Lefortovo, and in the northwest and southwest it approached close to the center, as if it had been "depressed".

Kamer-Kollezhsky Val actually became the border of the city, but the tsarist government did not recognize this for a long time. For example, in 1806, it was announced that the Moscow city police could manage within the entire Kamer-Kollezhsky Val, but at the same time, the Garden Ring was still considered the official city boundary. but each time it was rejected. The opportunity to establish new boundaries of the city appeared only in 1917.

By this time, another ring arose around Moscow - the District Railway. It was not intended for urban traffic and very poorly corresponded to the real boundaries of the city, but, nevertheless, it was recognized as the official border of Moscow. The ring road became a kind of feature that summed up the growth of the city for seven and a half centuries - until the October Revolution itself.

But six months later, the Duma was replaced by the Moscow Council, and it was forgotten for a long time within the boundaries of the city.

They remembered this issue only in the late 20s - early 30s.

And so, in 1935, a grandiose General Plan for the development and reconstruction of Moscow was developed. Similar Plans were created later - in 1971, for example - but they were rather a continuation of the thoughts set forth in the 1935 General Plan. The plan was to identify promising directions for the development of the capital and prevent spontaneous, unorganized development. He proposed "preserving the historical layout of the city and simultaneously introducing new elements into it" - such as long straight avenues (mainly in the southern part of the capital) and large green areas. In accordance with the Plan, along the borders of the Kremlin and Kitay-gorod, a Central semicircle was laid, consisting of a chain of squares connected by wide avenues. Along the entire length, the Garden Ring was expanded and landscaped, and transport interchanges were built at the intersections with radial highways. Work began on the construction of the rings - the Third and Park. The war prevented the full implementation of the Plan, but some sections of the rings were built. Later, in the General Plan of 1971, the idea of ​​​​unloading the Center from traffic flows received further development. It seemed that the correction of the age-old shortcoming of the planning scheme of Moscow was not far off, but this did not happen. The laying of new streets among the existing buildings, the construction of numerous transport interchanges - tunnels, overpasses, bridges turned out to be a long and expensive matter. In addition, the implementation of the work ran into stubborn resistance from "zealots of antiquity" who denied any possibility of reconstructing old Moscow streets.

True, after all, Moscow received one new ring. It became the Moscow Ring highway(MKAD), built at the end of the 50s as a high-speed highway, all the suppressions of which were arranged at different levels. Initially, this 109-kilometer ring was intended only for passing transit vehicles around the city, but to today its role for the intracity movement greatly increased.

Moscow has long gone beyond the MKAD, but it served as the administrative border of Moscow for a quarter of a century.

Features of Moscow in connection with its planning.

"Rings" around Moscow at different times were erected for different purposes: those built before the Kamer-Kollezhsky shaft were fortifications, after - attempts to unload the Center from transport. In general, the issue of traffic congestion in the central part of the city in cities with a radial-ring layout is very acute. For example, the center of Paris can handle 15,000 cars a day during rush hour. In Moscow, the situation is almost worse.

But Moscow also has pleasant features: for example, the radial-circular layout contributed to the architectural diversity of the capital. The Moscow metropolitan region is one of the most popular recreational areas in the world, and it owes this not to some individual sights, but to the layout of Moscow.

Moscow quickly overcame the only obstacles in its path - the Neglinnaya and Moskva rivers, therefore, the advantages of a radial-circular layout were most fully manifested in it - you can quickly move around the city, which is especially noticeable when using the subway. By the way, the Moscow Metro is unique in its kind, its scheme is practically the only one that has such a pronounced radial-ring structure.

In general, the main feature of Moscow is that

that it most strongly expressed the features of the radial-circular layout.

If functional zoning reflects, first of all, differences in the nature of use various parts of the city, the planning structure of the city is expressed in the mutual arrangement of the main functional zones and the system of connections between them. The planning structure of the city largely depends on the size and construction of the transport structure of the city. The transport infrastructure not only fixes the planning structure of the city, but also largely determines its subsequent development.

When designing a city, it is necessary to identify its "skeleton" of the territory of the most intensive development and the concentration of the most important functions, usually associated with the city center and main transport routes. The "framework" is the most conventional in time basis of the spatial planning organization of the city. In a generalized form, it fixes the geometry of the plan and thereby predetermines the trends in the further territorial development of the city.

It should be taken into account that the elements of the transport infrastructure are rigidly fixed in space, and this rigidity is the higher, the higher the communication class. In principle, three types of city planning schemes can be distinguished: radially- ring yu, chess and free(Fig. 2.2).

Rice. 2.2. Planning schemes of the city: a- radial-annular; b- chess; c - free

Radial-ring(concentric) scheme contains two fundamentally different types of highways - radial and ring.

Radial highways serve to connect the city center with peripheral areas, and ring streets connect the radial ones and ensure the transfer of traffic flows from one radial direction to another. This layout allows you to harmoniously arrange the building around the center, where the main objects of public and business development are concentrated (concentrated). With this layout, you can easily get to the city center. The advantage of the radial-ring scheme is the compact form of the plan, in which the natural environment of the city is disturbed to the least extent.

Chess the scheme, in which the streets intersect at an angle of 90°, assumes a relatively uniform development of the territory. This type of planning structure was widely used at all times. The advantage of the chess structure is the possibility of a uniform distribution of traffic flows. With such a layout, the demarcation of plots is easily carried out.

However, a large number of street crossings increases the mileage of transport, lengthens trips. The chess scheme makes it difficult to form a clearly defined central core and a system of centers for residential areas of the city.

Linear (tape) the scheme is a kind of chess layout, strongly elongated in one direction. The objects of the central part of the city in this case are located along the main highway or along several parallel highways. The linear scheme provides proximity to the natural environment and to other transport routes. This layout allows you to provide convenient transport links, reducing travel costs. However, as the city grows, with the lengthening of the development strip, a significant part of the territories turns out to be too far away from the centers of various ranks. In addition, the distances between individual parts of the city are significantly increasing.

In some old cities, the central part may consist of quiet and crooked streets that do not have a clear geometric pattern. Such a scheme is called free.

The main principles of the planning organization of the city:

Flexibility of the planning structure, ensuring the unimpeded development of the city;

Differentiation of transport routes;

Organization of an effective service system;

Creation of the ecological infrastructure of the city, including a different system of green spaces;

Efficient and economical equipping of the city with all types of engineering equipment;

Compositional requirements for the city plan (development of the city center, regional centers in the city, creating an attractive silhouette of the city and providing visual perception of its main natural and architectural dominants).

With all the features of the planning structure, which is formed on the basis of the considered transport schemes, taking into account the real situation, in cities (especially large and largest ones) fundamentally different territories can be distinguished according to the location of the zones within the city.

City center - a relatively small central area of ​​the city, in which there are sections of administrative buildings, cultural and business facilities, landscaped areas, squares, pedestrian paths, driveways and parking lots. The most outstanding architectural and historical structures are concentrated in this zone.

central area, in addition to the core of the city, it includes the intensively built-up area adjacent to it, as a rule, covered by a ring of railways, stations, industrial and warehouse areas. With the territorial expansion of the city, this zone is increasingly being rebuilt, undergoing redevelopment, changing its appearance and acquiring the functions of a center.

It is also characterized by a significant excess of the number of daytime population over the night and a gradual decrease in the number of permanent population.

outer zone- this is the territory of the city without suburbs, where the main part of the population is concentrated. In Moscow, this zone includes the territory within the Moscow Ring Road and St. Petersburg - an administratively subordinate territory without settlements subordinate to its administration. suburban area unites the territories surrounding the city, the formation and development of which is subject to its interests.

This zone performs an important function of organizing recreation for the population of the city, maintaining ecological balance, accommodating a number of communal facilities, and external transport. The suburban zone does not accommodate part of the industrial enterprises and settlements directly connected with the city, and it also eats reserve territories for the development of the city.

Placement of residential development

The main elements of the planning structure of the residential area of ​​the city are residential groups (residential courtyard), microdistricts (several residential groups united by cultural and community facilities (KBO), residential areas (several microdistricts united by a common center of regional significance) and planning districts ( several residential areas united by a common center of urban significance).

The residential group consists of several houses located side by side in a certain order. Several residential groups, united by objects of public, cultural and household purposes of everyday service, form a microdistrict. Neighborhoods are located within inter-main territories.

A residential area is formed from several microdistricts united by cultural and community facilities of periodic maintenance. The planning construction and composition of a residential area are determined by its place in the city plan, natural conditions, the general compositional idea and the historically developed building. An important factor The planning organization of the settlement is its division into inter-main residential areas by a network of city roads. Residential areas and microdistricts are formed in accordance with the structure of inter-main territories. Moreover, the more intensively the territory is used, the more transport is required for its maintenance and the more it is divided.

The planning area combines several residential areas and a complex of occasional public service facilities. Depending on the size of the city territory and the general planning structure, a residential area can be formed as one or more planning areas.

The general principle of the formation of the residential area of ​​the city is to ensure maximum convenience for the population in the implementation of socio-cultural and domestic needs with the rational use of urban land and other resources.

Territorial zoning

In accordance with the Town Planning Code, territorial zoning is carried out in urban and rural settlements. It is based on the allocation of settlement zones, united by functional use, parameters and restrictions on their development.

An approximate list of territorial zones of urban and rural settlements is established in the Town Planning Code and includes:

Residential areas;

Public and business zones;

Industrial zones;

Zones of engineering and transport infrastructures;

Recreational areas;

- zones of agricultural use;

Zones special purpose;

Zones of drinking facilities, other zones of regime territories.

residential areas- these are zones intended for living on-tion, as well as for living in combination with recreation or with the conduct of individual subsidiary plots.

There are several types of residential areas:

Zone of manor and blocked houses;

Zone of multi-apartment residential buildings up to three floors;

Zone of multi-apartment residential buildings of 4-5 floors;

Zone of multi-apartment residential buildings of 4-12 floors.

In public and business areas inter-settlement city or district socio-cultural services, administrative and economic management, credit, financial and social activity. The public business zone can be divided into several types: central, district, local training zone. For each type of zone, permits are established for related uses and those requiring special approval.

Production zone buildings are designed to accommodate industrial, communal and storage facilities that ensure their functioning of engineering and transport infrastructure facilities, as well as to establish sanitary protection zones for these facilities.

Engineering and transport infrastructure zones designed for the placement and operation of structures and communications of railway, automobile, river, sea, air and pipeline transport, as well as engineering equipment. The types of zones are established depending on the type and parameters of the structures and communications to be placed, as well as restrictions on the use of these territories, taking into account the provision of measures to prevent their harmful effects on the living environment.

Recreational areas designed to organize places of recreation for the population. They include areas of open spaces, natural landscapes, areas of forest parks for the organization of recreation for the population and areas of summer cottages.

And composition open spaces includes parks, squares, boulevards, coastal areas of rivers used by the population for recreation.

AT zone of natural landscapes includes parks, groves, forest parks, nature reserves. These objects are designed to preserve valuable natural features and landscapes and at the same time stimulate the creation of conditions for the recreation of the city's population. One of the conditions for their functioning is minimal (the effect on vulnerable elements of the environment

Forest park zones are designed to preserve the natural features of the territory and create conditions for the proper recreation of the population.

Cemeteries, crematoria are located in special purpose zones; polygons household waste, public utilities with protected zones, as well as other objects, the use of which is incompatible with the use of other types of territorial zones or is impossible without the establishment of special rules and regulations.

Zones of military facilities and other zones of regime territories are intended to accommodate objects in respect of which a special regime is being strengthened. In these zones allowed placement of other bases, towns, ranges, airfields, other security and space support facilities, military educational exercises, enterprises, institutions and organizations performing tasks in defense, security and space support.

The city is a large settlement in terms of population and geographical size. Its totality of economic, household, residential and engineering facilities determines the formation of a special environment for the life and activities of citizens. One of the most important issues in urban development is types and features of city planning, the variety of which can be reduced to two fundamentally different schemes: radial and chess.

Ring device of settlements

Chronologically, this principle of building construction began to be applied later than the rectangular intersections of streets characteristic of linear systems. In plan view, such a structure has a rounded shape with a concentric structure. Its skeleton is formed by the intersection of radial lines in the common central space, interconnected by ring streets.

Moscow is a classic example of ring building; in a modified version, the concentric structure is characteristic of other European capitals - Paris, Vienna, Berlin, Brussels. With the advantages of compactness and wide possibilities for easy expansion, radial city plan has a number of negative features:

• as the territory grows, the peripheral regions become more and more distant from each other and the main life support zones concentrated in the central part;
• the inevitability of overloading traffic flows in the center, causing the widespread development of road difficulties both within the city and beyond;
• difficulties with the reconstruction and / or modification of highways due to the density of buildings in the core of the city;
• the presence of the "bottleneck" effect - a phenomenon associated with a strong narrowing of a multi-lane highway, which leads to a decrease in the throughput of the route and additional waste of time for rebuilding the flow of cars;
• difficult to solve environmental problems air pollution from automobile and industrial emissions due to the lack of space for squares, parks and other recreational areas with green spaces.

There is a problem, there is a solution

There is an opinion among Moscow motorists that distances in the Russian capital are measured not in kilometers, but in hours. This is not surprising, because Moscow traditionally occupies a leading position in the world in terms of the length of time spent on moving between regions.

Statistics show that, on average, citizens spend about 1.5-2 hours in traffic jams every day, and during peak periods, losses can be more than a dozen hours. This situation shows that the already built ring lines are not able to unload traffic flows. Therefore, other methods must be used.

In the world, the problem of radial-circular planning is being solved by launching new and expanding the functionality of existing urban transport branches, building underground and above-ground communications, and modernizing highways. The replacement of the rings with separate chords, equipped with overlapping each other, showed itself well.

All these techniques are being actively developed and implemented in Moscow. The movement of the city electric train along the Small Ring of the Moscow Railway has already been launched. In view of the inexpediency of building the Fourth Transport Ring, small lines are being built to connect the largest outbound highways. Reverse traffic is organized in the most loaded parts of the street network.

Checkerboard layout of major cities

Externally, this type of settlement device is a right-angled intersection of avenues, as a result of which separate blocks of approximately equal size are formed. A regular structure based on the intersection of two overland trade routes arose in ancient times; it can be observed in the policies of the ancient Egyptian, ancient, Asian civilizations.

On the present stage a typical example is Petersburg city plan, the foundations of which were laid by Peter the Great. Other representatives of this type of urban development are Beijing, Chicago, Alma-ata. A chess-type variety includes a tape system, when the development of a street network goes along one direction due to a geographical obstacle: mountains, rivers, gorges. An example here is Volgograd, whose length is over 100 km.

Advantages and disadvantages

In contrast to the previous type of layout, the main advantage of the chess variety is the uniform distribution of traffic flows. The consequence here is the absence of a pronounced central zone, leading to a more even distribution of the most important objects throughout the city.

The chess organization provides unlimited opportunities for the growth of the settlement, however, in large cities of regular rectangular construction, it is often easier to get to the neighboring block on foot than by car. A large number of street crossings increases the mileage of private and public transport, and also requires great responsibility in matters of adjusting traffic lights.

In its purest form, radial or staggered urban planning is rare. As a rule, the type of urban geometry used in urban planning is determined by natural features object location. Yes, if available mountain range or the sea coast, a linear scheme is advantageous; when the city is located at the bend of the river, radial-circular buildings are more often formed.

1. Radial-ring layout
2. Chess layout
3. Strip-like, or linear structure
4. Multibeam or star structure
5. Multinuclear or petal structure
6. Irregular (spontaneous) structure

Which one is better for the city of the future?

Before answering this question, it is necessary to consider the current forms of city organization and take into account two methods of city formation:

a) a self-developing form of the city

b) the organized formation of the city.

Today's cities are formed according to the type of self-developing forms. In some place, a center appears and around it more and more microdistricts begin to form. Depending on the landscape, terrain features and the location of industries, cities self-develop into one form or another, from radial (Moscow) to cities of "one street" (Krivoy Rog).

Radial-ring layouts(Moscow), are formed mainly at the intersection of transport routes and river branches. Such cities benefit from uniform growth and improved spatial expansion, as well as greater accessibility to the city centre. To date, the radial-ring form is considered the most "mobile" form of the city's structure.

MOSCOW:

Checkerboard or cross layout(Chicago, Beijing, Kyoto) arises mainly at the intersection of two land routes, which determine the future layout of the streets. Growing, such a city begins to form the functional features of a microdistrict, dividing them into rectangles (sleeping sector, industrial, recreation area ...). Such an order is more demanding for social calculations, but easier to plan.

CHICAGO:

Strip or line structure(Rotterdam, Volgograd, San Francisco) occurs predominantly where there is any obstacle to a concentric city (for example, a mountain range, a wide riverbed, or a sea coast). Also, there are production reasons for the formation of linear cities, for example, as mines or quarries are developed (Krivoy Rog). The linear structure is the most unattractive for development, since transportation within the city, to various functional parts of the city, takes a long time and additional costs are incurred.

VOLGOGRAD:

Multibeam, or star structure(Paris) is a kind of radial construction, but the intersections of the streets in it take on Y-shaped forms. Most often this is due to the desire to preserve areas of nature. Such a structure is more characteristic of old cities (districts) with not dense buildings and may not have clearly defined ring-shaped routes. The formation of such cities occurs in the same way as radial ones. The disadvantages of such cities are low population density and large sizes such cities.

PARIS:

Multinuclear, or petal structure(Stockholm, Bryansk, Kyiv) arises in those cities that were united from several small settlements. Thus, creating several centers (cores) in the city, around which further development takes place. Such a construction has a lower concentration of the population (compared to radial ones), and also leads to uneven development.

BRYANSK:

Irregular (spontaneous) structure(Istanbul) most often arose in third world countries in which cities began "from barracks". Barracks were set up spontaneously, and as the city developed, they were rebuilt into capital structures, creating disordered structures of streets and districts.

ISTANBUL:

If you notice, up to this point we have been considering types of cities that developed independently, starting with a small settlement or group of settlements.

If we talk about the cities of the future, then they will be created in an organized manner, with a form of development planned in advance. Such an approach will make it possible to initially plan everything necessary - social structure, communications, life support systems and capacities, transport networks and energy production.

Today there are two opinions:
1. Current cities need to be developed further while maintaining their original layout.
2. It is necessary to build new cities "from scratch", relocate residents to them, and completely reconstruct old cities.

The first opinion is based on the preservation of the cultural and historical value of the old city. Although, if you look at it carefully, it is rare that buildings remain untouched for more than 100 years.
Also, the first approach has significant disadvantages - for example, the fact that new buildings of the city must be carried out in a cultural combination with the previous ones, which leads to the constant territorial expansion of cities with a low concentration of residents, the concreting of as many unused areas as possible, which ultimately leads to to the growth of concrete "deserts".

Take the city of Paris for example. I just want to say the phrase "And before there was a forest ...".

On the one hand, historical values ​​can be defended, which will lead to even greater depletion of soils and cutting down the last remaining forest areas. Do not be lazy, go to a Google satellite map or another, open your city in it, and see how much forest is left around your city and neighboring cities. But the forest is the lungs of the planet. This is our oxygen, which is becoming less and less every year. You and I are suffocating more and more, and the planet is increasingly turning into a concrete desert.

But you can simply build a city with a high density (about 10-20 thousand people per km²), move Paris there, for example, and reconstruct it on the site of the old one, restoring forests and significantly increasing the density (leaving the most important cultural values), and then relocate to his next city. And if, at the same time, the technologies of the Vega-Prime project are used, then such a city will cease to be a concrete desert and will harmoniously coexist with nature.

Think for yourself, in which apartment would you like to live? - from these two options:
a) nine five-story houses around yours, all in concrete and asphalt, cars under the windows ..
b) or a detached 50-storey house, and around your house, within a radius of 70-100 meters, nature, trees, grass... fresh air!

And if at the same time we are talking about the Vega-Prime project, then all the houses stand on six-meter supports, and lawns or playgrounds are located under the houses. In other words, if you look around, nature will be visible everywhere. Access roads to the house are of a mesh (cellular) type, raised one meter from the ground, under which grass also grows. The city is a park!
Minimum harm to nature = maximum fresh air for you and me.

Therefore, Vega-Prime adheres to the second opinion that it is necessary to build new cities "from scratch", relocate residents to them, and completely reconstruct old cities into environmentally friendly and harmless to the environment.

So, for our developments, we chose concentric cities with a radial-ring shape. This is the most ideal form for the organized construction of the city and future communications.

As has been accepted since ancient times, vital objects are located in the city center, and objects to which daily mass access is required. In the old days, such objects were defensive fortresses and shopping areas (markets). Today, these are enterprises, shopping malls, educational institutions, medical and other social institutions. It's kind of the core of the city. Residential areas are located in the second ring. And in the last ring - the production of food and life support.

Such a construction ensures the maximum availability of the necessary facilities, reduces the average duration of the movement of residents to the essentials, and also increases the speed of interaction between enterprises. In addition, the time of delivery of goods to the consumer is reduced, the mileage of engineering communications is reduced, the cascading of backup systems is increased at the lowest cost. Public transport systems are becoming more efficient than personal transport, which leads to a significant reduction in the traffic of individual vehicles.

But again, it is worth noting that such a construction is not possible with self-developing forms of cities, but only with a pre-planned infrastructure of the city, rebuilt "from scratch" and entirely (or sectorally).

Wind, sound, wave and other barriers are placed in the outer ring to create the necessary microclimate, as well as food production buildings - multi-story hydroponic farms and multi-story livestock farms (including multi-story poultry farms and fish farms).

Thus, the resident of the city is located between two rings containing the objects he most needs, and the speed of access to them is reduced to the maximum.

From all of the above, there is only one conclusion -
The cities of the future are cities with pre-planned infrastructure, built from scratch and entirely. And for such cities, the most ideal form is radial-annular.