The development of icon painting in ancient Russia. Russian icon painting from its origins to the beginning of the 16th century
GOU VPO "Transbaikal State Humanitarian and Pedagogical University named after V.I. N.G. Chernyshevsky"
Faculty of Art Education.
1.2 Russian schools of icon painting, style features, traditions
1.3 Veneration of icons in Russia
2. Images of the Mother in icons
2.1 Protector of the Russian land
2.2 Variants of iconographic schemes in Russian icons of the Mother of God, excerpts, deviations from the canons
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
In this work, we have to consider the image of the Mother in Russian icons. The interest in ancient Russian painting in our country is now enormous, and the difficulties of its perception among those who turn to it today are no less enormous. The main difficulty in studying iconography lies in the fact that it is built on church dogmas, which are almost unknown in our time. We don't know well Holy Bible, the lives of the saints, church hymns are unknown, and the "word" that underlies ancient Russian painting is also closed. The discoveries of archaeologists and art historians of the 20th century led to a revival of interest in ancient Russian art and icons in particular. Many ancient icons have been cleared, which even in the 19th century had no artistic value due to their darkening and “closedness”. Now that freedom of religion has been proclaimed in Russia, Orthodoxy and, accordingly, icon painting are being revived and spread.
Interest in ancient Russian art began to appear as early as the beginning of the 19th century. A hundred years after the reforms of Peter the Great, he was approached by a new Russian culture, the Russian intelligentsia, created as a result of the reforms. Interest in ancient Russian culture caused an appeal to its painting. Already in the "History of the Russian State" Karamzin mentions ancient Russian artists, provides information about their works. At the end of the 19th century, numerous collections were formed in Russia. The most famous of them are the collections of A. V. Morozov and I. S. Ostroukhov, in which the icons were no longer collected as ancient monuments, but as works of art. The discovery of ancient Russian painting at the beginning of the 20th century, the recognition of its artistic significance, revived the understanding of its true spiritual meaning. Since the post-war years, when interest in national culture began to revive, the icon as a phenomenon of this culture began to return to museum exhibitions: at first very timidly, but in the 60-80s already quite widely and openly. The mysterious mysterious beauty of the icon delighted and captivated, its artistic language, so different from the language of European art, became the subject of study and research by specialists. Alpatov M. V. Barskaya N. A. Lazarev V. N., Lyubimov L. D. and many other art historians address the topic of icon painting. Church authors also write about the icon, such as O. B. Ionaitis, Archbishop Anatoly (Martynovsky), Tarabukin N.M. Both N. Roerich and V. S. Solovyov and G. P. Fedotov and S. N. Bulgakov address the theme of the icon. Fundamental research in iconography was carried out by N. P. Kondakov and V. D. Likhacheva, Yu. G. Bobrov.
For many centuries, ancient Russian painting carried people, unusually brightly and fully embodying them in images, the spiritual truths of Christianity. The main, central image of all ancient Russian art is the image of Jesus Christ, the Savior, as he was called in Russia. Next to the images of the Savior in ancient Russian art, in their meaning and meaning, in the place that they occupy in the minds and in the spiritual life of people, are the images of the Mother of God - the Virgin Mary, from whom the Savior was incarnated, incarnated, the images of his earthly mother. To study the image of the Mother of God, we need to consider the history of the appearance of the icon in Russia, the development of the main Russian icon painting schools. It is also necessary to consider the reasons for such an all-encompassing and devoted service to the icons of the Virgin. To do this, we will consider the topic of icon worship, which grew in Byzantium from theological dogmas and organically entered Russian Christian culture. In the second part of the work, we investigate the attitude of the Russian people to the Mother of God as an intercessor and patroness of the Russian land, since this is precisely what causes the appearance in Russia of so many icons of the Mother of God. In conclusion, we will consider the iconography of the Mother of God, the main iconographic schemes and options for their execution in Russian icons. We will also consider the most common icons and individual icons from a pictorial point of view.
1. Icon in Russia
1.1 Origin of the icon
The art of icon painting originated in Byzantium long before the emergence of pre-Christian culture in Russia and became widespread in the Orthodox world. On the one hand, the roots of the pictorial techniques of icon painting are in book miniature, from which fine writing, airiness, and sophistication of the palette are borrowed. On the other hand, in the Fayum portrait, from which icon-painting images inherited huge eyes, the seal of mournful detachment on faces, and a golden background. The task of icon painting is the embodiment of a deity in a bodily image. The icon was supposed to remind the worshiper of the image that flashes in the mind of the worshiper. Therefore, iconographic images are characterized by the ultimate dematerialization of figures reduced to “two-dimensional shadows on a smooth surface of a board,” (5, p. 18), a golden background, “a mystical environment, not a plane and not space, but something unsteady, flickering in the light of lamps” (5, p. 19). Growing out of ancient images and allegorical images, in the IV - VI centuries. an illustrative-symbolic iconography is gradually taking shape, which has become the structural basis of all Eastern Christian art.
The icon comes to Russia with the adoption of Christianity. At this time, Byzantium experienced the flowering of spiritual life. Church art is developed here like nowhere else in Europe. It should be noted that for the rapid development of the Byzantine heritage in Russia, there were favorable prerequisites and already prepared ground. Recent research suggests that pagan Russia had a highly developed artistic culture. All this contributed to the fact that the cooperation of Russian masters with Byzantine ones was extremely fruitful. The newly converted people turned out to be able to accept the Byzantine heritage, which nowhere found such favorable soil and nowhere gave such a result as in Russia. Russia creates its own icon-painting school, powerful not only in terms of content and artistic skill, but significant in size. No country had such iconography as Ancient Russia. The icon was so widespread in Russia because “its form corresponded to the warehouse of the Russian Orthodox consciousness” (6 p. 27). With their decorativeness, ease of placement in the temple, the brightness and strength of their colors, the icons painted on the boards were the best suited for the decoration of Russian wooden churches. The mysterious mysterious beauty of the icon delights and captivates, its artistic language, which is so different from the language of European art, becomes the subject of study and research by specialists.
The icon cannot be perceived only as a work of art or worship. It shows us the synthesis of faith and creativity, the talent of a person and his worldview. “Great cultures are always religious, non-religious cultures are decadent,” wrote N. Trubetskoy, and history itself confirms this idea (Trubetskoy N. S. Religions of India and Christianity / / Literary Studies. 1991. No. 6. P. 144). Such and Old Russian icon painting: “Icon painting is the vision of God and the knowledge of God ... For its implementation, it requires the union in one person of the artist and the religious contemplator-theologian” (Bulgakov S. N. Orthodoxy: essays on the teachings of the Orthodox Church. M. 1991. P. 304). The ability to combine various layers of human existence made the icon close to the soul of a Russian person, and as a result, the icon reflected the vision of Russia, its history, its ideas. The icon has become an integral part of Russia itself. “The most characteristic thing that distinguishes Russian-Orthodox icon painting from Byzantine is its inner focus and sophianism. The icon, unlike wall painting, is intimate, self-deep and requires a concentrated connection between it and the person praying. These features of the Orthodox consciousness served as a stimulus for the development of the icon in Russia and its extraordinary distribution, both in churches and at home” (6, p. 31).
In the XIII century, Russia fell under the Tatar yoke, and creativity, especially the construction of temples, freezes. “But the more painfully the foreign yoke was experienced, the stronger the consciousness of national unity matured, the deeper the religious element penetrated into the consciousness of the enslaved people. The 14th century finds Russia on the rise. Partially liberated from the Mongols, the country is growing and strengthening in its spiritual power. The Battle of Kulikovo, the rise of Moscow, the founding of the Trinity Monastery, the scale of temple construction and the flourishing of icon painting are all symptoms of a national upsurge. Russia realized its originality. Byzantine influences have been reworked, and national art flourishes on their basis.” (6, p. 18) During this period, the most significant part of the temple becomes a purely Russian creation – the iconostasis. It is not just a partition between the altar and the rest of the temple, but is like an open book, the content of which is presented in visual images. The whole history of the church in its main moments is presented in the iconostasis and revealed to the eyes of the worshipers. If we add to this the prevalence of icons in domestic life, when the “red” corner was completely filled with icons, then we can explain the prevalence of icons in Russia.
The Russian icon differs, in addition to the above points, in a number of other qualities. So, if in royal Byzantium the stern image of the Mother of God Hodegetria was widespread, then in Russia the image of Tenderness became a favorite.
If Byzantium creates and distributes the image of the Savior Pantocrator, the inaccessible king and Almighty, then Russia resorts to a simple and close image of the Savior Not Made by Hands. Images of Nicholas the Wonderworker, a saint especially revered in Russia, are widespread.
In terms of color, the Russian icon is more colorful, the composition is complex and rhythmic. By the XIII - XIV centuries. the main schools of icon painting are already taking shape, each of which has its own characteristics of composition, color and technique.
1.2 Russian schools of icon painting
Unfortunately, the icons of the pre-Mongolian period, painted in the southern cities of Russia, have not come down to us. Therefore, about ancient period icon painting in Russia can be judged on the basis of Novgorod samples due to the geographical remoteness of Novgorod. The first Russian icons followed Byzantine models, which are characterized by a combination of sophistication and asceticism. The seal of the Byzantine school can be traced back to the 14th-15th centuries, when national features appear more and more in icon painting. Perhaps this is due to the termination of ties with Byzantium, which spiritually nourished local icon painters. In addition, at this time, the feudal fragmentation of the Russian state led to the emergence of a number of local schools. The mutual influence of these schools, if it took place, was slowed down due to the vast territory of the Russian state and poorly developed means of communication.
At present, art historians distinguish such main schools of icon painting as Novgorod, Pskov and Moscow. As for such cultural centers as Rostov, Suzdal, or Nizhny Novgorod, we can say about them that they had their own cadres of icon painters who had their own dialect of work; nevertheless, they could not rise to such a height of artistic creativity that one could talk about the allocation of their own school.
Novgorod school.
The works of Kyiv masters until the Mongol-Tatar invasion (1237-1240) served as models for local schools that arose during the period of feudal fragmentation in many principalities. The damage caused to ancient Russian art by the Mongol-Tatar invasion, the destruction caused by it, the capture of artisans, which led to the loss of many skills and secrets of craftsmanship, did not break the creative principle in the lands of Ancient Russia. The most fully preserved ancient monuments of Novgorod painting.
The icon-painting school of Veliky Novgorod has a number of distinctive features. This is also due to the geographical remoteness of Novgorod, its special political structure and the peculiarity of the economic activity of the Novgorodians. In some works, the influence of Byzantine art can be traced, which indicates the wide artistic ties of Novgorod. Novgorod icons are characterized by the opposition of red and white, as well as some features of real life. At the same time, the icon is a symbol that only hints, but does not show. Often, the icons depict scenes of an apocryphal nature, i.e., representing legends that are not recognized by the official church, but are widely circulated among the people. An example is the hagiographic icon of St. George the Victorious, and St. Nikola Ugodnik.
The compositions of Novgorod icons, no matter how complex they are - one-, two- or three-figure or multi-plot, narrative nature - they are all simple, perfectly inscribed in the plane and consistent with the form. All elements are evenly distributed, there are no overloaded or empty spaces. Figures, mountains, trees are arranged symmetrically, but this symmetry is broken by the turns of the figures, the inclinations of their heads, the various forms of mountains, buildings, trees and other images.
At this time, the so-called hagiographic icons became widespread. On such icons in the middle field there is a close-up image of the saint in full growth, or in a belt; and the side stamps depict miniature episodes from his life. The composition is always built in the same plane, decoratively. Complex compositions are sometimes made in several tiers, but always in the same plane, and the principle of soft dark and light silhouettes is strictly observed. They are characterized by monumentality, the majestic calmness of the image, the desire for laconism, even in narrative plots.
Novgorod painting is not rich in depictions of vegetation. All types of trees are decorative, solved conditionally, sometimes resembling an ornament. Mountains usually have beautiful soft silhouettes in soft yellowish, greenish, blue and violet-pink tones. Grass and trees are dark green tones.
Icons in the Novgorod style were painted in most cases in light yellow tones.
The image of a person is characterized by a graphic pattern of arms, legs, and body. The figures are somewhat elongated against nature, which gives them strict harmony and grandeur. The tones of the figures are soft, sonorous, but very deep. The color scheme is always calm and at the same time strong. The figures, their clothes, contain bright and dark details that enliven the quiet tones. Gold is used very little, only in especially solemn subjects (for example, "Christ in glory", "Christ in resurrection"). Here, clothes were painted with golden monkop, decorated with angel wings, furnishings.
The heads of the figures are characterized by their dark yellowish soft silhouette, the simplicity and clarity of the description of the eyes, eyebrows, nose, mouth and hair.
In the 30s of the 15th century, a new trend was born, associated with the penetration of paleologian art. It is characterized by more flattened and elongated figures, more movements, fluttering robes.
The convincing transmission of dogmatic moments will become the most typical sign of the Novgorod icon painting of subsequent icons. The most picturesque structure of the icon, which combines red-brown, dark yellow, greenish and blue tones in combination with a large golden assist, is characterized by amazing nobility and restraint. The drawing and plasticity of forms are marked by almost Hellenistic perfection.
“The Assumption Icon from the Novgorod Tithes Monastery (first third of the 13th century) on a dull gleaming golden background, combined with soft lilac and grayish-blue robes of angels and apostles, reproduces the favorite color of Kyiv mosaics. The finest writing of the icon resembles a miniature. The complex iconography of the "Assumption" with the psychological sharpness of the faces is interesting. The monumental design is unusual for Byzantium. There is no expression in the icon. Everything is restrained. Gestures, postures are majestic and solemn. The apostles, surrounding the bed with the reposed Mother of God, stand in mournful silence and deep reverence. They [icons] contain purely local, Novgorod features: impressiveness, severity, generalization and simplification of lines, enlargement of all forms and details” (6, pp. 35-37).
Pskov school.
Pskov iconographic painting has its own original face: it is also an asymmetric, unstable, inaccurate drawing, but always expressive; and a thick coloration of dark, dark green, cherry with an orange or pink tint, as well as blue tones. The style of writing is sweeping and expressive. In terms of forms of expression, the Pskov school was the most direct and impulsive of all Russian icon-painting schools, it is characterized by increased expression of images, sharpness of light reflections, pastosity of the brushstroke (the icons "Cathedral of Our Lady" and "Paraskeva, Barbara and Ulyana" - the second half of the 14th century) . Obviously, this is connected both with the democratic and independent political system of Pskov, and with the penetration of the plebeian element into the Pskov clergy.
The earliest surviving Pskov icons date back to the 13th century: "Assumption" from the church of the same name on Paromenia and "Odigitria" from the Church of St. Nicholas ot Kozh. These icons are distinguished by the heaviness and heaviness of the forms, the undisguised primitiveness of the composition; faces of the same type with wide slit eyes and large hooked noses have not yet acquired any specific Pskov features.
The most significant of the early icons of Pskov, where Pskov features are increasingly persistently making their way out, is the hagiographic icon of the prophet Elijah, now kept in the Tretyakov Gallery. It is an example of the emerging Pskov style with all its characteristic features. The image is maximally flattened; within the same board, we see a blind combination of unrelated topics. On the other hand, we do not see here another characteristic Pskov element - a combination of intense green and orange colors.
The famous icon painter Theophan the Greek has been working in Novgorod since 1378; and this circumstance could not but affect the art school of neighboring Pskov. It must be said that the development of the Pskov school took place at a slower pace than in neighboring Novgorod. It is possible that Pskov sculptors came to Novgorod to marvel at Feofan's skill and subsequently began to use artistic techniques in their work, which they were able to get acquainted with during the trip. Icons painted in a new style for Pskov include Deesis in the Novgorod Museum, Paraskeva, Barbara and Ulyana, as well as the Cathedral of Our Lady in the Tretyakov Gallery. There is a special liveliness and passion in these works.
XV century in Pskov art is distinguished by a stop creative development. The masters held on to their grandfather's legacy and no longer created new masterpieces.
Moscow school.
In Vladimir-Suzdal Russia, judging by the surviving remains of the frescoes of Pereslavl-Zalessky, Vladimir and Suzdal, as well as by single icons and facial manuscripts, local artists of the pre-Mongolian period relied on the creative heritage of Kyiv. The icons of the Vladimir-Suzdal school are distinguished by the softness of writing and the subtle harmony of colors. The heritage of the Vladimir-Suzdal school in the XIV-XV centuries served as one of the main sources for the emergence and development of the Moscow school of icon painting. The Moscow school is the youngest since Moscow for a long time was an insignificant and ordinary settlement. Obviously, the beginning of the Moscow school can be counted from the XIV century, when the metropolitans of All Russia settled in Moscow. Since the metropolitans at that time often came from Byzantium, they preferred to invite Greek masters to work in Moscow. Considering that in the 14th century a new Palaiologan style was gaining strength in Byzantium, it becomes clear that the first icons of the Moscow school bear a significant imprint of the artistic technique of the Greek masters. Thus, the painting of the Moscow school of the XIV century was a synthesis of local traditions and advanced trends of Byzantine and South Russian art. As examples, one can name the icons “Boris and Gleb”, Savior the Fiery Eye”, “Savior with a Shoulder”, 1340 or “Trinity”.
The second half of the 14th century is marked by the work of Theophan the Greek and his followers. However, this style was not destined to gain a foothold for a long time, since Andrei Rublev, who very soon departed from Feofan, did not share Feofan's methods of work, and often used the exact opposite.
In the work of Andrei Rublev, the Trinity, without a doubt, occupies a central place.
Rublev's work marks the highest point in the development of the Moscow icon painting school. It was Rublev who was the first to depart from Byzantine austerity and asceticism, breathing into the ancient canons new life. The art traditions of Rublev, Theophan the Greek and Daniil Cherny were developed in the icons and murals of Dionysius, which attract with their refinement of proportions, decorative festivity of color, and balance of compositions.
Other art centers
In addition to Novgorod, Pskov or Moscow, in many ancient Russian cities, such as Yaroslavl, Uglich, Rostov, and others, there were separate icon-painting workshops. However, their small number did not allow them to create a separate icon-painting school. Although local craftsmen mostly used the old grandfather techniques and changed the technique only when they received an impulse from Moscow or Novgorod, nevertheless, they also often created original works of high artistic value.
The icons and miniatures of the Tver school are characterized by severe expressiveness of images, intensity and expression of color schemes, and emphasized linearity of writing. In the 15th century, the orientation toward the artistic traditions of the countries of the Balkan Peninsula, which was characteristic of her earlier, intensified.
The Yaroslavl icon-painting school arose at the beginning of the 16th century during the period of rapid growth in the city's population. The works of the Yaroslavl masters of the early XIII century have come down to us, the works of the XIV century are known, and by the number of surviving monuments of painting of the XVI century Yaroslavl school not inferior to other ancient Russian schools. In the work of the Yaroslavl masters, the traditions of the art of Ancient Russia were carefully preserved. Yaroslavl icon painters painted compositions in which love for large masses, for strict and concise plots, for a clear and clear structure of scenes, is strongly felt.
We have described the most ancient icon-painting schools. On their basis, new schools were created in the 16th-17th centuries. On the basis of the traditions of the Novgorod school, the Stroganov school arises, which is distinguished by its diminutiveness of writing, small size, juicy colors, delicacy of postures and gestures, and complex landscape backgrounds. With the introduction of oil painting into tempera painting, the “Fryazh style” of icon painting appeared, conveying the form more voluminously. Thus, each of the icon-painting schools formed an original painting technique and contributed to both Russian and world artistic culture.
1.3 Veneration of icons
In the Orthodox Church for a very long time there was a question about the depiction of God and about the veneration of the icon. The Seventh Ecumenical Council (787) firmly defines the nature of the veneration of icons. “The veneration of icons by the Orthodox Church rests and is invariably affirmed on the dogma of the incarnation of the Son of God” (12, p. 342). That is, firstly, a person, being the likeness of God, is already “a kind of archetypal icon, a God-given image, an inexhaustible source of holiness” (12, p. 357). And secondly, Orthodoxy honors Christ as God "incarnated". Thus, the image of Christ is a confirmation of his earthly incarnation, a reinforcement of the faith of the one who prays. The definition of the image is transferred to the prototype. The veneration of the icon becomes the veneration of the image imprinted on it. “The light of the Transfiguration of Christ fills the icons with itself, illuminates them, is for them that creative principle that determines the very nature of the icon” (12, p. 354). Hence - the belief in the wonderworking of icons, the belief in the intercession of the saint depicted on it.
The history of Russian miraculous icons dates back to the first centuries after the baptism of Russia. The first temple erected in Kyiv by Vladimir the Red Sun, the Church of the Tithes, was dedicated to the Most Holy Theotokos - Her Assumption. Yaroslav the Wise erected the Indestructible Wall - the famous mosaic image of the Virgin Mary Oranta in the altar of St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv. This image is the creation of Greek masters called by the prince to Russia, and the explanatory inscription of the mosaic is also made in Greek: "God is in the midst of Her - and will not be shaken."
Despite the highest degree of religious veneration of the Mother of God in the Byzantine Church, there was no such thing as the transformation of one of the icons - Vladimir - into the main shrine not only of one temple or city, but of the entire Russian state.
“The Christian world is literally full of shrines, including Orthodox shrines dating back to the era of the Undivided Church. There is also a miraculous icon of the Mother of God, called "The Salvation of the Roman People", but this is only a local icon of one church, one of dozens of revered icons ...
There was no such icon in Rome the second - in Constantinople. Features of the Byzantine state system, with its imperial and ecclesiastical centralism, led to a huge concentration of Orthodox shrines in the capital of the empire. There are indications from the chronicles that there were especially revered icons in the imperial palace, revered by the patronesses of Constantinople and the empire against external and internal enemies (one of these miraculous icons of Constantinople was "Nicopeia" - "Victorious", taken out in 1204 from the city plundered by the crusaders and now in the Cathedral of San Marco in Venice). But in Constantinople, the main guardian of the empire is secretly kept in the imperial palace, is only a personal shrine and personal protection of the emperor ”(9, p. 31).
The icon reflected the features of Russian religiosity, folk character, philosophical and theological searches, and the history of the state. On the other hand, the icon directly took part in all the events of Russia: it was blessed with great feats of arms, it was taken into battle, it was taken away as a symbol of conquest, it was presented as a sign of submission. For example, the Smolensk Icon of the Mother of God was given to Prince Vsevolod at his marriage to the daughter of Constantine IX Anna. Then the icon passes to their son Vladimir Monomakh. In general, in Russia there is a custom to pass on the icon from generation to generation as the main value of the family. As mentioned above, churches and monasteries are built in honor of icons: the Church of the Tithes, the Tolgsky Monastery, the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow, the Sretensky Monastery, the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv - only a small part of what was built to glorify the miraculous icons of the Mother of God alone.
There are also many legends about how icons helped the Russian princes in battles, how they protected cities from destruction, how they warded off the enemy, etc. In general, it can be said that in Russia a special attitude is developing towards the icon not just as an image of God or a saint, but as “a blessed image that can perform miracles to establish the Glory of God on earth and strengthen the Orthodox faith through the ages” (15, p. 216).
2. Images of the Mother in icons
2.1 Protector of the Russian land
O the image of the Mother of God in Russian art occupies completely special place. From the very first centuries of the adoption of Christianity in Russia, love and veneration of the Mother of God entered deeply into the soul of the people. One of the first churches in Kyiv - Desyatinnaya, built during the reign of Prince Vladimir, was dedicated to the Mother of God. In the XII century, Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky introduced into Russian church calendar new holiday - Pokrov Holy Mother of God, thus marking the idea of the patronage of the Mother of God of the Russian land. Then, in the XIV century, the mission of the city of the Virgin will be taken over by Moscow, and the Assumption Cathedral in the Kremlin will be called the House of the Virgin. In fact, since that time, Russia has become aware of itself as consecrated to the Virgin Mary.
How many prayers have been lifted up on this earth Virgin, how many icons are dedicated to Her. Many of these icons became famous as miraculous, many were witnesses and participants in Russian history. A vivid example of this is the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God, which accompanied Russia at all stages of its history. The solemn meeting of the icon is described in the annals; in memory of it, the feast of the Presentation of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God was introduced, at the place where Muscovites, led by Metropolitan Cyprian, met miraculous icon, the Sretensky Monastery was founded, and the street along which the procession with the shrine moved was named Sretenka. In 1395, all of Moscow prayed before the Vladimir Icon for the salvation of Moscow from the terrible invasion of Tamerlane, and the Mother of God led the way. In 1480, the Intercessor turns the troops of Khan Akhmat from the borders of Russia. The river Ugra, where the troops of Akhmat stood, was popularly called the Belt of the Virgin, it was here, according to legend, that the Radiant Virgin appeared to the Khan and commanded to leave the Russian borders. In 1591, again, the Russians resorted to the intercession of the Most Pure, this year Kazy Giray approaches Moscow. Then the Muscovites prayed before the icons of Vladimir and Don. Again, God gave the victory. In the days of unrest and intervention at the beginning of the 17th century, the troops of the people's militia are fighting not just for Moscow and the Kremlin, but for their national shrine - "as if we had to die, rather than betray the image of Vladimir for desecration of the Most Pure Mother of God." In early chronicle sources, the victory over the interventionists is attributed to the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God.
In the XVII century, the royal icon painter Simon Ushakov painted the icon "The Mother of God - the tree of the Russian State". In the center of the icon is the image of Vladimir beautiful flower on a tree watered by Metropolitan Peter and Prince Ivan Kalita, who laid the foundations of Moscow statehood. On the branches of this wonderful tree, like fruits, holy ascetics are depicted. Below, behind the Kremlin wall, near the Cathedral of the Dormition, from which the tree grows, are the then healthy sovereign Alexei Mikhailovich and Tsarina Irina "from the child." Thus, Simon Ushakov immortalized and glorified the palladium of the Russian land - the Vladimir icon of the Mother of God. No other icon has received such an honor.
“The Theotokos dogma is based on the mystery of the Incarnation, and through the image of the Theotokos, the depth of the divine-human relationship is revealed to us. Mary, who gave life to God in His human nature, becomes the mother of God (Virgin Mary). And since this motherhood is supernatural, Her Virginity is also mysteriously preserved in it. The secret of the Mother of God lies in the fact that through Virginity and Motherhood She is a new creature. And the veneration of Her is connected precisely with this” (15, p. 35).
From the theotokos dogma,
Nowhere has iconography reached such a development as in Russia, nowhere has it created so many masterpieces and has not become a favorite form of fine art for an entire people for centuries.
The cult of the icon (from the Greek eikon - image, image) originated in the 2nd century. and flourished in the 4th century; The oldest surviving icons date back to the 6th century. The icon should be considered not as an image identical to the Deity, in contrast to pre-Christian idols, but as a symbol that allows spiritual communion with the “original” (archetype), that is, penetration into the supernatural world through the subject of the material world.
Icons were originally made in the technique of encaustic (wax painting), then tempera and, in rare cases, mosaics, and later (mainly from the 18th century), oil painting. The icon was especially widespread in Byzantium; original schools of icon painting arose in Coptic Egypt and Ethiopia, in the South Slavic countries, in Georgia. The Old Russian icon acquired real artistic brightness and originality.
On the basis of archaeological excavations, it has been established that the work with paints was known in Ancient Russia even before the adoption of Christianity. This is evidenced by the discovery of a pestle for grinding paints, discovered in an excavation at the site of the ancient Saransk settlement, where the city of Rostov the Great was later founded. But the technology of painting and binders, on which thin paints were overwritten, are not yet known.
The icon consists of four to five layers, arranged in the following order: base, primer, paint layer, protective layer. The icon may have a salary of metals or any other materials.
The first layer is the base; most often it is a wooden board with a fabric called a canvas glued to it. Sometimes the board happens without a canvas. Very rarely, the basis for works of yolk tempera was made only from canvas. The reason for this phenomenon is obvious. Wood, not stone, served as our main building material, so that the vast majority of Russian churches (9/10) were wooden. With their decorative effect, ease of placement in the temple, the brightness and strength of their colors (ground on egg yolk), the icons painted on the board (pine and lime, covered with alabaster primer - "gesso"), were the best suited for the decoration of Russian wooden churches. No wonder it was noted that in Ancient Russia the icon was the same classical form of fine art as in Egypt - a relief, in Hellas - a statue, and in Byzantium - a mosaic.
The second layer is soil. If the icon is painted in a late manner, combining tempera with paints on other binders (mainly oil), and the layers of the primer are colored (colored pigments are used, not traditional chalk or plaster), then it is called “ground”. But in the yolk tempera that prevailed in icon painting, the ground is always white. This type of soil is called gesso.
The third layer is colorful. The paint layer consists of various paints successively applied to the primer. This is the most essential part of a painting, since it is with the help of paints that an image is created.
The fourth is a protective (or cover) layer of drying oil or oil varnish. Very rarely, protein was used as a material for the protective layer. chicken egg(on Belarusian and Ukrainian icons). Currently - resin varnishes.
Salaries for icons were made separately and fixed on them with nails. They are made of metals, embroidered fabrics, and even carved wood, covered with gesso and gilding. They did not cover the entire pictorial surface with salaries, but mainly halos (crowns), the background and fields of the icon, and less often almost its entire surface, with the exception of images of heads (faces), arms and legs.
For many centuries in Russia they wrote in the technique of yolk tempera; now they use the terms "egg tempera", or simply "tempera".
Tempera (from the Italian "temperare" - to mix paints) - painting with paints, in which the binder is most often an emulsion of water and egg yolk, less often - from vegetable or animal glue diluted in water with the addition of oil or oil varnish. Color and tone in works painted in tempera are incomparably more resistant to external influences and retain their original freshness much longer compared to oil painting paints. The technique of yolk tempera came to Russia from Byzantium at the end of the 10th century along with the art of icon painting.
Until the end of the 19th century, Russian icon painters, speaking about the process of mixing a pigment with a binder, used the expression “rub paints”, or “dissolve paints”. And the paints themselves were called "created". From the beginning of the 20th century, only paints made from powders of gold or silver mixed with a binder (created gold, crafted silver) began to be called created. The rest of the paints were called simply tempera.
Icons in Russia appeared as a result of the missionary activity of the Byzantine Church at a time when the significance of church art was experienced with particular force. What is especially important and what was a strong inner impulse for Russian church art is the fact that Russia adopted Christianity precisely in the era of the revival of spiritual life in Byzantium itself, the era of its heyday. During this period, nowhere in Europe was church art as developed as in Byzantium. And at that time, the newly converted Russia received, among other icons, as an example of Orthodox art, an unsurpassed masterpiece - the icon of the Mother of God, which later received the name of Vladimir.
Rostov-Suzdal school.
Rostov-Suzdal and Zalesskaya Rus are in ancient times vast lands from the Oka and the Volga to the White Lake. These lands became the second center of Russian statehood and culture after Kyiv. In the very center of Russia for three centuries, from the 10th to the 13th, the cities of Rostov the Great, Murom, Suzdal, Vladimir, Belozersk, Uglich, Kostroma, Tver, Nizhny Novgorod, Moscow arose.
The icons painted in Rostov the Great represent it as a center, a kind of academy for painters of North-Eastern Russia. They confirm the significance and bright originality of the national Central Russian ancient painting and its important role in public art.
The icons of the Rostov-Suzdal school already at the first meeting amaze us with the brightness and purity of light, the expressiveness of a strict design. They are characterized by a special harmony of a rhythmically built composition, soft warm shades of color.
The oldest of the Suzdal icons - the Maximovskaya Mother of God - was painted in 1299 by order of Metropolitan Maxim in connection with the transfer of the metropolitan see from Kyiv to Vladimir. The Mother of God is depicted full-length with a baby in her arms. The icon has significant losses from ancient painting, but the unusually expressive silhouette, smoothly running lines of the drawing speak of the very high skill of its creators.
Paintings of the 14th century - the time of the struggle with the Mongol-Tatars - bear the features of the time, their images are full of deep mournful power. They found expression in the icon of the Virgin (14th century). It is characteristic that even the clothes of the Virgin - maforium - with their almost black color symbolize the depth of sadness.
The 15th century is rightly considered the heyday of ancient Russian painting. In the traditions of the Rostov-Suzdal school, one of the masterpieces was painted in the 15th century - an icon depicting the Feast of the Intercession. This holiday was introduced by Andrei Bogolyubsky and became especially popular in the Vladimir-Suzdal land. The central image of this work is the Mother of God, who overshadows people with her cover, protecting them from troubles. This work is full of soothing harmony. This impression is created by a balanced composition, color, built on the relationship of light brown, red and white color shades.
In the 15th century, hagiographic icons became especially widespread, where the image of the saint is framed with hallmarks with scenes from his life. This is how the icon of Nikola (16th century) is made - a saint, especially popular in Russia. In this icon, the richness of pink, light green, light brown, the finest shades, next to blue and red spots on a white background, is striking. This richness of color gives the icon freshness and sonority.
For the 16th century, when the idea of statehood is growing stronger, strict, sublime images are characteristic. At this time, the icon of the Mother of God Hodegetria (in Greek - “warrior”) was painted. Along with such works, there are others, they feel a living folk understanding of the images, their interpretation.
In the icon of the Annunciation, the artist introduces the image of swans, which in the popular imagination were associated with the image of a virgin bride.
From the 2nd half of the 16th century, the composition of icons began to become more complicated. This trend is gradually increasing, and in the 17th century the artist strives to convey in as much detail as possible the legend underlying this or that icon image. So, the icon "Descent into Hell" is not only very detailed, but for greater persuasiveness it is supplemented with inscriptions. In the underworld, next to the demons, personifying human sin, there are inscriptions: “tatba”, “fornication”, “despair”.
At the end of the 17th century, features appeared in Russian icon painting, indicating the approach of the era of realistic painting. Artists strive to paint icons in a manner close to realistic, conveying the volume of faces, figures, and environment. It is these features that characterize the icon of the Vladimir Mother of God of the late 17th century.
All these icons of the Rostov-Suzdal school amaze us either with the brightness, freshness and harmony of the artistic structure, or with the complexity and amusingness of the narrative, opening a window into the past for us, giving us the opportunity to get in touch with the rich and in some ways not fully understood world of our ancestors.
Moscow school.
The Moscow school took shape and developed intensively in the era of the strengthening of the Moscow principality. Painting of the Moscow school in the 14th century. represented a synthesis of local traditions and advanced trends of Byzantine and South Slavic art (the icons "Savior the Fiery Eye" and "Savior the Shoulder", 1340, the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin). The heyday of the Moscow school in the late 14th - early 15th centuries. associated with the activities of prominent artists Theophan the Greek, Andrei Rublev, Daniil Cherny. The traditions of their art were developed in the icons and murals of Dionysius, which attract with the sophistication of proportions, decorative festivity of color, and balance of compositions.
The Rostov-Suzdal school, known in Russia since pre-Mongol times, served as the soil on which Moscow painting developed and developed in the 14-16 centuries.
It existed for a long time next to the Rostov-Suzdal painting, but the final dissolution of the Rostov-Suzdal painting in the new Moscow direction did not happen. The originality of the first is obvious, and even in the 16th century their works remain faithful to their traditions.
When did the Moscow school of painting appear?
This is very difficult to ascertain, since at first the art of Moscow resembled the art of the Vladimir-Suzdal land, just as the history of Moscow itself merged with its history.
Perhaps the origin of the Moscow school can be associated with such icons of Central Russian origin, such as, for example, "Boris and Gleb" of the early 14th century. Royally majestic, slender and graceful are these young warriors in magnificent clothes, with a sword and a cross in their hands.
Already in the early Moscow icons, colors complement each other, and the beauty of their dimensional consistency, and not in contrasts. And the linear rhythm of Moscow icon painting is also softly but confidently coordinated in measured sound, without the effects that, for example, a comparison of the vertical with the horizontal gives.
By the beginning of the 15th century, Moscow occupied an exceptional position in Eastern Europe, both politically and culturally. The Moscow principality grew stronger and grew. Artists from many countries rushed to Moscow, for whom it became one of the largest cultural centers. So Theophanes the Greek, who had already become famous in Novgorod, ended up in Moscow.
The perfection of Feofan's artistic techniques - the heritage of a very ancient culture that had long reached its zenith - was especially important for the final formation of the art of a young, but already conscious of its world significance power.
In Moscow, perhaps under the influence of the Moscow painting tradition, Feofan showed in his compositions less passion, less dynamism, but more than in Novgorod, majestic solemnity. This is evidenced by his writings. central figures the deesis tier of the iconostasis of the Annunciation Cathedral, among which the figure of Mary is especially attractive with its picturesque perfection. His other Moscow works have not been preserved.
In addition to Theophan himself, they worked on the painting of the Annunciation Cathedral under his general supervision “Prokhor the elder from Gorodets, and the black Andrei Rublev”.
Andrei Rublev was revered during his lifetime for outstanding skill, but true fame came to him after his death, and not immediately. But this glory turned out to be indisputable.
The discovery of Rublev's "Trinity" made a stunning impression, everyone was seized with boundless admiration: one of the most significant, most spiritual creations of world painting was released from the dungeon that had hidden it for so long.
"Trinity" served as the foundation for the reconstruction of the creative individuality of Andrei Rublev. And even the idea was expressed that it was this Rublev masterpiece that most likely gives the key to understanding the beauties of all ancient Russian painting.
All Rublyov's painting sounds like a delightful symphony, like a lyrical verse about universal brotherly affection. How much joy is generously prepared for us here by the means of painting alone, so before this creation of Rublev we are really ready to agree with Leonardo Da Vinci, who said that painting is the queen of the arts.
These feelings, these joys arise in the contemplation of Rublev's "Trinity", even if you do not know what, in essence, its plot is. The icon in marvelous colors and images glorifies brotherhood, unity, reconciliation, love, and with its very beauty proclaims the hope for the triumph of these good principles.
In the work of Rublev, the ancient Russian pictorial culture found its most vivid, most complete expression, and his “Trinity” was destined to serve as a beacon for all subsequent Russian icon painting, until this art itself lost its full-bloodedness. The seal of Rublev's genius on many works of art that the Russian people have the right to be proud of.
A number of excellent Moscow icons of the first decades of the 15th century testify to the general flourishing of painting in the Rublev era. One of the greatest masters, whose names have not come down to us, was the author of the icon of the Archangel Michael from the Archangel Cathedral in Moscow, which, in terms of its artistic merits, can be put on a par with the highest achievements of ancient Russian painting. Moreover, in this icon, the beginning of not bright joy or pacifying sincerity triumphs, but the epic, heroic.
Archangel Michael here is not a meek, thoughtful angel with a poetically inclined head, but a menacingly straightened young warrior, with a sword in his hands, breathing courage. It was not for nothing that he was considered the leader of the heavenly host, the conqueror of Satan and the patron of Russian princes. There is no longer a sweet dream of a well-ordered world, but the embodiment of military prowess and the will to fight.
The whole composition in its linear and colorful rhythm is dynamic, everything in it seethes, as if obeying a certain force that shines through in the gaze of the winged guardian of the Russian land.
... The torch of Russian art, so highly raised by Rublev, passes by the end of the century into the hands of his worthy successor Dionisy. His frescoes at the Ferapontov Monastery are a monument of ancient Russian art. In his compositions there is such light elegance, such high decorativeness, such exquisite grace, such sweet femininity in their rhythm, in their gentle sound, and at the same time such solemn, strictly measured, “slowness”, which corresponded to the court ceremonial of the then Moscow. In this regularity, restraint, Dionysius shows artistic wisdom, already appreciated by his contemporaries. The turns of the figures are barely indicated, the movements sometimes freeze in one gesture or even a hint of a gesture. But this is enough, because the integrity and beauty of his compositions are based on the absolute internal balance of all parts. And as P.P. Muratov rightly says, “after Dionysius, ancient Russian painting created many beautiful works, but the Dionysian dimension and harmony were never returned to it.”
The last great flapping of the wings of ancient Russian creativity.
Stroganov school.
The name "Stroganov school" arose due to the frequent use of the family mark of Solvychegodsky merchants Stroganovs on reverse side icons of this direction, but the authors of most of the works of the Stroganov school were Moscow royal icon painters, who also carried out orders from the Stroganovs - connoisseurs of fine and sophisticated craftsmanship. Icons of the Stroganov school are characterized by their small size, miniature writing, juicy, dense, half-tone color scheme, enriched by the extensive use of gold and silver, the fragile effeminacy of the characters' poses and gestures, and the complex fantasy of landscape backgrounds.
Novgorod school.
The most fully preserved ancient monuments of Novgorod painting. In some works, the influence of Byzantine art can be traced, which indicates the wide artistic ties of Novgorod. The type of a motionless saint with large features and wide eyes is common. For example, "St. George", the Armory, Moscow; double-sided icon with images of the Savior Not Made by Hands and the Adoration of the Cross, late 12th century, Tretyakov Gallery.
The glory of the "Novgorod letters" - the icons of the Novgorod school - was so great that many connoisseurs considered almost all the best ancient Russian icons to be Novgorod, and some researchers even tried to attribute Rublev and Dionisy to it.
These attempts were not justified. But there is no doubt that in the 15th century the Novgorod school reached its peak, which "leaves behind everything that was created before." (I.V. Alpatov)
In Novgorod painting, almost from its inception and in all subsequent centuries, the folk principle manifests itself with special force, with special perseverance. It will find a broad reflection of the practical - economic attitude to the functions and meanings of the saints.
Inherited from paganism, the closest interweaving with everyday life, divine powers with the forces of nature and its benefits has long left its mark on the ancient Russian worldview.
The icon painter never painted from nature, he strove to capture an idea. Novgorod art is especially characterized by the desire to make the idea extremely clear, really tangible, accessible.
Among the earliest Novgorod icons that have come down to us are masterpieces of world significance. Such, for example, is the "Angel with Golden Hair", probably written at the end of the 12th century. What a high, pure beauty in this unforgettable image!
In the icon of the Novgorod school "Assumption" (13th century), some figures of the apostles literally shock us with the life truth of those deep experiences that an inspired artist unknown to us captured in them. Often the artist portrayed very real people, while typical representatives of the ruling Novgorod elite, with the highest heavenly powers. This is a significant phenomenon in ancient Russian painting, very characteristic of the Novgorod school with its desire for concreteness, truthful expressiveness. Thanks to this, we can clearly imagine the appearance of the then noble Novgorodian.
Novgorod icons are very emotional. Thus, in the icons of the Assumption of the Virgin, the artist conveyed with amazing power the great drama of death, the all-consuming human grief. The same theme found expression in the famous icon "The Entombment" (2nd half of the 15th century).
Novgorod icons are beautiful in their color contrasts. In them, each color plays on its own, and each enhances the other in mutual opposition. The compositions of Novgorod painting, no matter how complex they may be - one-, two-, three-figure or multi-plot, narrative nature - they are all simple, perfectly inscribed in the plane and consistent with their forms. All elements are distributed in them evenly and according to their importance. They have neither too busy nor empty seats. The background spaces between the individual images take on beautiful forms, playing a big role in the composition. Figures, mountains, trees are often arranged symmetrically. This composition closed, received a complete completion. At the same time, this symmetry was broken by the turns of the figures, the inclinations of their heads, various forms of mountains, breams, buildings, trees and other images.
Other Schools of Iconography.
Volga school.
The icons of the Volga region are characterized by the following features: energetic, clear construction, dark, deep-sounding tones. The Volga origin of the icon betrays a special predilection for water landscapes. There are four of them. Three show violent dark waters playing with steep waves. On the fourth - quiet waters, a sandy shore, where a miracle happens in broad daylight: a traveler with a white bag on his shoulder comes ashore from the gaping huge mouth of a fish. This icon of Nikola Zaraisky with life (16th century).
The icon “The Entombment” (end of the 15th century) is interesting. The figures of the characters are arranged in clear horizontal rows parallel to the tomb with the body of Christ. As if repeating these horizontal lines, ledges of hills rise in the background, diverging from the center to the sides. The figure of Mary Magdalene with her hands raised high, as it were, personifies hopelessness and despair.
In the icon "The Last Supper" (end of the 15th century), the icon painter conveys the dramatic situation extremely expressively: frozen in various poses, with different hand gestures, the apostles are depicted around a white oval table. On the left, at the head, sits Christ, to whom the extreme apostle crouched in an expressive movement.
Yaroslavl school.
The Yaroslavl icon-painting school arose at the beginning of the 16th century. during the period of rapid growth of the city's population, the formation of the merchant class. The works of the Yaroslavl masters of the early 13th century have come down to us, the works of the 14th century are known, and by the number of surviving monuments of painting of the 16th and 17th centuries. the Yaroslavl school is not inferior to other ancient Russian schools. In the work of the Yaroslavl masters, the traditions of the high art of Ancient Russia were carefully preserved until the very middle of the 18th century. At its core, their painting remained true to that great style, the principles of which were formed in ancient times, developed for a long time in miniature painting. Along with the "petty" images, Yaroslavl icons in the 18th century. they also wrote compositions in which love for large masses, for strict and laconic silhouettes, for a clear and clear order of scenes in stamps is palpable in the same way as in the works of masters of the 15th-16th centuries. Works of Yaroslavl masters of the second half of the 17th - early 18th centuries. for a long time they were recognized in Russia as samples of the old national art. They were collected by admirers of ancient icon painting - the Old Believers, carefully studied by the artists of Palekh and Mstera, who continued in the 19-20 centuries. to paint icons in the traditions of Russian medieval painting.
One of the oldest icons that have come down to us is “Our Lady of the Great Panagia”. In the decorative design of the icon, the use of gold plays an important role, giving the image an impression of majestic beauty and unearthly splendor. In the rhythmic construction of the icon, the activity of the white color, skillfully applied in the painting of faces, is also used.
The emotional richness of the image is typical for the icon of the Savior Not Made by Hands (13th century). It is enhanced by the juicy, major painting of the background - the board, sustained in bright yellow and red tones of several shades.
Nizhny Novgorod school.
One of the interesting icons of Nizhny Novgorod origin is "The Fiery Ascent of the Prophet Elijah with Life" (14th century). It is written broadly, freely. Scenes of life are full of movement, gestures are expressive. The richest variety of individual characteristics of the characters. The faces are written in dark sankir: free lettering in bright white marks the expressiveness of the face shapes, the sharpness of the gaze. The artist focuses on the main thing - the state of mind, impulse, expression of the spirit; tension reigns in the icon, some kind of concentrated state of comprehension of the truth and meditation.
The icon "The Miracle of Demetrius of Thessalonica with Life" (first half of the 16th century) was made in the same manner - the same characteristic graphic clarity of the silhouette and bright saturated tones that distinguish Nizhny Novgorod monuments of the 14th-16th centuries.
Tver school.
The Tver school of icon painting developed in the 13th century. Icons and miniatures of the Tver school are characterized by severe expressiveness of images, tension and expression of color relationships, and emphasized linearity of writing. In the 15th century the focus on the artistic traditions of the countries of the Balkan Peninsula, characteristic of her earlier, intensified.
Pskov scale.
The Pskov school took shape during the period of feudal fragmentation and reached its peak in the 14th-15th centuries. She is characterized by increased expression of images, sharpness of light reflections, pastosity of the stroke (the icons "Cathedral of Our Lady" and "Paraskeva, Barbara and Ulyana" - both 2nd half of the 14th century, Tretyakov Gallery). In painting, the collapse of the Pskov school began at the turn of the 15th and 16th centuries.
It is believed that God moves the hand of the icon painter. We will tell you about the seven masters whose work made Russian icon painting one of the greatest achievements of both national and world culture.
Theophanes the Greek (about 1340 - about 1410)
In miniature: The Don Icon of the Mother of God by Theophanes the Greek. One of the greatest icon painters of his time, Theophanes the Greek was born in Byzantium in 1340 and for many years honed his unique expressive style, painting the temples of Constantinople, Chalcedon, Genoese Galata and Kafa. However, none of the frescoes of that period has survived to this day, and the world-wide fame of the master was made up of murals made in Russia.
He arrived in Novgorod (in 1370), he was already an accomplished icon painter. Theophan's first work in Novgorod was the painting of the Church of the Transfiguration of the Savior on Ilyina Street - the only monumental work of Theophanes the Greek that has survived. Time spared the frescoes with the famous bust of the Almighty Savior with the Gospel, with the figures of Adam, Abel, Noah, Seth and Melchizedek, as well as the images of the prophets Elijah and John.
Twelve years later, Theophan the Greek moved to Moscow, where he supervised the work of masters in painting the churches of the Moscow Kremlin. Not everyone knows: the original frescoes of Theophanes the Greek and his students have not been preserved, but individual fragments of their composition were reproduced again and again on the walls of the Kremlin cathedrals. Special mention deserves the fact that the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, together with Theophan the Greek, was also painted by Elder Prokhor from Gorodets and Andrei Rublev.
In addition to icon painting, Theophanes the Greek created miniatures for books and designed the Gospels - for example, the great Byzantine master painted the ornamental decorations of the famous Gospel of the Moscow boyar Fyodor Koshka.
Interesting fact: Feofan Grek is credited with the authorship of icons from the iconostasis of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. This is the first iconostasis in Russia with full-length figures of saints. Also, it is the brushes of the Greek that belong to the Don Icon of the Mother of God stored in the Tretyakov Gallery and the icon of the Transfiguration of Jesus Christ on the mountains. e Tabor.
Andrei Rublev (circa 1360 - 1428)
In miniature: Icon "Trinity" by Andrey Rublev.Andrei Rublev can be called the most famous and - if such a definition is possible in a conversation about a sainted monk-artist - a popular Russian icon painter, whose work for hundreds of years has been a symbol of the true greatness of Russian art and absolute devotion to the chosen life path.
Until now, neither the place of birth of Rublev, nor even the name given to him at birth is known - he was named Andrei already when he was tonsured a monk - however, the scarcity of factual information about the master in a certain sense even adds to his image of expressiveness and brightness.
The earliest of famous works Rublev is considered to be joint painting of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin in 1405 with Feofan the Greek and Prokhor from Gorodets. After the completion of this work, Rublev painted the Assumption Cathedral in Zvenigorod, and later, together with Daniil Cherny, the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir.
Rublev's unsurpassed masterpiece is traditionally considered the icon of the Holy Trinity, painted in the first quarter of the 15th century - one of the most versatile icons ever created by Russian icon painters, which is based on the story of God appearing to the righteous Abraham in the form of three young angels.
Interesting fact: narrating about the painting of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, the Trinity Chronicle mentions the name of the “dark Rublev” as the last in a row of Feofan the Greek-Prokhor from Gorodets-Rublev, which, according to the chronicle tradition, means that it was he who was the youngest in the artel. At the same time, the very fact of working together with Theophan the Greek makes it clear that by that time Rublev was already an accomplished master.
Daniel the Black (circa 1350 - 1428)
In miniature: Fresco "Bosom of Abraham" by Daniil Cherny.Many books and articles on Russian icon painting also often mention monk Daniel only in the context of his joint work with the author of the great Trinity, however, in fact, his merits to Russian culture are by no means exhausted by this.
Daniil Cherny was not only Rublev's senior comrade and mentor (according to the famous "Spiritual Letter" of Joseph Volotsky), but also an absolutely self-sufficient and experienced artist, who differed from many of his contemporaries not only in his truly unique gift as a painter, but also in his ability to work with composition, color and the nature of the drawing.
Among the author's works of Daniil Cherny there are both frescoes and icons, the most famous of which are the "Bosom of Abraham" and "John the Baptist" (Assumption Cathedral of Vladimir), as well as "The Mother of God" and "The Apostle Paul" (Trinity-Sergius Lavra)
Interesting fact: joint work Daniil Cherny and Andrei Rublev posed a difficult problem for historians to separate their works, an interesting solution to which was proposed by art historian Igor Grabar. Icons and frescoes by Daniil Cherny must be recognized as those in whose features the signs of the previous school of writing of the XIV century are visible. The irreproachable logic of such a decision is as follows: in comparison with Rublev, Daniil Cherny can be considered an artist of the older generation, therefore, all signs of the “old” icon painting are the work of his hands.
Dionysius (circa 1440 - 1502)
On thumbnail: Icon "Descent into Hell" by Dionysius. The name of Dionysius embodies, perhaps, the best and largest achievements of Moscow icon painting of the 15th-16th centuries. Historians and art historians consider him a kind of successor to the traditions of Andrei Rublev, taking his place of honor among the greatest Russian icon painters.
The earliest known work of Dionysius is the miraculously preserved painting of the Church of the Nativity of the Mother of God in the Pafnutyevo-Borovsky Monastery near Kaluga (XV century). More than a hundred years later, in 1586, the old cathedral was demolished in order to build a new one. Stone blocks with frescoes by Dionysius and Mitrofan were used in its foundation, where they were successfully discovered many years later. Today, these frescoes are kept in the Moscow Museum of Ancient Russian Culture and Art and the Borovsk branch of the Kaluga Museum of Local Lore.
In 1479, Dionysius painted the iconostasis for the wooden Church of the Assumption in the Joseph-Volokolamsk Monastery, and 3 years later - the image of Our Lady Hodegetria on a burnt Greek icon from the Ascension Monastery in the Moscow Kremlin, destroyed in 1929.
The work of Dionysius in the north of Russia deserves special mention: around 1481 he painted icons for the Spaso-Kamenny and Pavlovo-Obnorsky monasteries near Vologda, and in 1502, together with his sons Vladimir and Theodosius, frescoes for the Ferapontov Monastery on Beloozero.
Interesting fact: the manner of writing Dionysius can be judged by the superbly preserved frescoes of that same Ferapontov monastery on Beloozero. These frescoes have never been repainted or subjected to serious restoration, thus remaining as close as possible to their original appearance and color scheme. .
Gury Nikitin (1620 - 1691)
On thumbnail: Icon "Martyrs Kirik and Julitta" by Gury Nikitin) Murals Kostroma icon painter Gury Nikitin is not only an example of the splendor and symbolism of Russian icon painting, but a combination of decorativeism and monumentality, truly unique for his time, within the framework of one work. The fact is that it was during the period of Nikitin's creative maturity - and this is approximately the 60s of the 17th century - that the rise of Russian monumental and decorative art falls - and these trends do not bypass the young master.
In a difficult year for the Russian church in 1666, Guriy Nikitin took part in the renewed work on the painting of the Archangel Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin - Nikitin painted the images of martyr soldiers on pillars, as well as certain parts of the monumental composition "The Last Judgment". After 2 years, Nikitin painted 4 icons for the Moscow church of St. Gregory of Neokessaria.
However, perhaps the main "professional achievement" of Gury Nikitin was the murals in the Yaroslavl Church of Elijah the Prophet and the Kostroma Ipatiev Monastery. During these years, he was already in charge of a group of icon painters, while doing the most difficult part of the work - he single-handedly drew the contours of all the frescoes, which were then completed by the students.
Interesting fact: if you believe the Patrol Book of 1664, it turns out that Nikitin is not the surname, but the patronymic of the famous icon painter. Full name masters - Gury Nikitin (Ni Kitovich) Kineshmtsev.
Simon Ushakov (1626 - 1686)
In miniature: Icon of the Mother of God "Tenderness" by Simon Ushakov. Favorite of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, the beloved and only icon painter of the first persons of the state, an unsurpassed master of drawing and color, Simon Ushakov, in a certain sense, marked the beginning of the process of “secularization” of church art with his work. Fulfilling the orders of the tsar and the patriarch, the tsar's children, the boyars and other important people, Ushakov painted more than 50 icons, marking the beginning of a new, "Ushakov" period of Russian icon painting.
Many researchers agree that Ushakov had no equal in painting faces - and it is precisely by the way he wrote them that it is easiest to track what changes - which logically coincided with the church reform of Patriarch Nikon - occurred with Russian icon painting. With Ushakov, the face of the Savior, traditional for Russian icon painting, acquired “new, hitherto unknown features. The Novgorod Savior was a formidable God, the new Savior is infinitely more affectionate: he is a God-man. This humanization of the Deity, its approach to us brought warmth to the stern appearance of the ancient Christ, but at the same time deprived him of monumentality.
Another important historical feature of Ushakov's work is the fact that, unlike the icon painters of the past, Ushakov signs his icons. At first glance, an insignificant detail in essence indicates a serious change in the public consciousness of that time - if it was previously believed that the Lord himself leads the hand of the icon painter - and at least for this reason the master does not have the moral right to sign his work - now the situation is changing to a completely opposite and even religious art acquires secular traits s. Like Simon Ushakov, Zubov worked at the royal court and was one of the five "paid icon painters". Having worked in the capital for more than 40 years, Fyodor Zubov painted a huge number of icons, among which were images of the Savior Not Made by Hands, John the Baptist, Andrew the First-Called, the prophet Elijah, St. Nicholas and many other saints.
Interesting fact: Fyodor Zubov became a “complained icon painter” of the royal court, that is, a master who receives a monthly salary and through this - a certain confidence in the future, according to the principle “if there were no happiness, but misfortune helped.” The fact is that in the early 1660s, the Zubov family was left practically without a livelihood, and the icon painter was forced to write a petition to the tsar.
Dmitry Merkulov
Regarding that branch of art, which later assumed very extensive dimensions in Russia, that is, church icon painting, we have only one thing from the pre-Tatar era Russian name; it was Alympius, a monk of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery, a student of those Constantinople masters who painted the Caves Assumption Church. In this branch, our teachers were exclusively Greeks ("Greek" and "Korsun" writing). Apparently, all the main Russian churches of that time were painted by Greek masters, and the surviving samples of church frescoes testify to the complete dominance in Russia of the contemporary Byzantine style with its strict faces corresponding to the religious mood and moderate, dry tones of coloring. There is no doubt, however, that already in that era the Greek masters had numerous Russian students. In addition to the icons painted on the board, the inner walls of the temples were then completely covered with fresco schedules, so that the Greeks alone from the very beginning could not satisfy the great demand for icon painters and, of course, performed their work with the help of Russian students. Probably, by the end of this period, there were already Russian associations, or "teams" of icon painters who worked under the guidance of their "elders" and took contracts for the schedule of churches, as we see a little later in Novgorod and in general in Northern Russia. But the masters leading such squads, apparently, were Greeks for a long time. So, according to the chronicle, at the end of the 12th century in Novgorod, Grechin Petrovich painted one church on the gates of the Kremlin; his name, however, denounces in him not a natural Greek, but rather a southern Slav who arrived from the borders of the Greek Empire.
Iconography of Ancient Russia - Annunciation of Ustyug, XII century
Constrained by the firmly established traditions and rules of Greek icon painting, Russian painters could hardly show their tastes and their creative ability in the works of this branch of art. But there are other kinds of monuments that clearly testify to their playful imagination, their ability to do more than just slavish imitation. These are drawings of headpieces and capital letters, with which the pages of some handwritten books that have come down to us from that era (beginning with the Ostromir Gospel) are richly decorated. Models for them, of course, were the same Byzantine and partly Bulgarian miniatures; but Russian art has brought here many original details, as well as a wonderful, lively combination of colors and forms. A distinctive feature of these drawings is the whimsical interweaving of belts and branches: with various fantastic animals and birds, especially dragons and snakes, which intertwine the figures of people and animal monsters with their tails. The style of these works is in full accordance with the intricate armor patterns and images on the walls of Suzdal churches mentioned above. There is information that the same armored decorations on church walls were used not only in North-Eastern, or Suzdal Rus, but also in South-Western, or Volyn-Galician, and that sculptural images were covered with different colors and gilding.
Iconography of Ancient Russia - Savior Not Made by Hands. Novgorod school, ca. 1100
There is no doubt that in all such decorations (ornaments) independent Russian art and a peculiar Russian taste were manifested to a large extent. This latter, with the well-known talent of the tribe, from time immemorial was brought up on luxurious examples of art and industry, both Greek and eastern (mainly Persian), which constantly flowed to Eastern Europe through military booty, trade and other relations, as is clearly evidenced by many metal products, covered with elegant ornaments, and the remains of patterned fabrics found in the graves of pagan Russia. Particularly remarkable in this regard is a pair of turian horns found in the large Chernigov kurgan, bound in silver with images of fantastic birds and plants intertwining with each other.
Iconography of Ancient Russia - Angel Golden Hair (Archangel Gabriel), end of the XII century
Sakharov "On Russian icon painting". SPb. 1850. Rovinsky "History of Russian schools of icon painting until the end of the 17th century" (Zap. Archeology. Ob. VIII. 1856). Buslaev "General concepts of Russian icon painting" (Collection for 1866 of the Society of Old Russian Art in Moscow), "Christian Antiquities and Archeology". SPb. 1863, 1864 and 1871. Ed. Prokhorov. His "Russian Antiquities". SPb. 1871 and 1875. "Antiquities of Ross, the State", published luxuriously by the Highest Command, according to the drawings of Academician Solntsev. M. 1849 - 53. "Monuments of ancient Russian architecture". Ed. Richter. M. 1851. Histoire de l "ornement russe du XI au XVI siecle d" apres les manuscripts. Avec 100 planches en couleur. Paris. 1872 - Edition owned by the Art and Industry Museum in Moscow, undertaken by its director Butovsky. The peculiar elegance of the Russian ornaments collected here prompted the famous French architect and scientist Viollet le Duc to take on special work, dedicated to history Russian art: L "art Russe, ses origines," ses elements constitutifs, son apogee, son avenir. Paris. 1877.
The talented work of Viollet le Duc, recognizing in ancient Russian art the original creativity and the decisive predominance of Eastern, Asian influences and elements over Western European and partly over Byzantine ones, aroused a revival of the question of Russian art and aroused a fairly significant number of objectors. Among the last most noteworthy: prof. Buslaev - "Russian art in the assessment of a French scientist" (Critical Review. M. 1879. Nos. 2 and 5). SPb. His "Russian Art and Architecture in Russia from the 10th to the 18th Century". SPb. 1878 (published by Count Stroganov). Abbot Martynov - L "art Russe (Revue de l" Art chretien. II serie, tome IX). His own Architecture Romane en Russie. These objectors, while pointing out some weak sides the work of Viollet le Duc, but could not refute its main provisions. By the way, they support an exaggerated opinion about the influence of the Western Romanesque style on the architecture and ornaments of the Suzdal churches of the 12th-13th centuries. Among the supporters of Viollet le Duc, Butovsky, the author of the aforementioned "History of Russian Ornamentation", came out especially energetically in his pamphlet "Russian Art and Opinions about It", etc. M. 1879.
Starting from the period of the baptism of Russia, which came at the end of the 10th century, a peculiar and unique art developed in the bowels of the Orthodox Church, which received the name - Russian icon painting. It was she who for almost seven centuries remained the core of Russian culture, and only during the reign of Peter I was pressed by secular painting.
Iconography of the pre-Mongolian period
It is known that, along with Orthodoxy, Russia borrowed from Byzantium the achievements of its culture, which received their further development in the Kiev principality. If the painting of the first Temple of the Tithes erected in Kyiv was carried out by overseas masters invited by Prince Vladimir, then very soon Russian icon painters appeared in Pereyaslavl, Chernigov, Smolensk and in the capital itself, which was called the Mother of Russian cities. It is quite difficult to distinguish their works from the icons painted by Byzantine teachers, since in the pre-Mongolian period the identity of the national school had not yet been fully established.
Very few works made during that period have survived to this day, but even among them there are genuine masterpieces. The most striking of them is the two-sided Novgorod icon "The Savior Not Made by Hands", painted by an unknown master at the end of the 12th century, on the back of which the scene "Adoration of the Cross" is depicted. For more than eight centuries, it has amazed the viewer with the accuracy of the drawing and its smooth modeling. Currently, the icon is in the collection of the State Tretyakov Gallery. The photo of this icon opens the article.
Another, no less famous work of the pre-Mongolian period, exhibited in the State Russian Museum of St. Petersburg, is also a Novgorod icon, known as the “Golden Hair Angel”. The face of an angel, full of subtle emotionality and deep lyricism, gives the viewer an impression of calmness and clarity. The ability to convey such feelings Russian icon painters inherited in their entirety from their Byzantine teachers.
Icon-painting art of the times of the Tatar-Mongolian yoke
The invasion of Russia by Khan Batu, which marked the beginning of the period of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, radically influenced the way of the whole life of the state. Russian icon painting did not escape his influence either. Most of the previously formed art centers were captured and ruined by the Horde, and those who had passed the common fate experienced difficult times, which could not but affect the general artistic level of the works created in them.
Nevertheless, even during this difficult period, Russian icon painters managed to create their own school of painting, which took its rightful place in the history of world culture. Its special rise was marked by the second half of the 14th and almost the entire 15th century. During this period, a whole galaxy of outstanding masters worked in Russia, the most famous representative of which was Andrei Rublev, who was born in the Moscow principality around 1360.
Author of the immortal "Trinity"
Having taken monastic vows with the name of Andrei (his worldly name is unknown) in 1405, the master took part in the painting of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, and then the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir. Andrey Rublev performed these large-scale works together with two other outstanding masters - Feofan Grek and Daniil Cherny, which will be discussed below.
The work of the master is considered the pinnacle in Russian icon painting, which none of the masters could reach. The most striking and famous of his works is "Trinity" - an icon of Rublev, now stored in the Tretyakov Gallery in Moscow.
Using an Old Testament plot based on the episode described in the 18th chapter of the Book of Genesis (Hospitality of Abraham), the master created a composition, for all its traditional character, far surpassing all other analogues. Rejecting superfluous, in his opinion, narrative details, he focused the viewer's attention on three angelic figures, symbolizing the Trinitarian God - the visible image of which is the Holy Trinity.
An image symbolizing divine love
Rublev's icon clearly demonstrates the unity of the three Divine hypostases. This is achieved by the fact that the compositional solution is based on a circle, which is formed by the figures of angels. Such a unity, in which individual persons are one whole, serves as a prototype of that high love to which Jesus Christ called. Thus, the "Trinity" - the icon of Rublev, has become a kind of expression of the spiritual orientation of all Christianity.
Andrei Rublev died on October 17, 1428, becoming a victim of what erupted in Moscow. He was buried on the territory of the Andronikov Monastery, where death interrupted his work on the painting of the Spassky Cathedral. In 1988, by the decision of the Russian Orthodox Church, monk Andrei (Rublev) was canonized as a saint.
Grand Master's Mentor
In the history of Russian icon painting, next to Andrei Rublev is his contemporary Daniil Cherny. Icons, more precisely, frescoes, made by them during the painting of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, are so similar in their artistic features that experts often find it difficult to establish a specific authorship.
Researchers have a number of reasons to believe that, fulfilling orders jointly with Rublev, Daniil acted as an older and more experienced master, perhaps even a mentor. On this basis, art historians tend to attribute to him those works in which the influence of the former icon painting school of the 14th century is most clearly visible. Most a prime example the fresco "Bosom of Abraham", preserved to this day in the Assumption Cathedral of Vladimir, can serve. A photo of one of the fragments of the painting of this cathedral precedes this section of the article.
He died like Andrei Rublev, as a result of the pestilence of 1528, and was buried next to him in the Andronikov Monastery. Both artists left behind a lot of students, for whom the drawings and sketches they created served as models for future works.
Russian painter of Byzantine origin
The work of Theophan the Greek can serve as a no less striking example of icon painting of this period. Born in 1340 in Byzantium (hence his nickname), he comprehended the secrets of art, learning from the recognized masters of Constantinople and Chalcedon.
Arriving in Russia as an already formed painter, and settling in Novgorod, Feofan began a new stage in his creative path with a painting that has come down to our times in the Church of the Transfiguration of the Savior. The frescoes made by the master, depicting the Almighty Savior, forefathers, prophets, as well as a number of biblical scenes, have also been preserved in it.
His artistic style, which was distinguished by high harmony and completeness of compositions, was recognized by his contemporaries, and the master had followers. This is clearly evidenced by the murals of the churches of the Assumption of the Virgin and Theodore Stratelit, made in the same period by other artists, but retaining clear signs of the influence of painting by the Byzantine master.
However, in its entirety, creativity was revealed in Moscow, where he moved in 1390, having lived for some time and worked in Nizhny Novgorod. In the capital, the master was engaged not only in painting temples and houses of wealthy citizens, but also in creating icons and book graphics.
It is generally accepted that under his leadership, several Kremlin churches were painted, including the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin, the Archangel Michael and the Annunciation. The creation of a number of famous icons is attributed to his authorship - “The Transfiguration of the Lord” (photo in this section of the article), “The Don Icon of the Mother of God”, and also “The Assumption of the Mother of God”. The master passed away in 1410.
Worthy receiver of the masters of the past
The successor of the artistic traditions laid down by Andrei Rublev and his contemporaries was Dionysius, an icon painter, whose icons, made for the Cathedral Church of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary of the Joseph-Volokolamsk Monastery, as well as frescoes and the iconostasis of the Ferapont Monastery, have forever entered the treasury of Russian culture.
It is known that Dionysius, unlike most domestic icon painters, was not a monk. He carried out most of the orders together with his sons Vladimir and Theodosius. Quite a few works have survived to this day, made either by the artist himself or by the artel headed by him. The most famous of them are the icons - "The Baptism of the Lord", "The Mother of God Hodegetria" (next photo), "The Descent into Hell", as well as a number of other works.
The years of his life are not precisely established, it is only known that the master was born around 1444, and the date of death is called approximately 1502-1508. But his contribution not only to Russian, but also to world culture is so great that by decision of UNESCO, 2002 was declared the year of Dionysius.
Russian icon painters of the 17th century. Simon Ushakov
Any division of historical space into periods of artistic upsurge or decline is highly arbitrary, since even in periods of time not marked by the appearance of significant works, the prerequisites for their future creation are undoubtedly formed.
This can be clearly seen in the example of how the peculiarities of the social and spiritual life of Russia in the 16th century gave impetus to changes that gave rise to new artistic forms of fine art in the next century.
Undoubtedly, the brightest and most original creative personality XVII century was the metropolitan icon painter Simon Ushakov (1626 - 1686). Having learned the secrets of craftsmanship early, at the age of twenty-two he was hired as an artist of the Silver Chamber of the Armory Order, where his duties included making sketches for the manufacture of church utensils and luxury items.
In addition, the young master painted banners, drew maps, came up with ornaments for needlework and did a lot more. similar work. He also had to paint images for various temples and private houses. Over time, it was this area of \u200b\u200bcreativity that brought him fame and honor.
After being transferred to the staff of the Armory (1656), he firmly established himself as the most recognized artist of his time. No other Moscow icon painter had such fame, and was not so favored by the royal favors. This allowed him to live a life of honor and contentment.
Despite the fact that Russian icon painters were obliged to paint their works exclusively according to ancient models, Ushakov boldly used in his compositions individual elements of Western painting, samples of which by that time were increasingly appearing in Russia. Remaining on the basis of the original Russian-Byzantine traditions, but at the same time creatively reworking the achievements of European masters, the artist created a new, so-called Fryazh style, which was further developed in the work of icon painters of a later period. This article provides a photo of his famous icon "The Last Supper", painted by the master in 1685 for the Assumption Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra.
Outstanding master of fresco painting
The second half of the 17th century was marked by the work of another outstanding master - Gury Nikitin. Born in Kostroma, presumably in the early 1620s, he young years was painting. However, the novice master gained serious experience in Moscow, where in 1653, together with an artel of his countrymen, he painted a number of metropolitan churches.
The works of which every year were distinguished by more and more perfection, became known primarily as a master of fresco painting. Many murals made in monasteries and individual churches in Moscow, Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Pereslavl-Zalessky and Suzdal have survived to this day.
A characteristic feature of the frescoes made by the master on biblical stories, is their festive color flavor and richness of symbolism, for which, during the life of the artist, they were often reproached for secularizing art, that is, reorienting it to the problems of the perishable world. In addition, the result of his creative search was a special artistic technique that allowed the master to create an extraordinary spatial effect in his compositions. It entered the history of art under the name "Gury Nikitin's formulas". The famous icon painter died in 1691.
Creativity of Feodor Zubov
And finally, talking about it, one cannot fail to mention the name of another outstanding master - this is Feodor Zubov (1646-1689). Born in Smolensk, in the early 1650s, as a teenager, he moved to Veliky Ustyug, where he painted the icon of the Savior Not Made by Hands for one of the churches, which immediately created his reputation as a mature artist.
Over time, his fame spread so widely throughout Russia that the artist was summoned to Moscow and enrolled in the staff of icon painters of the Armory, where he then served for more than forty years. After the death of Simon Ushakov, long years who headed the masters assembled there, Feodor Zubov took his place. Among other works of the master, the icon “Apostolic Ministry” received special fame, the photo of which completes the article. A worthy contribution to the development of Russian art was also made by the sons of Zubov - Ivan and Alexei, who became one of the best domestic engravers in the Petrine era.
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