Problem promise arguments solution persuasion. Methods of psychological influence

We do not always make the necessary decisions; very often other people make important decisions for us. Even if they are subordinates, they can also “get things done”, let alone business partners. The conclusion is simple - we need to convey our beliefs, the method of arguments and arguments is the most correct and open way to influence another person's decision-making.

Management decisions, argumentation tactics.

Argumentation

Persuasive influence on partners business communication achieved through argumentation. Argumentation is a logical-communicative process aimed at justifying the position of one person with the aim of its subsequent understanding and acceptance by another person

The structure of argumentation is thesis, arguments and demonstration.

Thesis- this is the formulation of your position (your opinion, your proposal to the other side, etc.).

Arguments- these are the arguments, positions, evidence that you give to substantiate your point of view. Arguments answer the question why we should believe or do something.

Demonstration- this is the connection between thesis and argument (i.e. the process of proof, persuasion).

With the help of arguments, you can completely or partially change the position and opinion of your interlocutor. To achieve success in a business conversation, you must adhere to some important rules:

Rules for success in business conversation

• use simple, clear, precise and convincing terms;
• tell the truth; if you are not sure that the information is true, do not use it until you check it;
• the pace and methods of argumentation should be chosen taking into account the character and habits of the interlocutor;
• the argumentation must be correct in relation to the interlocutor. Refrain from making personal attacks on those who disagree with you;
• Non-business expressions and formulations that make it difficult to perceive what is being said should be avoided, but speech should be figurative and arguments should be visual; if you provide negative information, be sure to name the source from which you take your information and arguments.

Bizkieva

If you are familiar with your subject, then you most likely already have some arguments at your disposal. However, in most cases, if you are going to convince your partners, it will be useful for you to stock up on convincing arguments in advance. To do this, you can, for example, make a list of them, weigh them and select the strongest ones.

But how to correctly assess which arguments are strong and which should be discarded? There are several criteria for evaluating arguments:

Criteria for evaluating arguments

1. Good arguments must be based on facts. Therefore, from the list of your arguments, you can immediately exclude those that you cannot support with factual data.

2. Your arguments must be directly relevant to the case. If they are not, discard them.

3. Your arguments must be relevant to your opponents, so you need to find out in advance how interesting and timely they can be for them.

Modern scientific and educational literature covers many methods of argumentation. Let's consider the most important, in our opinion, for business communication situations.

1. Fundamental Method of Argumentation. Its essence is in direct appeal to your interlocutor, whom you introduce to the facts that are the basis of your evidence.

Numerical examples and statistical data play a significant role here. They are the perfect backdrop to support your points. After all, unlike information presented in words, it is often controversial! - the numbers look more convincing: this source is usually more objective and therefore attractive.

When using statistics, you need to know when to stop: a pile of numbers bores listeners, and the arguments do not make the necessary impression on them. Let us also note that carelessly processed statistical materials can mislead listeners, and sometimes even deceive.

For example, the rector of the institute provides statistical data about first-year students. It follows from them that within a year, 50% of female students got married. This figure is impressive, but then it turns out that there were only two students on the course, and one of them got married.

To be illustrative, statistics must cover a large number of people, events, phenomena, etc.

2. Method of contradiction in argumentation. It is defensive in nature. It is based on identifying contradictions in reasoning, as well as the argumentation of the interlocutor and focusing attention on them.

Example. I.S. Turgenev described the dispute between Rudin and Pigasov about whether beliefs exist or not:

"- Wonderful! - said Rudin. - So, in your opinion, there are no convictions?

No and does not exist.

Is this your belief?

How can you say that they don’t exist? Here's one thing for you, for the first time. “Everyone in the room smiled and looked at each other.”

3. Comparison method for argumentation. Very effective and extremely meaningful (especially when the comparisons are well chosen).

Gives the speech of the initiator of communication exceptional brightness and great strength suggestions. To a certain extent, it actually represents a special form of the “draw conclusions” method. This is another way to make a statement more “visible” and significant. Especially if you have learned to use analogies and comparisons with objects and phenomena that are well known to your listeners.

Example: “Life in Africa can only be compared to being in an oven, where they also forgot to turn off the light.”

4. Method of argumentation “yes,.. but...”. It is best used when the interlocutor approaches the topic of conversation with some prejudice. Since any process, phenomenon or object has both positive and negative aspects in its manifestation, the “yes,.. but...” method allows us to consider other options for resolving the issue.

Example: “I also imagine all the things you listed as advantages. But you forgot to mention a number of shortcomings...” And you begin to consistently complement the one-sided picture proposed by your interlocutor from a new point of view.

5. The "chunk" method of argumentation. It is used often - especially now, when dialogue, conversation, and discussion are actively being introduced into our lives instead of monologues. The essence of the method is to divide your interlocutor’s monologue into clearly distinguishable parts: “this is accurate,” “this is doubtful,” “there are a variety of points of view here,” “this is clearly wrong.”

In fact, the method is based on a well-known thesis: since in any position, and even more so in a conclusion, you can always find something unreliable, erroneous or exaggerated, then a confident “offensive” makes it possible to a certain extent to “unload” situations, including the most complex.

Example: “What you reported about the model of modern warehousing is theoretically absolutely correct, but in practice there are sometimes very significant deviations from the proposed model: long delays on the part of suppliers, difficulties in obtaining raw materials, slowness of administration...”

6. "Boomerang" argumentation method. Gives you the opportunity to use your interlocutor’s “weapons” against him. It does not have the force of proof, but it has an exceptional impact on the audience, especially if applied with a fair amount of wit.

Example: V.V. Mayakovsky speaks to residents of one of the districts of Moscow on the issue of solving international problems in the Land of the Soviets. Suddenly someone from the audience asks: “Mayakovsky, what nationality are you? You were born in Baghdati, that means you are Georgian, right?” Mayakovsky sees that in front of him is an elderly worker who sincerely wants to understand the problem and just as sincerely asks a question. Therefore, he answers kindly: “Yes, among Georgians I am Georgian, among Russians I am Russian, among Americans I would be an American, among Germans I am German.”

At this time, two young men sitting in the front row sarcastically shout: “And among the fools?” Mayakovsky calmly replies: “And this is my first time among fools!”

7. Method of argumentation "ignoring". As a rule, it is most often used in conversations, debates, and arguments. Its essence: the fact stated by the interlocutor cannot be refuted by you, but its value and significance can be successfully ignored. It seems to you that the interlocutor attaches importance to something that, in your opinion, is not so important. You note this and analyze it.

8. Method of argumentation "conclusions". Based on a gradual subjective change in the essence of the matter.

Example: “Wealth has no limits when... large sizes goes abroad"; “The small fry knows better than anyone who gets the profits. But who will listen to the small fry?

9. Apparent support method of argumentation. It requires particularly careful preparation. It is most advisable to use it when you act as an opponent (for example, in a discussion). What is it? Let's say the interlocutor presented his arguments, facts, evidence on the issue of discussion, and now the floor is given to you. But at the beginning of your speech you do not contradict him or object to him at all. Moreover, to the surprise of those present, come to the rescue, bringing new provisions in his favor. But all this is just for appearance! And then comes the counterattack. Approximate diagram: “However... you forgot to cite the following facts in support of your thesis... (list them), and this is not all, since...” Now comes the turn of your counterarguments, facts and evidence.

Rules for justifying management decisions

1. Operate with simple, clear, precise and convincing concepts, since persuasiveness can easily be “sunk” in a sea of ​​words and arguments, especially if they are unclear and imprecise; the interlocutor “hears” or understands much less than he wants to show.

2. The method and pace of argumentation must correspond to the characteristics of the performer’s temperament:

• arguments and evidence explained separately achieve the goal much more effectively than if they are presented all at once;
• three or four strong arguments achieve greater effect than many average arguments;
• argumentation should not be declarative or look like a monologue of the “main character”;
• precisely placed pauses often have greater impact than a flow of words;
• the interlocutor is better influenced by the active construction of the phrase than the passive one when it comes to evidence (for example, it is better to say “we will do it” than “it can be done”, it is more appropriate to say “to conclude” than “to draw a conclusion”).

3. Argumentation should be conducted correctly in relation to the employee. It means:

• always openly admit that he is right when he is right, even if this may have unfavorable consequences for you. This gives your interlocutor the opportunity to expect the same behavior from the performing side. Moreover, by doing so you are not violating management ethics;
• You can continue to operate only with those arguments that are accepted by the employee;
• avoid empty phrases, they indicate a weakening of attention and lead to unnecessary pauses in order to gain time and catch the lost thread of the conversation (for example, “as was said”, “or, in other words”, “more or less”, “along with what has been noted” , “you can do it this way or that way,” “it wasn’t said,” etc.).

4. It is necessary to adapt the arguments to the personality of the performer, i.e.:

• build an argument taking into account the goals and motives of the interlocutor;
• do not forget that “excessive” persuasiveness causes resistance from the subordinate, especially if he has an “aggressive” nature (the “boomerang” effect);
• avoid non-business expressions and formulations that make argumentation and understanding difficult;
• try to present your evidence, ideas and considerations to the employee as clearly as possible. Let us remember the proverb: “It is better to see once than to hear a hundred times.” When making vivid comparisons and visual arguments, it is important to remember that comparisons should be based on the experience of the performer, otherwise there will be no result; they must support and strengthen the manager’s argumentation, be convincing, but without exaggeration and extremes that cause distrust of the performer and thereby jeopardize doubt all the parallels drawn.

The use of visual aids increases the attention and activity of the employee, reduces the abstractness of the presentation, helps to better link arguments and thereby ensure better understanding on his part. In addition, the clarity of the arguments makes the argument more convincing and documented.

Two main argument structures:

• evidentiary argumentation, when it is necessary to prove or justify something;
• counterargumentation, with the help of which it is necessary to refute the theses and statements of the performer.

The same basic techniques apply to both designs.

Argumentation techniques

For any persuasive influence or speech, there are 10 parameters, the observance of which makes this influence the most optimal.

1. Professional competence. High objectivity, reliability and depth of presentation.
2. Clarity. Linking facts and details, avoiding ambiguity, confusion, understatement.
3. Visibility. Maximum use of clarity, well-known associations, minimum abstraction when expressing thoughts.
4. Constant focus. During a conversation or discussion, it is necessary to adhere to a certain course, goal or task and, to some extent, familiarize the interlocutors with them.
5. Rhythm. It is necessary to increase the intensity of the business conversation as it approaches its end, while paying special attention to key issues.
6. Repetition. The emphasis on the main points and thoughts has great importance so that the interlocutor can perceive the information.
7. The element of surprise. It is a thoughtful, but unexpected and unusual for the interlocutor linking of details and facts.
8. "Saturation" of reasoning. It is necessary that during communication there are emotional accents that require maximum concentration of attention from the interlocutor, and there are also phases of decreased emotionality, which are necessary for respite and consolidation of the interlocutor’s thoughts and associations.
9. Boundaries of the issue under discussion. Voltaire once said: “The secret of being boring is to tell everything.”
10. A certain dose of irony and humor. This rule for conducting a business conversation is useful to apply when you need to express ideas that are not very pleasant for the performer or parry his attacks.

Argumentation tactics

Let's focus on argumentation tactics. The question may arise: how is it different from argumentative technique, which covers methodological aspects of how to build an argument, while tactics develops the art of using specific techniques? In accordance with this, technique is the ability to present logical arguments, and tactics is the ability to choose psychologically effective ones from them.

Let's consider the main provisions of argumentation tactics.

1. Applying Arguments. The argumentation phase should begin confidently, without much hesitation. Present the main arguments at every opportunity, but, if possible, each time in a new light.

2. Selection of equipment. Depending on the psychological characteristics of the interlocutors, various methods of argumentation are chosen.

3. Avoiding Confrontation. For the normal course of argumentation, it is very important to avoid aggravation or confrontation, since opposing points of view and a tense atmosphere that arise during the presentation of one of the points of the argument can easily spread to other areas. There are some subtleties here:

• It is recommended that critical questions be addressed either at the beginning or at the end of the argumentation phase;
• on particularly sensitive issues, it is useful to talk with the contractor in private before the discussion begins, since “face to face” you can achieve greater results than at a meeting;
• In extremely difficult situations, it is useful to take a break to “cool your head” and then return to the same issue again.

4. "Appetite stimulation". This technique is based on the following position of social psychology: it is most convenient to offer the performer options and information to first awaken his interest in it. This means that you first need to describe Current state cases with an emphasis on possible negative consequences, and then (based on “triggered appetite”) indicate the direction of possible solutions with a detailed justification of all the benefits.

5. Two-sided argumentation. It will have a greater impact on an employee whose opinion does not coincide with yours. In this case, you point out both the advantages and weaknesses of the proposed solution. The effectiveness of this technique depends on the intellectual abilities of the performer. In any case, if possible, he should indicate any shortcomings that he could learn about from other sources of information. One-sided argumentation can be used in cases where the employee has formed his own opinion or openly expresses a positive attitude towards your point of view.

6. The order of advantages and disadvantages. In accordance with the findings of social psychology, such information has a decisive influence on the formation of the interlocutor’s position when advantages are listed first, and then disadvantages.

7. Personification of argumentation. Based on the fact that the persuasiveness of evidence primarily depends on the perception of subordinates (and they are not critical of themselves), you come to the idea that you must first try to identify their position, and then include it in your argumentation design, or at least at least not to allow it to contradict your premises. The easiest way to achieve this is by directly contacting the employee:

• “What do you think of this proposal?”
• “How do you think this problem can be solved?”
• "You're right"

By recognizing that he is right and showing attention, we thereby encourage the person who will now accept our argument with less resistance.

8. Drawing up conclusions. We can conduct an argument brilliantly, but still not achieve the desired goal if we fail to summarize the facts and information offered. Therefore, in order to achieve the greatest possible persuasiveness, you must draw your own conclusions and present them to your employees, because the facts do not always speak for themselves.

9. Counterargumentation techniques. When someone tries to stump you with what appears to be an impeccable argument, you should remain calm and think:

• Are the statements stated true? Is it possible to refute their foundations, or at least individual parts where the facts are not interconnected?
• Can any inconsistencies be identified?
• Are the conclusions erroneous or at least partially inaccurate?

Arguments that convince

Perhaps the most important element impact on public opinion is a belief. Persuasion is the task of the vast majority of PR programs. The theory of persuasion has a myriad of explanations and interpretations. Basically, persuasion means that a person will do something through advice, justification, or simple arm twisting. Many books have been written about the immense power of advertising and PR as tools of persuasion.

How can you convince people? Saul Alinsky, the legendary radical organizer, developed a very simple theory of persuasion: “People understand things in terms of their own experience... If you try to communicate your ideas to others without paying attention to what they have to say to you , then you can forget about your idea.” In other words, if you want to convince people, you need to provide evidence that matches their own beliefs, emotions and expectations.

What arguments convince people?

1. Facts. The facts are undeniable. While it is true that, as they say, “statistics sometimes lie,” empirical evidence is a compelling tool for building a “house” for a point of view. That is why a good PR program always begins with research - a search for facts.

2. Emotions. Maslow was right. People really respond to appeals to emotions - love, peace, family, patriotism. Ronald Reagan was known as the “great communicator” largely because he appealed to emotions. Even as the nation was outraged after 200 American soldiers were killed in a terrorist attack in Lebanon in 1983, President Reagan was able to overcome its skepticism by talking to a wounded American Marine in a Lebanese hospital.

3. Personalization. People respond to personal experience.

• When poet Maya Angelou talks about poverty, people listen and respect a woman who came from the filthy, poor fringes of the segregated Deep South.
• When Congresswoman Carolyn McCarthy advocates for gun control, people understand that her husband was killed and her son seriously wounded by a gunman on the Long Island Railroad.

4. Addressing “You.” There is one word that people never get tired of hearing - it is “you”. “What will this give me?” - a question that everyone asks. Thus, one of the secrets of persuasion is to constantly put yourself in the shoes of the audience and constantly address “You”.

Even though these four commandments are so simple, they are hard to understand—especially for business leaders who don't favor emotion, or personalization, or even reaching out to an audience. Some people consider it “beneath their dignity” to flaunt human emotions. Of course this is a mistake. The power of persuasion - influence on public opinion - is a criterion not only for a charismatic, but also for an effective leader.

Influence on public opinion

Public opinion is much easier to gauge than to influence. However, a well-thought-out PR program can crystallize approaches, strengthen beliefs and sometimes change public opinion. First of all, you need to identify and understand the opinions that you want to change or modify. The second is to clearly define the target group. Third, the PR specialist must have a clear idea of ​​what “laws” govern public opinion, no matter how amorphous they may be.

The 15 laws of public opinion, developed many years ago by social psychologist Hadley Cantril, can be applied in this context.

15 laws of public opinion

1. Opinion is hypersensitive to important events.

2. Events of unusual magnitude may cause public opinion to move temporarily from one extreme to another. Opinion will not stabilize until the prospects and consequences of events are assessed.

3. Opinion is generally determined by events, not by words, unless the words themselves can be interpreted as an event.

4. Verbal statements and action plans are of great importance in situations where opinions are unstructured and people are open to suggestions and expect explanations from reliable sources.

5. In general, public opinion does not anticipate critical situations, but only reacts to them.

6. Opinion as a whole is determined by personal interest. Events, words and any other stimuli influence opinion only to the extent that they are associated with personal interest.

7. Opinion does not exist without change for a long period of time, except in cases where people feel a high degree of personal interest and when the opinion arising from words is reinforced by events.

8. If personal interest arises, then the opinion is not so easy to change.

9. If self-interest is present, public opinion in a democratic society is likely to dominate official policy.

10. If the opinion belongs to a small majority or if it is not well structured, then the fait accompli tends to bias the opinion in the direction of recognition of the fact.

11. In times of crisis, people become more sensitive to the adequacy of their leaders. If people have confidence in them, then they tend to assign more responsibility to them; if they are less confident in their leaders, then they become less tolerant than usual.

12. People are less reluctant to trust their leaders to make important decisions if they feel that they themselves have some part in it.

13. People most often have opinions, and it is easier for them to form opinions regarding tasks than regarding methods for achieving these tasks.

14. Public opinion, like individual opinion, is colored by desire. And when an opinion is mainly based on desire, and not on information, then it can fluctuate under the influence of current events.

15. In general, if in a democratic society people are provided with educational opportunities and easy access to information, then public opinion reflects common sense. How more people aware of the consequences of events and suggestions of self-interest, the more likely they are to accept the more objective opinions of realistic experts.

We deliberately repeated the basic truths several times; we hope that our material will help you convincingly convince your interlocutor to make the right decision.

The third lesson of the course is devoted to argumentation and its practical features. But before we move on to the main material, let's talk a little about why in general from the position critical thinking You must be able to give reasons for your opinion, and also trust only reasoned opinions.

What is argumentation and why is it important?

The term “argumentation” comes from the Latin word “argumentatio”, which means “to give arguments”. This means that we present some arguments (arguments) in order to arouse trust or sympathy for the thesis, hypothesis or statement we put forward. The complex of such arguments is an argument.

Argumentation task- make the addressee accept the theory put forward by the author. And by and large, argumentation can be called an interdisciplinary study of conclusions as a result of logical reasoning. Argumentation takes place in the scientific, everyday, legal, and political spheres; always used in conversations, dialogues, persuasion, etc.

The ultimate goal of argumentation consists of convincing the audience of the truth of a position, inducing people to accept the author’s point of view, and inducing reflection or action.

Argumentation is a historical phenomenon and changes over time. To express it they use language means, such as spoken or written statements. These statements, their relationships and influence on a person are studied by the theory of argumentation.

Argumentation is a purposeful activity, and it can either strengthen or weaken someone’s beliefs. It is also a social activity, because when a person argues his position, he influences those with whom he comes into contact. This implies dialogue and an active reaction of the opposing side to evidence and evidence. In addition, the adequacy of the interlocutor and his ability to rationally weigh arguments, accept or challenge them are assumed.

It is thanks to argumentation that a person can clearly explain his point of view to someone, confirm its truth with compelling arguments, and eliminate misunderstandings. Well-reasoned judgments minimize doubts and indicate the veracity and seriousness of the hypotheses, assumptions and statements put forward. In addition, if a person is able to present compelling arguments in his favor, this serves as an indication that he has already critically assessed all the information he has more than once.

For the same reason, you should only trust information that can be adequately substantiated. This will mean that they are tested, proven and true (or at least an attempt was made to this). Actually, this is the purpose of critical thinking - to question something in order to find confirming or disproving facts.

From everything said above, we can conclude that argumentation is the most correct and open way to influence the opinions and decisions of other people. Naturally, for teaching critical thinking to produce results and for argumentation to be effective, it is necessary to know not only its theoretical, but also its practical foundations. We will continue with them.

Practical foundations of argumentation: structure, basic rules, criteria for evaluating arguments

The scope of the concept of “argumentation” is very deep. Considering that this is perhaps the most difficult of the stages of persuasion, it requires a person to have knowledge and mastery of the material, endurance and skill, assertiveness and correctness of statements. It must be remembered that the author of the arguments always depends on his interlocutor, because the latter will decide whether the arguments are acceptable to him or not.

The argument has its own structure. It looks like this:

• Proposing a thesis - formulating your position, proposal or opinion
• Providing arguments - this includes evidence, evidence and arguments by which the author substantiates his position (arguments should explain why the interlocutor should believe you or agree with you)
• Demonstration - this means demonstrating the relationship between the thesis and arguments (it is at this stage that conviction is achieved)

With the help of argumentation, you can partially or completely change the opinion and point of view of your interlocutor. However, to achieve success, you need to follow a few important rules:

• You need to operate with convincing, precise, clear and simple concepts
• The information must be truthful (if the reliability of the data has not been established, then there is no need to use it until everything has been verified)
• During the conversation, you need to select a certain pace and specific methods of argumentation, based on the characteristics of your character and temperament
• All arguments must be correct; no personal attacks allowed
• It is recommended to refrain from using non-business language that makes the information difficult to understand; It’s better to use visual arguments; When covering negative information, its source must be indicated

For a person who is well acquainted with what he is talking about, it will not be difficult to come up with good arguments. But more often than not, if you have a task to convince your interlocutor, it is better to stock up on convincing arguments in advance. For example, you can sketch out a list of them, and then analyze and determine the most effective ones. But here you should know how to identify strong and weak arguments. This is done using their evaluation criteria:

• Effective arguments are always based on facts. Based on this, from a list compiled in advance, you can immediately discard information that cannot be supported by facts.
• Effective arguments always have a direct bearing on the subject being discussed. All other arguments should be excluded.
• Effective arguments are always relevant to the interlocutor. For this reason, you need to find out in advance what interest the arguments will be of to the addressee.

If you are confident that your arguments meet the proposed criteria, you can proceed directly to the argument. Based on this, the development of critical thinking involves mastering the basic methods of argumentation.

Basic methods of argumentation

The theory of argumentation suggests using quite a few methods of argumentation. We will talk about the most effective of them from our point of view. They are suitable for both business and everyday communication.

Fundamental Method

The point of the method is to directly address the person you want to introduce to the facts that represent the basis of your conclusions.

What is most important here is numerical and statistical information, which serves as an ideal backdrop to support arguments. Unlike verbal (and often controversial) data, numbers and statistics are much more convincing and objective.

But there is no need to be too zealous in applying such information. Too many numbers become boring, causing arguments to lose their effect. It is also important that incorrect data can mislead the listener.

EXAMPLE: A university teacher gives statistics about first-year female students. Based on it, 50% of female students gave birth to children. The figure is impressive, but in reality it turns out that there were only two girls in the first year, and only one gave birth.

Ignore method

Most often, ignoring is used in disputes, disputes and conversations. The point is: if you cannot refute a fact your opponent is offering you, you can successfully ignore its meaning and value. When you see that a person attaches importance to something that, in your opinion, is not particularly important, you simply record it and let it pass by.

Method of contradiction

For the most part, this method can be called protective. Its basis is to identify contradictions in the opponent’s reasoning and focus attention on them. As a result, if his arguments are baseless, you will easily win.

EXAMPLE (dispute between Pigasov and Rudnev on the topic of the existence of beliefs, described by I. S. Turgenev):

"- Wonderful! - said Rudin. - So, in your opinion, there are no convictions?

- No and does not exist.

- Is this your belief?

- How can you say that they don’t exist? Here's one thing for you, for the first time. “Everyone in the room smiled and looked at each other.”

“Yes, but” method

The presented method gives the best results when the opponent is prejudiced about the topic of conversation. Considering that objects, phenomena and processes have both positive and negative sides, this method makes it possible to see and discuss alternative ways to solve a problem.

EXAMPLE: “Like you, I am well aware of all the benefits you listed. However, you did not take into account some shortcomings...” (Then the one-sided opinion of the interlocutor is successively supplemented with arguments from a new position).

Comparison method

This method is highly effective because... makes the author’s speech bright and impressive. Also this method can be called one of the forms of the “inference drawing” method. Thanks to him, the argument becomes weighty and explicit. To enhance it, it is recommended to use well-known analogies with phenomena and objects.

EXAMPLE: “Life in the Arctic Circle can be compared to being in a refrigerator whose door never opens.”

Boomerang method

“Boomerang” allows you to use his own “weapon” against your opponent. The method lacks evidentiary force, but despite this, it has a very serious influence on the listener, especially if wit is used.

EXAMPLE: During V.V. Mayakovsky’s speech to residents of one of the Moscow districts regarding the solution to problems of an international nature in the USSR, someone from the audience suddenly asked: “Mayakovsky, what nationality are you? You were born in Baghdati, which means you are Georgian, right?”

Mayakovsky looked at this man and saw an elderly worker who sincerely wanted to understand the problem and just as sincerely asked his question. For this reason, he kindly answered: “Yes, among Georgians I am Georgian, among Russians I am Russian, among Americans I would be an American, among Germans I am German.”

At the same time, two guys from the first row decided to be sarcastic: “And among the fools?”

To this Mayakovsky replied: “And this is my first time among fools!”

Partial argumentation method

One of the most popular methods. Its meaning boils down to the fact that the opponent’s monologue is divided into clearly distinguishable parts using the phrases “this is clearly false,” “this question can be looked at in different ways,” “this is accurate,” etc.

It is interesting that the basis of the method is a well-known thesis: if in any argument and conclusion you can always find something dubious or unreliable, then confident pressure on your interlocutor allows you to clarify even the most difficult situation.

EXAMPLE: “Everything you told us about the principles of operation treatment facilities theoretically absolutely correct, but in practice it is often necessary to make serious exceptions to the rules” (The following are justified arguments in favor of your position).

Visible Support Method

Refers to methods for which you need to prepare. You need to use it in situations where you are the opponent, for example in a dispute. The essence of the method is this: let’s say the interlocutor voiced to you his arguments regarding the problem under discussion, and the floor goes to you. Here lies the trick: at the beginning of your argument, you do not say anything to counter the words of your opponent; you even bring up new arguments in support of it, surprising everyone present.

But this is only an illusion, because a counterattack will follow. It is carried out approximately according to this scheme: “But.... in support of your point of view, you forgot to cite several other facts... (list these facts), and that’s not all, because..." (Your arguments and evidence follow).

Your ability to think critically and argue your position will greatly develop, even if you limit yourself to mastering the above methods. However, if your goal is to achieve professionalism in this field, this will be extremely little. To begin to move forward, you need to study other components of argumentation. The first of these is the rules of argumentation.

Rules of Argumentation

The rules of argumentation are quite simple, but each of them has a different set of features. There are four rules in total:

Rule one

Use compelling, precise, clear, and simple terms. Keep in mind that persuasiveness is easily lost if the arguments presented are vague and abstract. Also take into account that in most cases people perceive and understand much less than they want to show.

Rule two

It is advisable to select the method of argumentation and its pace in accordance with the characteristics of your temperament (you can read about the types of temperament). This rule assumes:

• Evidence and facts presented individually are more effective than those presented together
• A few (three to five) of the most striking arguments are more effective than many average facts
• Argumentation should not take the form of a “heroic” monologue or declaration
• With the help of well-placed pauses you can achieve better results than with a stream of words
• Active rather than passive construction of statements has a greater impact on the interlocutor, especially when it is necessary to provide evidence (for example, the phrase “we will do it” is much better than the phrase “it can be done”, the word “conclude” is much better than the phrase “draw a conclusion” etc.)

Rule three

The argument should always appear correct. This means:

• If a person is right, admit it openly, even if the consequences may be unfavorable for you.
• If the interlocutor accepted any arguments, try to use them in the future
• Avoid empty phrases that indicate a decrease in concentration and lead to inappropriate pauses to gain time or search for the thread of a conversation (such phrases can be: “it was not said”, “you can do it this way or that”, “along with this”, “otherwise speaking”, “more or less”, “as I already said”, etc.)

Rule four

Adapt your arguments to the personality of your interlocutor:

• Build an argument taking into account your opponent’s motives and goals
• Remember that so-called “excessive” persuasiveness can cause rejection from your opponent
• Try not to use wording and expressions that make it difficult to understand and argue
• Strive to present your evidence, considerations and ideas as clearly as possible, giving examples and comparisons, but remember that they should not diverge from the experience of the interlocutor, i.e. must be close and understandable to him
• Avoid extremes and exaggerations so as not to arouse your opponent’s mistrust and cast doubt on your entire argument.

By following these rules, you will increase the attention and activity of your interlocutor, minimize the abstractness of your statements, link arguments much more effectively and ensure maximum understanding of your position.

Communication between two people, when it comes to disputes and discussions, almost always occurs according to the “attacker-defender” pattern. Obviously, you can end up in either the first or second position. Argument structures are also formed according to this principle.

Argumentation structures and argumentation techniques

There are two main argument structures:

• Evidence-based argumentation (used when you need to justify or prove something)
• Counterargumentation (used when you need to refute someone’s statements and theses)

To use both structures, it is customary to operate with the same techniques.

Argumentation techniques

Whatever your persuasive influence, you should focus on ten techniques, the use of which will optimize your argumentation and make it more effective:

1. Competence. Make your arguments more objective, credible and deep.
2. Visibility. Use familiar associations as much as possible and avoid abstract formulations.
3. Clarity. Connect facts and evidence and beware of understatement, confusion and ambiguity.
4. Rhythm. Intensify your speech as you get closer to the end, but don't lose sight of the key issues.
5. Directionality. When discussing something, stay on a specific course, solve clear problems and strive for clear goals, in advance in general outline introducing them to your opponent.
6. Suddenness. Learn to connect facts and details in unusual and unexpected ways and practice using this technique.
7. Repetition. Focus your interlocutor's attention on the main ideas and provisions so that your opponent can better perceive the information.
8. Boundaries. Define the boundaries of your discussion in advance and don’t reveal all your cards to keep the conversation lively and the interlocutor’s attention active.
9. Saturation. When presenting your position, make emotional accents that force your opponent to be as attentive as possible. Do not forget to also lower your emotionality in order to consolidate your opponent’s thoughts and give him and yourself a little break.
10. Humor and irony. Be witty and joke, but don't overdo it. It is best to act this way when you need to parry the attacks of your interlocutor or express arguments that are unpleasant for him.

Using these techniques, your argumentative arsenal will be replenished with serious weapons. But, in addition to the methodological aspects, which mostly include the technique of argumentation, the art of critical thinking and consistent reasoning is excellently developed by the tactics of argumentation.

Argumentation tactics

Mastering argumentation tactics is not as difficult as it might seem. To do this, you just need to understand its basic provisions.

Using Arguments

The argument must begin confidently. There should be no hesitation. The main arguments are presented at any appropriate moment, but it is better to do this constantly in a new place.

Selection of equipment

The technique (methods) must be chosen taking into account the psychological characteristics of the opponent and one’s own.

Avoiding Confrontation

In order for the argumentation phase to proceed normally, one should strive to avoid, because different positions and a charged atmosphere, like a flame, can spread to other areas of communication. And here we must point out a few nuances:

• Critical issues are addressed either at the very beginning or at the very end of the argumentation stage
• Delicate issues are discussed in private with the interlocutor even before the conversation or discussion begins, because one-on-one, much greater results are achieved than with witnesses
• When the situation is difficult, there is always a pause, and only after everyone has “let off steam” does communication continue

Maintaining interest

It is most effective to offer options and information to the interlocutor to early stimulate his interest in the topic. This means that the current state of affairs is first described, focusing on the likely negative consequences, and then possible solutions are identified and their benefits are detailed.

Two-sided argumentation

With its help you can influence a person whose position does not coincide with yours. You need to point out the pros and cons of your proposal. The effectiveness of this method is affected by the intellectual abilities of the opponent. But, regardless of this, it is necessary to present all the shortcomings that could become known to him from other people and from other sources of information. As for one-sided argumentation, it is used when the interlocutor has formed his own opinion and when he has no objections to your point of view.

Sequence of pros and cons

Based on the conclusions, the main formative influence on the opponent’s position is provided by such a presentation of information, which first lists positive sides, and then negative.

Personalized argumentation

It is known that the persuasiveness of facts depends on the perception of people (people, as a rule, are not critical of themselves). Therefore, first of all, you need to try to determine the point of view of your interlocutor, and then insert it into your argumentation structure. In any case, you should try to avoid inconsistency between your opponent’s arguments and own argumentation. The easiest way to achieve this is to directly contact your counterpart, for example:

• What do you think about it?
• You're right
• How do you think this issue can be resolved?

When you acknowledge that your opponent is right and show him attention, you will encourage him, which means he will be more receptive to your argument.

Drawing conclusions

It happens that the argumentation is excellent, but the desired goal is not achieved. The reason for this is the inability to summarize information and facts. Based on this, for greater persuasiveness, you must make your own conclusions and offer them to your interlocutor. Remember that facts are not always obvious.

Counterargumentation

If suddenly you are presented with arguments that seem flawless to you, there is no need to panic. Instead, you should keep a cool head and apply critical thinking:

• Are the facts presented correct?
• Is it possible to refute this information?
• Is it possible to identify contradictions and inconsistencies in the facts?
• Are the proposed conclusions (at least partly) wrong?

The tactics presented can be the final element of your entire argumentation strategy. And by and large, the information you have become acquainted with is quite enough to learn how to professionally argue your point of view, position and arguments. But still, this lesson will not be complete if we do not give a few more recommendations.

We would like to conclude the third lesson of our course with a short conversation about convincing arguments - another important element of influencing the opinion of an individual and a group of people.

A little about persuasive arguments

What is belief? If you don’t understand the mass of all kinds of interpretations, persuasion can be called the use of words that will persuade your communication partner to accept your point of view, believe your words, or do as you say. And how can this be achieved?

Famous American radical organizer and public figure Saul Alinsky created a completely simple theory of persuasion. It says that a person perceives information from the perspective of personal experience. If you try to convey your position to another without taking into account what he wants to tell you, you may not even count on success. Simply put, if you want to persuade someone, you need to give them arguments that match their beliefs, expectations, and emotions.

With this in mind, we can distinguish four main options for making arguments:

• Factual data. Although statistics can sometimes be wrong, the facts are almost always undeniable. Empirical evidence is considered one of the most persuasive tools for constructing the basis of an argument.
• Emotional impact. As one of the best American psychologists, Abraham Maslow, said, people respond best when we appeal to their emotions, i.e. we touch on such things as family, love, patriotism, peace, etc. If you want to sound more convincing, express yourself in such a way as to touch a person’s nerve (naturally, within reason and preferably in a positive way).
• Personal experience. Stories from own life and information verified through personal experience are wonderful tools for influencing the listener. Actually, you can see this for yourself: listen to a person who tells you something “from the textbook”, and then listen to someone who himself has experienced or done what he is talking about. Who do you trust more?
• Direct appeal. Of all the existing words, you can choose the one that people will never get tired of hearing - this is the word “You”. Everyone asks themselves the question: “What is the benefit of this for me?” Hence one more thing: when trying to convince someone of something, always put yourself in his place, and when you understand his way of thinking, address him using “You” and explain what you need in “his” language.

Surprisingly, these four simple techniques are not used in life and work by a huge number of people, in particular those who, for some reason, belittle the virtues of personalization, appealing to emotions and direct communication with people. But this is a grave mistake, and if you want to become convincing in your words, you should under no circumstances make it. Combine everything presented in this lesson into a single whole - and you will be amazed at how easily and quickly you can learn to be persuasive in any life situation.

Developing critical thinking and reasoning skills will provide you with enormous benefits in your family, everyday and professional life. But again: there are things that can get in your way. What are these obstacles? We will answer this question in the next lesson, where we will list most of the potential interference and give many interesting examples.

Want to test your knowledge?

If you want to test your theoretical knowledge on the topic of the course and understand how suitable it is for you, you can take our test. For each question, only 1 option can be correct. After you select one of the options, the system automatically moves on to the next question.

If you have managed to familiarize yourself with this site, then you probably know that the main secret of building big internet business is TEXT. And not just text, but SELLING TEXT.

The text on the website should play the role of a good sales manager:

• answer ALL visitor questions
• focus on strengths product (service)
• argue for the benefits that the client receives from working with you
• convince and stimulate to take the action that you need

To create an effective sales text, it is not enough just to write competently and beautifully. You need to write CONVINCINGLY.

The question of how to persuade correctly did not arise today. First basic research, dedicated to the art of persuasion, appeared about 2500 years ago in the 4th century BC and belongs to Aristotle. Ancient Greece showed the world a galaxy of brilliant speakers. Judicial and political speeches were considered the highest form of oratory. Aristotle proposed a simple but effective formula that helped speakers achieve their main goal - to persuade their audience. This is what she looked like →

1. Exordium (intro) . Start with an intriguing statement that will grab the attention of your target audience.

1. Narratio (presentation). Voice a problem that readers have and that your product can solve.

1. Confirmatio (statement). Promise a solution, backing your promise with compelling evidence.

1. Peroratio (conclusion). State the benefits that a person who takes advantage of your offer will receive and call to action.

If you look closely, Aristotle’s formula is not too different from the classic AIDA advertising formula →

Aintention -Iinterested -Desire -Action

or as it will be in Russian →

Attention – Interest – Desire – Action

When writing, you can use any examples of selling texts from the above, but the closest to me is the equation proposed by the legendary American copywriter Gary Bencivenga. Here it is →

Problem + Promise + Arguments + Solution = Persuasion

Anyone can write a sales text using this equation. Anyway, try. Experience will come with time. To make it easier for you to create your own example of a selling text, I will share some subtleties.

Problem

To attract the reader's attention, it is necessary to carefully consider the TITLE and the entry into the text. The abundance of information and lack of time makes a person very selective. He will not waste time reading a text that did not interest him from the first sentence.

A good headline contains:

• intrigue
• target audience boundaries
• benefit

For clarity, here is an example of a sales text title:

How to improve your efficiency with FOREX by 256%?

A headline containing a question is already intriguing, the mention of the FOREX market highlights the target audience, the promise of a 256% increase in profits is a profitable component.

This should be followed by a powerful introduction to the text. This can be one sentence or several paragraphs. Doesn't matter. The main thing at this stage is to capture the attention of the reader, who is already interested in the title and begins to read the text. Typically, this part identifies a problem that the customer has that your product can solve.

It has long been established that pain and pleasure, carrots and sticks, best motivate action. Pain motivates much more strongly, but in a selling text it is important not to scare the reader, but to detail the problem and paint a picture of a happy outcome. It is necessary to speak with the reader in the same language and in such a way that in your narrative he mentally recognizes himself and agrees with you.

Promise

Once the reader has agreed that there is a problem, promise him a solution. Moreover, the key word in this section is not PROMISE, but SOLUTION. Show that the problem is temporary, that similar situations happen to many people, give examples of successful overcoming difficulties, etc.

In this part you can provide reviews from those who have already used the product and received the promised effect. The main thing is that the reviews are truthful and specific, and not enthusiastic about anything.

Proof

Having infected the reader with a picture of a happy future, proceed to the evidence. It is important to avoid idle talk here. Words just don't mean anything for a long time. There are many ways and examples to increase the persuasiveness of selling texts. Here are just a few of them:

• Figures and facts . Numbers convey specific information. Avoid the phrases “many years of experience”, “rich product range”, “cheap service”. By constructing a phrase in this way: “14 years of work in the market”, “the company’s assortment includes more than 1,500 units of products”, “monthly subscription service will cost only 800 rubles” you do not leave the slightest chance for doubt.
• Calculations . Do not limit yourself to indicating the size of the discount as a percentage; immediately indicate the amount of savings.
• Opinion of experts, professionals. The first example that comes to mind is an advertisement for toothpaste with recommendations from famous dentists.
• Listing of merits, achievements and awards.
• List of famous clients who used the product.
• Quality guarantees, money back etc.
• Bonuses and free apps (consultation, gift, warranty service).

Solution

No matter how good your product is, it costs money that the client will have to part with. He has already appreciated the benefits of your proposal, since he did not stop reading until this moment. All that remains is to sell him the PRICE of the goods. Not to name, but to sell.

Each seller wants to sell a product at a higher price, and the buyer wants to buy it at a lower price. The selling text is deprived of the possibility of “live bargaining”, however, there are a number of effective tactics that help sell the price:

• Price splitting (indicate not the total amount of overpayment on the loan for the year - 3650 rubles, but the amount of daily payment - only 10 rubles per day)
• Price comparison (show me what you can buy for the same money)
• Old and new price (indicate the regular price, and offer a new one next to it)
• Breaking down the price into components (when selling a furniture set, indicate the price of each table-chair, and not the set as a whole)
• Offering multiple product versions according to the principle, the cooler, the more expensive, etc.

Finally, encourage the reader to take action. A high-quality kick is ensured by the following techniques:

• limited quantity of goods
• short duration of the offer
• price increase in the near future
• possibility of pre-order at the best price

And also, use verbs in the imperative mood: Buy! Book now! Order!

P.S. High-quality examples of selling texts are presented on the website in the “ Last works" Read. GO FOR IT!

The prisoner was brought to his cell. Looking around at his cellmates, noticing their grins and winks, he darted towards the door:

- I won’t sit here! Save me, there are only sadists here!

They brought him to another one. At first glance, it became clear to him how difficult it would be here, and he also flatly refused:

- Yes, these are all drug addicts! No, I'm not into this part. Get me out of here!

They brought him to a cramped cell where a decrepit, thin old man was sitting.

“I’ll stay here,” the prisoner agreed.

Left alone with his neighbor, he explained why he sat down and asked:

- Why are you here, grandfather?

- For cannibalism, son, for cannibalism!

To begin with, examining the logical components of persuasion (where would we be without them?), we will describe Socrates’ method of positive answers (most often used in persuasion), and then we will examine at what moments, due to which the harmonious, logically verified structure of persuasion can “break.”

So, Socrates' method of positive answers implies consistent proof of the proposed solution to a problem. Each step of the proof begins with the words: “ Do you agree that..." If the recipient answers in the affirmative, this step can be considered completed and proceed to the next one. If the partner answers negatively, the initiator continues with words like: “ Sorry, I didn't formulate the question very well. Do you agree that...”, etc. until the addressee agrees with all the steps of the proof and with the proposed solution as a whole. It is not recommended to ask questions like: “ Why don't you agree?" or " Why do you object to obvious things?».

Let us allow ourselves a number of critical remarks that make such logic vulnerable.

Note #1. Why would a partner want to give us the opportunity to experiment with the wording of the question?

Most often, inaccurate formulations and attempts to correct them on the fly are perceived as an opponent’s weakness ( “Why didn’t you prepare in advance?”). Let us note once again that the formulations must be precise not only in meaning, but also in form (remember the story about the Khan’s son).

Note #2. Why would a partner even want to agree with all the steps and the overall decision?

How many times in the course of training and consulting work have we encountered situations where an argument that is obvious to the person proving it is not at all so to the opponent of the persuasion.

– Do you agree that it is profitable to buy shares when the market is down?

- Is not a fact.

As an illustration of what can be considered facts, here is an excerpt from the book: “ Weapon is the word. Defense and attack with» .

A young man from a very famous, wealthy and fairly decent family entered one of the most prestigious educational institutions in the country. Exceptionally gifted children studied with him, and the teachers did everything possible so that the students could realize their creative potential to the fullest.

However, the young man did not particularly bother himself with his studies. He studied extremely unsteadily, paying absolutely no attention to the basic disciplines. His main hobby was reading erotic literature, which, of course, left a deep imprint on his entire subsequent life.

After graduating educational institution, he, unlike his classmates, did not even try to find a permanent job and lived mainly at his parents’ expense. He became interested in playing cards for money, and in addition, he was partial to women of easy virtue and alcoholic beverages. He earned money for playing cards through odd jobs.

Quite late, he started a family, marrying a woman much younger than himself, as a result of which he felt jealous of her. Thanks to family connections, he managed to get a certain position, but he was dissatisfied with it, because he considered himself more worthy. Perhaps this was facilitated by the fact that almost all of his classmates took very prominent positions in the public service. Some of them became generals, and some even became ministers.

And it is likely that this feeling was the reason why the young man almost took the path of high treason. The only thing that saved him was that he was very superstitious, like, perhaps, other people who do not have a firm position in life. And it was superstition that helped him avoid participation in a crime aimed at undermining the foundations of statehood, which, of course, would have ended in a long prison sentence.

This man did not think at all that his classmates had achieved their prominent position in society through determination and hourly work, while he himself was ready to work mainly only to pay off gambling debts and the expenses of an idle lifestyle.

The story of this man ended very sadly. In a fit of jealousy, he tried to kill his young wife's supposed lover, but was killed himself. Law enforcement agencies, having studied the case materials, tried to hush up this incident, and did so quite successfully. And from this we see what the lack of clear life goals and clear moral principles can lead to. The instructive story of this man is known to almost everyone in Russia.

And his name was... Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin.

Conclusion: There are no facts, there is an interpretation of them, which we must agree with our partner during negotiations of persuasion.

What is a fact? Description of an object, event, action that:

a) double-checked (preferably through different channels of information);

b) protected from subjective perception;

The same speaker was presented in different ways in different student audiences: as an assistant at the department, as a teacher, as a professor, as an academician. After the lecture, students were asked to rate the teacher's growth. The difference in grades was more than 15 cm - taller height was, of course, awarded to the academician...

c) suits both opponents (if two agreed to consider some event an armed conflict, then in their picture of the world this is a fact...).

As you can see, there is a lot of subjectivity in the facts...

Having gone through our entire chain of evidence, a partner can draw completely “perpendicular” conclusions: simply because in his perception, thinking style, mode of action, values ​​and interests, a different conclusion is logical.

- Girl, you are like interesting book- I would read and read!

– Okay, just don’t touch the cover.

In one discussion, the parties made a decision about which of the potential partners to implement promising project. We determined the selection criteria, agreed on the entire chain of “sifting” applicants, and in the end, everyone defended their partner...

Conclusion: often the partner uses the situation of persuasion only in order to accumulate arguments in favor of the decision chosen in advance.

There are also a number of pitfalls of logical persuasion related to both the meaning and the logical structure of arguments. These traps trigger resistance to persuasion. Let's list them.

Statement of the planned outcome of the discussion: “We have come to convince you that our offer is the best...” Such formulations are acceptable as a seed, an intrigue in the discussion, but only if you are 100% sure of the result. When we come confident that our decision is the only correct one, we have already questioned the effectiveness of persuasion. And if we also stated this, then we increase the risk of irrational resistance ( “You’re lying, you won’t take it”), when the partner’s motivation “not to let him win” wins.

Listing Events– is not an argument. Rate your feelings when reading the following chain:

– Do you agree that in the first negotiations we agreed...

- Do you agree that then we sent you...

– Do you agree that your experts gave an opinion...

Tiring, isn't it? And it causes personal prejudice because it creates a feeling of unpreparedness for negotiations.

Complex Arguments– death of logical belief: “ Do you agree that due to the high demand for our services, increasing prices and positioning the person providing these services in a higher price segment would be a justified measure?» After the second comma, the listener forgets the beginning of the sentence.

Long chain of arguments– “firstly, secondly, ... and finally, twentiethly: do you agree that...” forms perception fatigue. Within the framework of such exhausting tactics, it is easier for a partner to agree than to object, but he may not agree to our proposal at all.

Two people are sitting at a table in a restaurant. One unsuccessfully tries to prick an olive with a fork, which is actively “running” across his plate. In the end, the olive energetically flies into the neighbor's plate. He automatically pricks the naughty food with a fork and puts it in his mouth. The first one says annoyedly: “It’s unlikely that you would have eaten her if I hadn’t tortured her.”

Short chain of arguments also triggers doubts like “ it's all very simple" Your opponent doesn't want you to think he's that easy to convince. Therefore, he will resist, and this resistance will be rather irrational. In other words, victory should not come too easily...

It’s no coincidence that they say: “If you walk wide, you’ll tear your pants.”

Repeating what was said earlier- another trap. Often we intuitively strive to return to our partner’s previous “agreements” - this will bolster our self-confidence. We often call this method “from the stove.” But this is dangerous because it provokes a loss of attention of the opponent ( “he begins to repeat himself, which means he has exhausted all arguments”).

I explained and explained, and finally I understood, but he still resisted.

Important remember that logical proof method not applicable in the case of an initially negative attitude of the partner, when he does not want to listen. The same applies to the situation of positional bargaining: “ I don't want to take your position into account. It will be our way or not at all. All your arguments are patent nonsense».

And most importantly - bare logical constructions can not affect a person emotionally. The idea of ​​speech and its content reach consciousness through the emotional sphere.

It couldn't work any brighter here. paradox of belief.

In other words, seeing your emotional involvement, your willingness to personally invest in the idea and worry about its success, your partner will be ready to forgive you for logical inconsistencies and half-thought-out risks. There are no ideal schemes or solutions (by the way, this is a truism - everyone will agree with it). Your positive emotionality when defending your idea will be the best argument in favor. Everything else is nothing more than a chain of arguments that will allow your partner to be convinced that his infection with your idea will be positive...

– When preparing persuasion: analyzing options from the point of view of the partner’s interests, assessing whether he will answer “yes” in response to our: “ Do you agree that...».

– At the stage of presenting positions: the logic of presenting your own position raises the bar high for assessing you as a constructive partner.

– At the stage of summarizing agreements, when it is useful to restore the chain of conclusions and capture a single image of what happened.

It is important:

- use KISS principle(keep it simple and short (stupid)): speak briefly, clearly and simply (add “in an understandable language”);

– in arguments, appeal to values, significant for your opponent criterion that was fixed during the negotiation interaction. Such formulations, as we have already said, are called truisms(from the word truth– truth; a truism is thus a true (for the partner) statement). Truisms actually prevent the situation of refusal, since in this case the opponent will contradict himself;

– describe assumption field– thereby establishing control over uncertainty. At the same time, in the zone of uncertainty, instead of unambiguous formulations, use hypothetical formulas like “may be...”, “probably...”, “capable.”

COMMENT: At trainings on persuasive communication, we often ask participants the following task: at an oriental bazaar, a seller sells souvenir T-shirts. He makes them himself and sells them for 10 tugriks (hereinafter tg). One morning, the very first buyer, having decided to buy a T-shirt, gave the seller a 20 tg banknote. The seller did not have change, so he went to the money changer and received two 10 tg banknotes from him in exchange for this twenty. Having received the goods and change, the buyer, satisfied, left. After some time, a money changer came to the seller and said that the twenty was counterfeit, and therefore he must return two 10 tg banknotes to him. The seller, as an honest person, fulfilled the requirement. In the evening, while counting the proceeds, he came across the ill-fated twenty and thought about his losses. Question: “What did the seller lose?” Interestingly, no one group ever gave a single answer to this question– we always received from 4 to 8 answer options. When we asked participants to prove (using the Socratic method, of course) their version of the solution, we received completely different models and methods of argumentation. And this clearly demonstrated that to prove does not mean to convince: people could agree with individual arguments, but not with the logic of their relationship; they accepted the whole chain, but said “no” at the last conclusion... The final question we are almost always asked is: which solution is correct? We invariably answer: the one you managed to come to together with your partner

Conclusion: persuasion is an invitation to a partner to jointly develop and follow a path to a given goal in order to find the right one there wording total.

COMMENT: following this “logic”, during the training we successfully convinced the group, in particular, that the seller:

– didn’t lose anything;

– lost 60 tg;

- gained valuable experience for nothing, from which he will later benefit...

Does the above mean that logical constructions are not needed? Not at all. They just need to be served correctly (let’s say “serve” again). This is the next section...

Below we will present you a sequence of steps that allows you to technologically control persuasion. There are only five of these steps.

1. Removing prejudice + creating motivation for interaction.

2. Declaration of your interest.

3. Throwing in a resource that is significant for the partner.

4. Objection management.

5. Completion of persuasion.

We will not only describe in detail the actions of the negotiator at each step, but also consider the effect of this technology using a film example (the film “Glass of Water”).

Let's describe the situation. XVIII century. England is in a protracted war with France. The monarchs of both states understand the impossibility and destructiveness of continuing the war for both sides. However, the war cabinet is in power in England. The first lady of state, the Duchess of Marlborough, is the wife of the Duke who commands the troops of England in this war. In addition, for the continuation of the war, England’s ally is Austria. There is no question of any open negotiations between the monarchs - the parties are too mired in a long-term confrontation, and the first one to declare the need for negotiations will be considered a loser. Nobody wants to “lose face.” Therefore, we can only talk about informal contacts.

The secret envoy of the French king, the Marquis de Torcy, comes to London on a “private visit”. He brought a letter from his monarch to the Queen of England with a proposal to begin peace negotiations. He undertakes to help old friend and Leader of the Opposition Lord Bolenbrock. The lord's task is to organize an invitation to the marquis to the palace. The Duchess’s task is not to give an invitation in order to prevent peace negotiations, to avoid complications with Austria, and most importantly, to adhere to the previous course - the course of war, since its change will mean a change of cabinet. Possessing remarkable political talent, as well as certain powers, the Duchess ensured the departure of the Marquis, who threatened her interests, from the country (he was issued a passport and was obliged to leave London the next day).

At this moment, the leader of the opposition, Lord Bolenbrock, becomes aware that the Duchess is incognito showing interest in a certain young man. On this interest of hers, he begins a game, the price of which is an invitation to the marquis to the palace to receive the queen. How does a visitor achieve the decision he needs? This is what we read about (and for those who wish, we recommend watching the movie “A Glass of Water”).

Duchess: What do you owe to such a rare guest?

Lord: My lady, I have come to express my admiration for your talents.

Duchess: You could add “by my honesty”: I kept my promise, and your dear little Abigail has been regularly spying on me for two weeks now and faithfully serving you. Did you achieve this?

Lord: Is it possible to hide anything from you - you are so insightful.

Duchess: You have a devoted assistant. She even tried to persuade the queen to accept the Marquis de Torcy into the palace.

Lord: Oh, that was my mistake. I apologize to you; of course, I should have turned not to her, but to you. I hasten to correct my mistake and humbly ask you, Duchess, to invite the Marquis de Torcy to the palace this evening.

Duchess: Are you kidding?!

Duchess: Convinced? Has my lord intercepted or bought one of my notes again? Well, on this subject I have some charming letters from your wife, Lady Bolentbroke, to Lord Ashward.

Lord: Keep them, my lady. I don't rule out the possibility that you will need them someday. I don't intend to threaten you today. On the contrary, I came to do you a favor. I want to tell you news that cannot but interest you.

Duchess: Pleasant?

Lord: I'm afraid not. You have a rival, and, it seems to me, a happy one: one high-ranking court lady has designs on Captain Masham. And it looks like she managed to take him away from you.

Duchess: Lies!

Duchess ( freezes): Hm… ( Gets up and walks around the office, thinking.)

Lord: In the end, the Marquis is leaving anyway, the issue of his expulsion has been resolved. He's not dangerous...

Duchess ( after a pause): This is impossible. The Ambassador of Austria will be invited to the reception.

Lord: But, Duchess, this is not an audience, or even an official reception, but just a small evening, at which the Marquis will be present as a completely private person. But... look...

Duchess ( thinks, then makes a decision, approaches the table and, signing the invitation, asks): Who is this lady?..

Let's begin with a description of the proposed technology.

The point is to make sure that partner wanted to hear what we want to say. That is, here you need to work with the first law of persuasion, using adjustment, self-submission and presenting the topic of discussion in terms keys of motivation.

What's useful:

- “screw in” the intrigue: “ I have an offer that may interest you...»;

– state the purpose of the visit (in essence, this is the formulation of a position): “ I came to discuss an idea that would...».

Result: receive and record the presence of interest.

: We ask you to immediately notice that this stage takes the main character most time of negotiations. We will simply recall the key phrases that work for self-presentation and presentation of the topic (Table 9).

Table 9

Key phrases of persuasion (using the example of a film)

In the next section of the book, we will dwell in detail on how exactly it is worth declaring the purpose of your visit. In the meantime, the next step...

Your interest is what actions, what decision you expect from your partner following the negotiations. Let us remind you that the ability to calmly express your interest, firstly, increases your credibility, and secondly, works to motivate you to interact. Especially if we have expressed an interest that is real for us and feasible for our partner.

Question: Why wouldn’t a partner want to use this information against us? Because:

– we do not cause negative emotions (we leveled them out in the first step);

– we intrigued the partner by describing the purpose of the visit in terms of benefits and hinting that his interest would also be taken into account;

– we offer something that may be interesting to him...

How it works in our example:

Lord: ...I hasten to correct my mistake and humbly ask you, Duchess, to invite the Marquis de Torcy to the palace this evening.

Duchess: Are you kidding?!

Lord: Not at all. And I am convinced that you will fulfill my request.

Please note that there are no specifics yet in response to the question: “Why do I need this?” But this question is already in the air. The important element here is the opportunity to let the Duchess figure out her opponent’s train of thought. She may be mistaken or guess (and then another compliment), but the main thing is not to interfere... If the reasoning begins on given topic, it’s worth raising the temperature.

What works here is what we call for ourselves “ The principle of the green mausoleum" As an illustration, and also to understand the meaning of the name, here is an anecdote.

There is a congress of people's representatives. At some point, a man approaches the podium, accompanied by armed guards, takes the microphone and says: “So, I have two proposals: 1) shoot the presidium and 2) paint the mausoleum green. Will there be any questions? There were few people willing to speak at gunpoint—one. He timidly raised his hand and asked: “Why green?” To which the speaker replied: “I knew that there would be no objections to the first question...”

SUMMARY If your partner begins to talk about a given topic, it means that negotiations about your interest are still possible...

By the way: This principle is often used during the bargaining stage. Evaluate: “I understand that if I can find an opportunity to provide you with a discount, would you be willing to consider purchasing?”

I love sardines, but when I go fishing, I bring a worm.

Lord: ...You have a rival, and, as it seems to me, a happy one: one high-ranking court lady has designs on Captain Masham. And it looks like she managed to take him away from you.

Here again, a pause is important. Because we need to evaluate whether the resource we have declared is really interesting for the partner. Let him ask you questions, answer them. Questions are a sign of interest. Fuel that interest...

How it works in our example:

Duchess: Is this Lady Eckford? No...Lady Glover! Not true…

Lord: Alas, things have gone so far that she has already made an appointment with him.

Duchess: Lies!

Lord: I know the day, the hour and even the symbol...

Duchess: Can you tell me them?

Lord: Of course. As soon as you sign the Marquise de Torcy's invitation to the palace...

ALL! Position determination is complete. The cards are revealed. Now what do you need? BE SILENT!!!

Polonius (to Hamlet): “Give everyone your hearing, but no one your voice.”

The most important rule at this stage is to wait for objections. The most serious mistake is to start campaigning for your idea and giving reasons for it. Give your partner the opportunity to do it all on their own - don’t rob him of his right to be smart...

1. Take a break until the partner begins to object. You need this pause to see the reaction. The partner needs this pause to compare how much your request is worth the winnings you offer. He begins to weigh the pros and cons. And him objections are voiced doubts, which he can handle on his own or with your help. Only after hearing objections can you move on. Because only his objections will show you exactly what arguments you need to present - you will avoid unnecessary communication.

2. If the pause is too long - provoke feedback , for example, like this: voice a view of your proposal from the position of the other side. Reveal your partner's internal train of thought, but on the condition that the final decision is still positive.

The principle of operation of this technique(also called the two-way argumentation technique):

– having joined the position of the other side, make some exaggerated attack on your own position. Moreover, the wording can be harsh, partly even uncomfortable (decent people don’t talk about it out loud like that). This causes the other party to experience some embarrassment and internally reject such thoughts;

In effect, you are using a "shifter". The speech formula is as follows(in relation to our example): “ I understand you. If they came to me with such a proposal, I would think that they were offering me to nullify all my efforts. But then I would think that...(further read the arguments given by the hero in our example).”

Distinctive features of this technique:

It is most effective in a group work situation, when one of the participants acts as a translator or mediator;

It is very important to start influencing at the moment when the other party is in a decision-making situation. She hesitates and it's important carefully push to the right choice;

This technique is applicable only to highly intelligent partners.

3. And finally, only after hearing the objections, present your counterarguments. We described speech formulas earlier, but now we’ll just see once again how to how it works in our example.

The hero provides the female duchess with arguments in a dispute with the duchess, a government official. He does not convince her, but helps her overcome internal differences, providing arguments in defense of the beneficial to him solutions, while simultaneously calming the Duchess’s internal “opponent”.

Firstly, he minimizes the risks: the issue of deportation has already been resolved, the Marquis is not dangerous (note that the heroine is ready to believe this simply because she wants it).

Secondly, he offers ready-made formulas for presentation, justifying this decision to third parties (the Ambassador of Austria, for example):

– this is not an audience or an official reception;

– the marquis will be present as a completely private person...

Ah, it’s not difficult to deceive me - I’m glad to be deceived myself!

The last - and not at all unimportant - point in persuasion is to leave the decision to the opponent. This is very important: if you overdo it with argumentation, overwhelm it - and the responsibility for decision will be transferred to the one who convinces. This means that we risk overpaying for what our opponent said “I agree.”

How it works in our example.

The hero finally says the phrase: “ However, decide for yourself..." He leaves the Duchess alone with his dragons. And in the end he gets his way...

In a situation of working with the needs of another person, it is very important to leave him with the feeling that he made the decision on his own. If you have identified a person’s needs correctly, then he will still pass through a certain corridor.

You ask, “What if we don’t have enough information?” We will answer: “Get it.” You ask: “How?” We will answer: during negotiations and within near negotiation communication. We certainly cannot do this for you. But we can offer a way to analyze this information in order to clearly know what interest to show and what resource that is significant for the opponent to “throw in”, using persuasion by contradiction. More on this in the following sections...

Below we will propose a sequence of steps that can be used for a preliminary analysis of the information available about a partner and the subsequent formulation of your position and speech formulas of argumentation.

To implement this step, the logic of SWOT analysis is often used. Let us recall that SWOT analysis allows you to assess opportunities, advantages, weaknesses and threats (Table 10).

Table 10

SWOT analysis

First remark

It is important that factors that are truly significant for the partner’s activities appear in the threat and opportunity cells. And the wording of these points should reveal why this is a threat or an opportunity.

Example: increasingly, SWOT analysis takes into account such a factor as Russia’s accession to the WTO. The question is, where should this factor be attributed? And here people begin to argue: this is a threat, no, this is an opportunity... In this regard, a well-known joke comes to mind.

- Petka, devices!

- Fourty…

- What's forty?

- What about the devices?

What, exactly, is “Russia’s accession to the WTO”? This formulation describes the influence factor. But the result of this influence can be completely different. Therefore, there is no need to argue, but we need to be more specific, For example, So.

Threat: in connection with accession to the WTO, it is possible that Western players with more advanced and proven technologies that meet the specified quality standards will enter the Russian market...

Opportunity: in connection with accession to the WTO, procedures for exporting company products (services, technologies) to the Western market will be simplified.

Second remark

It is important that in the cells of advantages and weaknesses appear those characteristics and resources of the partner that are actually related to the listed opportunities and threats. This approach allows you to record only what is necessary and important. In addition, it is useful to ask yourself the question: “ Is not it this characteristic is it an advantage or a weakness?»

Example: in the process of forming a SWOT matrix in working with a trading and manufacturing company, the main advantage was stated: “We have a strong brand locomotive.” A reasonable question will arise: “What, your competitors don’t have strong brands?” “Yes,” they answer us. “Then what is the advantage?” - we ask... There was no answer...

Remark three

After the initial compilation of the SWOT matrix, it is important to check each point for accuracy. If you can confirm this or that wording with a link to a reliable source, this item can be called fact. If not, consider this point as speculation.

Speculation is dangerous because you cannot rely on it for persuasion: your partner can always say: “Not a fact” - and he will be right... But speculation is useful if you can create an agenda from it “ businesslike" And " pre-negotiation» communication. These are the topics you need to talk about! These are the questions to ask!! This is the kind of information that needs to be recorded (using, for example, the “It’s important to you” technique and the “Green Mausoleum Principle”)!!!

In accordance with the results of such a check, you will have two SWOT matrices: factual and hypothetical.

In the process of negotiation consulting, we create one matrix, but we use a colored marker to highlight the facts. The more volume of the matrix is ​​shaded, the more justified your belief may be. We recommend…

Of course, we can go the same way as in the first step, but what will that give us? It is more useful (and more economical in terms of time resources) to take as a basis points related to the opponent’s capabilities and threats. Because only in relation to them is it worth measuring own strength and weaknesses. Everything else in this particular situation of persuasion lies outside the needs of the partner...

If at a certain moment you understand that these opportunities and threats are in no way related to your area of ​​interest and cannot be influenced by your resources, this will mean that there is no subject of conviction (alas...).

If the situation is the opposite, i.e. you can clearly assess your resources in terms of taking advantage of opportunities and countering the threats of your opponent, then the next step becomes logical for you, namely...

The task of this stage is to compare your strengths and weaknesses with those of your partner. And distribute them in the matrix of the “Semantic Field of Persuasion” (Table 11). To make it easier to fill out the “field,” we recommend assigning a serial number to each statement of advantage or weakness. And distribute these numbers into four semantic “zones”.

Table 11

Matrix “Semantic field of belief”

During the analysis of the semantic field, we gain an understanding of WHAT EXACTLY should be offered to the partner as a topic of persuasion.

To answer this question, let’s take a closer look at each of the zones.

A. Area of ​​General Weakness

Risks in zone A

(to the question of “gravediggers” of motivation)

In this zone, it is not recommended to talk about risks and disadvantages directly - this can be perceived as emotional blackmail and cause an aggressive reaction. Suggestions must be implied and stated in a positive manner.

So, the risks.

1. Point out your partner’s shortcomings.

Tell him what she does in his absence: they will still make up, but you will never set foot in this house.

((according to M.M. Zhvanetsky))

2. Admit your own weaknesses without securing a guarantee of a positive attitude from your partner.

3. Be late in proposing a solution to the problem.

4. To be used for a partner’s temporary expansion of his own resource: we will cease to be needed as soon as, with our help, the partner overcomes his limitations.

As an illustration of project commitments in Zone A:

A turtle is swimming along the river, and a snake is curled up on it. “If I bite, it will throw me off,” the snake thinks. “If I throw it away, it will bite,” the turtle thinks.

B. Zone of joint advantage

Risks in zone B

1. Enter competition mode and start measuring your strength.

2. Show yourself as a less resourceful partner.

Remember: They don’t negotiate with the weak, they dictate terms to him.

3. Offer an analogue of an existing resource.

4. Propose high-risk projects that could negatively affect the partner’s leadership positions or image.

B. Partner's advantage zone

Risks in zone B

1. Acquire the image of a complainer and a beggar.

2. Stay with your problems.

D. Our advantage area

But there is more

risks in zone G

1. To be caught in “weakness” and “pressure for pity.”

Please give me something to drink, otherwise I’m so hungry that I have nowhere to sleep.

2. Point out your partner’s weaknesses > be a messenger of threats > cause defensive aggression.

Children play after the New Year. Masha: “Grandfather Frost gave me a doll and a dollhouse...” Petya: “And for me, a remote-controlled car...” Pavlik: “And for me, an electric railway and a construction set.” Vanya: “And to me... And I... I’ll give it to you all now!”

Let's look at an example of options for determining the topics of negotiations based on the information available about the partner. We will describe the situation schematically, in “large strokes.” But, in our opinion, this example well illustrates the rules for defining and formalizing the goals and topics of negotiations for the purpose of persuasion.

Background

Partner A. The conditional name is “Holding”: a 100% subsidiary of a large Russian Monopolist (a company with the majority of state capital). It is characterized by a forceful model of behavior in the market, a strict dictate of conditions.

General Director of the Holding – Petr Sergeevich, 62 years old. In "Holding" it is more likely to "reign, but not to rule." All operational management, including negotiations with partners, is the responsibility of the commercial director of the Holding, Igor. Commercial director, 42 years old, in this position for 6 years. Active career goals, a high degree of trust on the part of the general director (always remains in an acting capacity during periods of departure of the chief). Often visits Moscow, traveling business class. He has several expensive cars at his personal disposal, although he demonstratively drives a company Volga to work. A classic workaholic (management meetings started at 7:30 a.m. every Tuesday). He likes to leave work late, but insists that all key employees be with him at this time. Has two higher education, is studying in the MBA program. The high level of personal wealth is not advertised anywhere. Reasonably public, paying attention to thoughtful PR: in all speeches he is emphatically loyal to management and expresses support for the administration. Welcomes innovation: in economic system Several significant innovations were made during his enterprise.

At the moment, an order has been signed to transfer the general director to Moscow. There is a high probability that the commercial director of the Holding will take his place.

Partner V. A large financial and industrial group (FIG) engaged in the acquisition of diversified assets in the regions. He has significant authority and lobbying leverage at the republican level. Its power is not comparable to the scale of the Russian Monopolist (whose subsidiary is Partner A), but it has sufficient weight in the Holding’s region of operation. In this region, the financial industrial group acquired an asset - the Remstroy plant.

In the past, Remstroy was a structural division of the Holding, engaged in the production of pipes and repair work on its networks. Several years ago, this structural division was separated into a business unit and sold to a certain regional business structure. At the same time, management remained the same, since up to 87% of the plant’s work is focused on the needs of the Holding. The new owner failed to diversify production, and he was forced to constantly “beg” budgets and face the problem of accumulated debt on the part of the “Holding”. At the time of the acquisition of the plant by the FIG group, the amount of debt was more than $10 million.

Problem situation

Considering the current situation, FIG purchased the plant at a fairly reasonable price, i.e. the deal is already profitable for them. However, if it is possible to “expand” existing debts, then the deal will turn out to be extremely profitable. At the same time, it is clear that the future activities of this enterprise will largely be determined by the nature of the relationship with the Holding. The amount of debt is such that it is inappropriate to resolve it through negotiations between the management of Monopolist and the financial and industrial group. The situation must be resolved at the regional level.

To the region as acting A representative of the financial and industrial group is sent to the General Director of Remstroy. The goal is to monitor opportunities to resolve the debt issue.

Considering the nature of the interaction between Holding and Remstroy, as well as the ratio of the weights of Monopolist and financial industrial groups, consent to the meeting will be given, but interest will be cautious, perhaps skeptical.

Let's analyze the available information (Table 12).

Table 12

Analysis of the situation

Negotiation objectives

1. Establish contact: “ Even if we don't agree on anything, we will know each other».

2. Demonstration of readiness to explore development opportunities for this asset: “ I have been sent to the region to decide how the financial industrial group should deal with this asset correctly. Naturally, such a definition also depends on your position, which I would like to familiarize myself with».

3. Receive from your partner an assessment of the experience of working with Remstroy: “ Can we first hear your opinion about the work of Remstroi from the moment it ceased to be a structural division of the Holding?» As a result, if possible, involve your partner in a joint study (discussion) of options for developing the situation:

– in case of a positive assessment and identification of cooperation opportunities – “ i.e. you would be happy for the plant to operate at least as before» – raise the issue of debt in the context of maintaining a positive tone in the work of the plant;

– in case of a negative assessment – ​​“ i.e. you would be interested in exploring possibilities for improving the current state of affairs» – raise the issue of debt in the context of possible solutions to problems.

4. Hidden, indirect presentation of the capabilities of the financial industrial group and its representative for the promising interests of the commercial director: “ I must say that interest in this issue was expressed at a meeting of directors of financial industrial groups, so I was sent here with fairly broad powers that are not limited to the activities of Remstroi.».

SUMMARY Having analyzed the available information and collected the missing information, we can obtain the semantic field of belief and understand how it will need to be presented (read “sold”). We'll talk about this later, but for now...

We receive 99% of information for free, it is “blurred” in the world around us, it is a kind of air of communication. Sometimes the ideas, arguments, and informational prerequisites for belief that we need are simply “hanging in the air,” sometimes they are given by other people. Sometimes we have to make a conscious effort to gather the information we need.

Reliable information – in negotiations, in persuasive communication – is a universal tool and a universal product. This is an important foundation, a springboard for entering “the territory of another person’s consciousness.”

Effects of information:

1. Information is one of the main resources, comparable to the resources of power and money.

2. Information is useless without the ability to structure and apply it.

3. Information to enter a person’s consciousness must comply with the previously mentioned rule of an empty vessel: “ Before filling the vessel, make sure it is empty».

4. The value of information is realized after you could have received it.

5. The information you have is not what you want.

6. The information you would like to receive is not what you actually need.

7. The information you really need is not available to you.

8. The information that is generally available to you is worth more than you can pay for it.

9. Information is obtained more easily the less interest you show outwardly.

How to accumulate valuable information?

With the correct organization of dialogue, any contact will work for you, since it allows accumulate valuable information. Information is never superfluous, it may not be relevant, but, as they say, time will tell. To accumulate information, proceed as follows:

Suggest a topic of conversation based on the partner’s interest;

Encourage and encourage the expression of ideas;

Manage the conversation, directing it in the right direction with the help of clarifying questions;

Emotionally empathize with the speaker’s story;

Avoid value judgments;

Do not rush to express your opinion;

Tell purely personal details about yourself in anticipation of trust and disclosure on the part of the interlocutor;

Be willing to talk about your own problems and be open to receiving advice;

Be able to convey to others your enthusiasm for the opportunity to solve a problem;

Be able to force a person to defend their position without conflict, while usually in the heat of the moment people give up much more information;

If possible, compare a person’s statement with a thought he expressed earlier;

Ask for commentary on significant facts, citing the authority of the interlocutor;

Be able to sometimes stun a person - in this case you can get quite unexpected reactions and information;

Create the impression that you know much more than the interlocutor, then he himself will tell everything he knows; this is the other side of the work of psychological defense, a person thus, demonstrating his competence, tries to protect self-esteem in contact;

Delve into the real meaning of emotional words and expressions, and not into the design features; Here, the skill of summarizing the interlocutor’s statements and translating them into a rational plan is very important.

What communication effects should be taken into account:

The meaning of phrases composed of more than 13 words (according to other sources, 7 words) can be greatly distorted by the consciousness of the perceiver;

Speech can only be understood at a speed not exceeding 2.5 words per second; the person who perceives is in a slower time flow in relation to the speaker - he still has to work with understanding the meaning of the statement;

A phrase longer than 5–6 seconds, pronounced without pauses, ceases to be conscious;

On average, a person listens to others attentively for 10–15 seconds, and then begins to think about what he could add to the subject of conversation;

The effect of a broken gestalt: actions interrupted for one reason or another are remembered twice as well as completed ones;

Too much information presented confuses the interlocutor’s perception; after the second comma in the spoken sentence, he begins to lose its meaning;

With an impulsive emotional response, no more than a third of the perceived information is usually understood, since the stress that arises prepares the body for an active response (by releasing adrenaline into the blood, activating breathing and pulse, using reserves of sugar and fat...), blocking “unnecessary” brain work.

Laws of argumentation and persuasion

“The powerlessness to help oneself with words cannot but be shameful,

since the use of words is more characteristic of human nature than the use of the body"

Aristotle. "Rhetoric"

Proving and persuasion are different processes.

To prove does not mean to convince.

Belief is the process of a person forming a new point of view to replace the previous one. Persuasion is a successful rational and emotional influence on a person’s free will, as a result of which he himself comes to the conclusion that the action that you demand of him is necessary.

To convince means to create the impression, to instill confidence that the truth of the thesis has been proven

The main idea of ​​any speech - the thesis - is established in the mind with the help of arguments.

Thesis- a thought, a position whose truth needs to be proven (WHAT you want to prove).

it must be clearly formulated;

it must be formulated affirmatively;

the thesis should not contain a logical contradiction;

it must remain unchanged during the course of this proof

Arguments– grounds, arguments with the help of which the thesis is justified (proved). Proof is the logical establishment of the truth of a certain position on the basis of statements whose truth is known.

Argumentation- intellectual activity for the analysis and selection of grounds and arguments necessary for further reasoning and sufficient for this purpose.

Inference is a conclusion made on the basis of several judgments. A way of thinking that leads from judgment to conclusion. He can be deductive: From general to specific; inductive: from particular premises to a generalizing conclusion or conclusion Similarly.

Methods of argumentation: logical reasoning, totality conclusions, which are used in proof; intelligent modeling; a thought experiment followed by logical analysis of the conclusions.

Argumentation is a deeply personal, individual reasoning. PRINCIPLE I.

ARGUMENTS MUST BE TRUE STATEMENTS.

Demonstration– form or method of proof (logical reasoning, a set of conclusions that are used in proof).

A distinction is made between direct and indirect evidence.

At direct evidence the thesis is substantiated by arguments without the help of additional constructions.

Indirect evidence involves substantiating the truth of the thesis by refuting the contradictory position - the antithesis.

In indirect proof, two methods are used:

By contradiction

By elimination

Types of arguments

They differ in the degree of impact on people’s minds and feelings: 1) strong; 2) weak and 3) insolvent. Counterarguments have the same gradation.

1. Strong - are beyond doubt, they cannot be refuted, destroyed, or ignored. This:

precisely established and interrelated facts and judgments arising from them;

laws, charter, guidance documents, if they are performed and correspond to real life;

experimentally verified conclusions;

expert opinions;

quotes from public statements, books, recognized authorities in this field;

testimony of witnesses and eyewitnesses of events;

statistical information, if its collection, processing and generalization are made by professional statisticians.

2. Weak

They raise doubts among opponents, clients, and employees.

Inferences based on two or more facts, the relationship between which is unclear without a third.

Tricks and judgments built on alogisms (“Water? I drank it once, it doesn’t quench my thirst.” An anecdote about “female logic”)

analogies and non-indicative examples

personal arguments arising from circumstances or dictated by motivation, desire;

tendentiously selected digressions, aphorisms, sayings (taken out of context)

arguments, versions or generalizations made on the basis of guesses, assumptions, feelings;

conclusions from incomplete statistical data.

3. Untenable Arguments .

They allow you to expose and discredit the opponent who used them.

Judgments based on manipulated facts

Decisions that have expired

Conjectures, conjectures, suppositions, fabrications

Arguments designed to appeal to prejudice, ignorance;

Conclusions drawn from fictitious documents;

Promises and promises given in advance

False statements and testimony

Forgery and falsification of what is said.

Simple Argument Scheme

Thesis(hypothesis) – thesis development(arguments of different types) – conclusions(offers).

Arguments of different types:

Interpretation, explanation of the thesis itself

Refuting other opinions (proof by contradiction)

Positive facts, examples (examples from life, literature, history)

Opposing facts, examples

Comparisons, analogies, juxtapositions

Summing up, conclusions

Laws of Argumentation

Law of embedding) into the logic of your partner’s reasoning

Z law of the generality of the language of thought

Law of argument minimization (5-7)

Law of objectivity and evidence

The law of dialecticity (unity of opposites). Talk not only about the advantages of your evidence, but also about the disadvantages

Law of Demonstration of Equality and Respect. It is easier to convince a friend than an enemy.

The law of reframing (centering). Do not reject your partner’s arguments, but, recognizing their legitimacy, reassess their strength and significance by changing the context. Increase the importance of losses and reduce the importance of gains if you accept his position. Use the technique of reformulating your opponent’s words from a perspective that is favorable to you.

When arguing, use arguments that you and your opponent understand equally.

if an argument is not accepted, find the reason for this and do not insist on it.

Do not downplay the importance of the opponent’s strong arguments, emphasize their importance and your correct understanding.

Present your arguments after you have answered your partner’s arguments.

Balance the pace of argumentation with your partner’s temperamental characteristics.

Excessive persuasiveness always causes resistance - the partner’s superiority is offensive.

Give one or two compelling arguments. Don't make the mistake of over-argumentation.