Russia in the Middle Ages. Medieval Russia and European cultures

And how are you accustomed to considering ancestors as sadists?! After all, they believe that the scarlet blood of Pugachev and his comrades flowed down, quartered right on the snow-white pedestal of the Execution Ground on Red Square. Yes, and it is called Red, because for centuries it was flooded with the blood of the innocently killed ... Do you believe it? Then you are a worthy candidate for the dollar and euro area. They also believe there. They want to believe.

In the very word "Middle Ages" lies the idea that it used to be good, then it became very bad, and in the end it gets better and better again. And so it was. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire from the 6th to the 12th-13th centuries, there was a merciless war of all against all. The land was deserted, the yield fell from 10-15 centners per hectare to 3-5 centners, forests even in Italy were advancing on fields and gardens. The population of Italy decreased 4-5 times, Southern France - 3-4 times, Northern France - 2 times.

The economy has become natural again. And in Italy they began to grow bread, where it grows worse than in the north. It became impossible to bring the goods, everything had to be grown on the spot.

Eternal war demanded warriors, not scientists. The level of general culture, literacy, education has fallen.

After these terrible times, even the feudal hierarchy and the cruel power of the feudal lords seemed to be a salvation from anarchy and general madness. By the 11th-12th centuries, Europe began to turn into that conglomerate of peoples and countries that we see today.

There was nothing like it in Russia!

The history of Russia did not take place on the old lands of the former Roman Empire. In Russia there were different groups of dependent people, and scientists are still arguing about what kind of duties they carried, in what relationship to the owner were purchases, smerds, ryadovichi, serfs, rabichichs, whitewash serfs. But in any case, even the "white-washed serfs", that is, complete serfs, were not slaves.

Not only did we not know slavery and its consequences for the economy, social relations and psychology. There was also no terrible period of the fall of culture, the war of all against all, collapse and decline. The period, in the very name of which - the justification of blood and cruelty. (There were many other things, but the slave and the serf were different things. As well as the wars with the Poles, Swedes, Turks and Tatars cannot be compared with Europe of those centuries. Even the hordes of Batu - M1).

The term as an excuse

The Middle Ages... such a terrible definition refers to the entire European era, thereby depersonalizing and removing responsibility for cruelty and bloodshed from specific European rulers of that time.

John (John) Landless

Indeed, what do you want from timelessness, the era of decline and decay? Charlemagne is not guilty, who ordered the slaughter of 4.5 thousand Saxon prisoners in the Bois de Vincennes? Or John Landless, who tortured bankers by extorting money from them? Or are the French feudal lords guilty of muzzling their own peasants to the point of losing the instinct of self-preservation and forcing them to climb the terrible Jacquerie of the XII-XIV centuries? And aren't the peasants to blame for tearing children apart and burning alive every knight and every city dweller that got in their way? Here, personal responsibility seems to be erased, because "the era was like that." It's not us! It's the Middle Ages!

At first, the concept of the Middle or Dark Ages included the time from the 6th to the 11th centuries. Then the upper bar smoothly moved up ... The Middle Ages began to be officially considered first until the XIII century ... until the XIV ... until the XV ... And in the minds of the inhabitants, far from historical science, even the 16th century, the Reformation, as it were, belong to the Middle Ages.

And then all the events of this time are also depersonalized, erased. It seems that no one is to blame for specific and striking events! After all, the statesman and military leader act not on their own, but as "inhabitants of the Middle Ages." It was such a time! They don't matter!

There are events of great significance, even entire periods of history, which everyone knows about, but practically does not think about what really stood behind them. For example, the war of the Guelphs and the Ghibellines in Italy is a war of supporters of the secular power of the Pope and supporters of the German Emperor.

The popes declared themselves heirs of the Apostle Peter, entitled to secular power in Italy. The German emperors of the "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation" called themselves the heirs of the Roman emperors.

Guelphs and Ghibellines slaughtered each other for three centuries. The monstrous cruelty of this war is hardly remembered. What elves? What fairies? What goblins? any student will ask. And if something was unsightly, then what can be done about it?

Middle Ages!
Inquisition?
Harness "witches"?
Barons rob on the highways?
Any armed cuts anyone?
Crusades?
So the Middle Ages ... the Middle Ages ...

In the mind of an enlightened person, the characteristics of many negative phenomena arise, but not the names of individuals personally responsible for atrocities, for example, the Inquisition or internecine war.

Ideology of self-justification

In the Middle Ages, political ideology existed in a religious and ethical form and was developed by the efforts of theologians. Christian morality influenced social relations, and it also justified the bloody events of that time.

Thomas Aquinas - 13th century philosopher

Thomas Aquinas is a philosopher of the 13th century, one of the main figures of all medieval philosophy and science. His book "The Sum of Theology" is still revered in Catholic countries. Thomas substantiates and justifies European cruelty. He believes that in order to avoid trouble, one must obey the instructions, since the preservation of the community is based on domination and submission. It is also possible that the ruler's arbitrary actions are an evil sent down to his subjects for sins, in any case, resistance is a sin.
It is in Thomas Aquinas that controversial and cruel events take the form of “common” sense: “If this is the case, then it must be so!”

There is nothing like it in Russia. We have the same centuries - from the 7th to the 13th - these are not the "Middle Ages" of decline and catastrophe. This is not the hour of the bull, but morning. Russia in the period of the European "Dark Middle Ages" as a whole is experiencing cultural growth and the acquisition of a solid statehood. moral basis Russian state become Christian values. Russia, of course, like any state, experienced its periods of unrest and riots. But these events almost always bear the label of personification.

The attitude of Russians is painted in much more iridescent tones. And the motive of self-justification, writing off rudeness and cruelty for the era is completely absent.
A modern European easily repeats after Thomas Aquinas: "Otherwise it would be even worse!" And it's all right. Not the slightest feeling of embarrassment for the cruelty and rudeness of the ancestors.

But the same modern European is convinced that the Russian Middle Ages and, in general, the whole of Russian history are extremely bloody and evil! As an illustration, for example, there is a book by James Haley Billington with a wonderful title: "The Icon and the Axe". This study was written by one of the world's leading experts on Russian culture, a graduate of Princeton University, a doctorate at Princeton and Oxford. Billington speaks Russian well, completed an internship at Moscow State University, and lectured at Leningrad University.

He was already widely known and respected in academia by 1966, when The Icon and the Ax. An Interpretive History of Russian Culture" made him famous. The book made him an indisputable authority, an expert on literally all aspects of Russian social thought, culture and history.
Since 1987, Billington has been director of the US Library of Congress. In terms of significance, this post in America is as honorable as the position of a senator. But senators get elected and re-elected all the time, and Billington stays in office.

Undoubtedly, this book was not written by an enemy of our country. She feels sincere love and respect for the Russian people and their history. All the more surprising: the author seriously believes that periods of worship and the overthrow of authorities are naturally combined in the history of Russia. Because it is such a bloody, terrible and cruel, Russian story: we put someone on a pedestal, and then we overthrow and destroy yesterday's idol with all the children and household members. And Europe?! Well, in Europe, of course, there was nothing like this! ..
The example of Billington's book clearly shows how the modern West, as a rule, justifying its bloody and cruelty, with surprising persistence supports the myth of the bloody and cruelty of the Russian people.

Stereotype of "Russian bloodiness"

Oh, this terrible and bloody history of a huge, mysterious and gloomy country ... We ourselves almost believed the terrible tales about Russia of the 9th-15th centuries. Ask any more or less knowledgeable European, and even Russian, what associations the words “Russian Middle Ages” evoke in him ”, - and in return you will receive a complete gentleman's set: a scaffold covered in blood, a rack in a torture chamber, crows over the Execution Ground, guardsmen, similar to the characters of modern “horror films” and similar delights. Was it all in our history? Of course, there was something to deny here ...

Interrogation. Rack in a German dungeon

The question is how much...

We were so bombarded with stories about our cruelty that even the guides on Red Square say: they say, the Execution Ground served for torture and executions. And the expression “yelling all over Ivanovskaya” goes back to the cry of those who are publicly tortured and flogged with a whip. And this is not true.

The execution place was necessary for the announcement of the decrees of the Sovereigns. Before the redevelopment of Red Square in the 16th century, the decrees of the Grand Duke were proclaimed on Ivanovskaya Square in the Kremlin. The clerk came out in a crimson caftan, blue pants, light brown boots, an orange hat, with an inkwell and a tube with goose feathers on his side, in a bushy beard ... and shouted, "yelled all over Ivanovo" the decree of the Sovereign and the Grand Duke ...

Are you so accustomed to considering your ancestors as sadists that you believed it ?! After all, they believe that the scarlet blood of Pugachev and his comrades flowed down, quartered right on the snow-white pedestal of the Execution Ground on Red Square. Yes, and it is called Red, because for centuries it was flooded with the blood of the innocently killed ... Such are the tales.

Execution place and gallows

And what was the situation with blood and torture equipment in enlightened Europe? Is it somehow different? Indeed, it is different, but not in the way that the average European and domestic intellectual think, but more terrible than ours.
On the squares of ALL European cities, the gallows certainly flaunted. And not always empty.

Torture was a completely common, normal way to conduct an investigation, not only in the dark Middle Ages, but also in the Renaissance XV-XVI centuries. Torture instruments were ordered from the most ordinary artisans, and they performed their useful work by selling finished products to members of the municipality.

Everyday customs... According to the laws of almost all European countries, the wife and children were considered as the PROPERTY of the head of the family. It is no coincidence that in English the word woman (woman) itself is a direct derivative of man (man). And the word man means both "man" and "person". And addressing a married woman in English even now means a certain belonging to her husband. Not at all “Mrs. such and such”, as we translate, according to the norms of the Russian language. And Mrs. So-and-so.

Beatings of wives and children were quite common. AT XVI-XVII centuries the priests began to raise their voice against everyday cruelty, but they were little listened to.

The execution of Pugachev. "Forgive me, Orthodox people"

Fights, stabbings were such common occurrences that it was reflected in customs. Take, for example, the “cup of love” described by Mark Twain. Two people took turns drinking from it. Both held the bowl by the handles, one of them removed the napkin, and the other the lid. Why such difficulties? And then that “in the old days, when morals were harsh and rude, wise precaution required that both participants in the feast, drinking from the cup of love, have both hands occupied. Otherwise, it could happen that while he is expressing his feelings of love and devotion to another, he will stab him with a knife.

The execution of Pugachev. Engraving. Fragment. 17th century

The people were silent

At the feudal estate, they tried to introduce mores into some kind of framework ... But these frameworks are such that they give off some kind of direct cosmic horror. How many fans of fairy tales about King Arthur and the noble Lancelot know that during a jousting tournament, the winner had the right to kill (!) The loser? Even someone who admitted defeat and gave up? Even a bleeding, unconscious wounded man?

The act of killing was called “the blow of mercy”. There was even a weapon specifically designed to finish off a helpless person. It's called a stylet. A stylet is a long trihedral or polyhedral rod on a hilt. It has no blade, it is not suitable as a substitute for a dagger, not even as a knife. The stiletto can only be stabbed.

In Europe, it was considered “correct” and “noble” to drive a stylet to a wounded person either between the plates of the shell on the chest, into the heart, or into the eye socket, so that the stylet would pass directly into the brain after breaking through the eye. Against the background of this domestic, everyday atrocity, neither the Crusades, nor the Inquisition, nor the ordinary cruelty of wars are any longer surprising. (Here I, Mikle1, cannot but intervene in the author’s monologue. Because, knowing history, he is infinitely far from field surgery and military affairs. Melee weapons of the Middle Ages inflict terribly dirty and extensive wounds. Survive in the absence of antibiotics and almost guaranteed infection , after all, the people didn’t wash themselves and didn’t change their clothes in Europe - a guaranteed painful death... Moreover, marauders ran on the battlefield, and not rescuers with orderlies).

And the fires with heretics, and the methods of converting pagans to Christianity - everything was considered appropriate and correct. By the way, as for pagans and heretics - in Russia the treatment of both was much softer than in Europe, at least, the people were burned much less (although, unlike Europe, there was more firewood - an energy superpower, after all) .

Russia, unlike Europe, practically did not know religious wars. Compared to what happened in Germany, the Netherlands, France in the 16th-17th centuries, all the strife between the Nikonians and the Old Believers, as well as the persecution of the strigolniks, non-possessors and other sectarians, seem to be just some kind of “showdown” of kids in the sandbox.

In 1618-1648, Catholics and Protestants slaughtered each other in absolutely monstrous quantities, even by the standards of the 1st and 2nd world large-scale wars. In Germany, during the Thirty Years' War, about forty (!) Percent of the population was destroyed, it came to the point that in Hannover, the authorities officially allowed the trade in the meat of people who died of starvation, and in some areas (Christian!) Germany, polygamy was allowed to replenish human losses.

There was nothing like it in Russia, and thank God!

And there were no special weapons to finish off a defeated enemy either.
And the gallows was not an indispensable "decoration" of a medieval Russian city.
But here's what's interesting! Not a single Russian scientist has yet written the book "Madonna and the Gallows", for which he would be made the director of the Russian State Library and a member of the Academy of Sciences.

And Billington wrote a similar book and became the head of the US Library of Congress.

V. R. Medinsky

Plan

1. Formation of the ancient Russian state Kievan Rus(IX-XII centuries).

2. Concepts of the emergence of the ancient Russian state:

a) Norman theory;

b) the anti-Norman theory.

3. The formation of civilization in the Russian lands. states (XI-XV centuries).

4. Formation and rise of the Muscovite state (XIII-XV centuries).

Key concepts and terms: European Middle Ages, Old Russian state, Russia, Kievan Rus, tribes "ros" ("Rus"), Vikings (Varangians), tribute (polyudye), "lessons", places (graveyards), people's militia, rural community, veche, feudal patrimony , squad, communal peasants, cuts, purchases, serfs, codification of law, “from the Varangians to the Greeks”, feudal fragmentation, city-republic, posadnik, thousand, bishop, Mongol-Tatar yoke, Baskak, centralized state, estate, Sudebnik

1. Kievan Rus (IX-XII centuries)

Formation of the Old Russian state . One of the largest states of the European Middle Ages became in the IX-XII centuries. Kievan Rus. Unlike other Eastern and Western countries, the process of formation of Russian statehood had its own specific features. One of them is the spatial and geopolitical situation - the Russian state occupied a middle position between Europe and Asia and did not have pronounced, natural geographical boundaries within the vast plains. In the course of its formation, Russia acquired the features of both eastern and western state formations. In addition, the need for permanent protection from external enemies of a large territory, it forced peoples with different types of development, religion, culture, language, etc. to unite, create a strong state power and have a significant people's militia.

Closest to the historical truth in the coverage of the initial phases of the development of Russia, apparently, was one of the early Russian historians, the monk chronicler Nestor. AT "Tales of Bygone Years" he presents the beginning of the formation of Kievan Rus as a creation in the VI century. powerful union of Slavic tribes in the middle Dnieper. This union took the name of one of the tribes "Ros", or "Rus". The unification of several dozen separate small forest-steppe Slavic tribes in the VIII-IX centuries. turns into a superethnos centered in Kyiv. Russia of this period was equal in area to the Byzantine Empire.

Further, the chronicler Nestor claims that the tribes of the Ilmen Slavs, Krivichi and Chud, who were at war with each other, invited the Varangian prince to restore order. Prince Rurik (? -879) allegedly arrived with the brothers Sineus and Truvor. He himself ruled in Novgorod, and his brothers in Beloozero and Izborsk. The Varangians laid the foundation for the grand ducal dynasty of Rurikovich. With the death of Rurik, under his young son Igor, the king (prince) Oleg (? -912), nicknamed the Prophet, becomes the guardian. After a successful campaign against Kyiv, he manages to unite the Novgorod and Kyiv lands in 882 into an ancient Russian state - Kievan Rus with the capital in Kyiv, according to the definition of the prince - "the mother of Russian cities."

The initial instability of the state association, the desire of the tribes to maintain their isolation sometimes had tragic consequences. So, Prince Igor (?-945) when collecting traditional tribute (polyudye) from subject lands, having demanded a significant excess of its size, he was killed. Duchess Olga , Igor's widow, having cruelly avenged her husband, nevertheless fixed the amount of tribute, setting "lessons", and determined the places (graveyards) and the timing of its collection. Their son Svyatoslav (942-972) state activity combined with a significant military leader. During his reign, he annexed the lands of the Vyatichi, defeated the Volga Bulgaria, conquered the Mordovian tribes, defeated the Khazar Khaganate, conducted successful military operations in the North Caucasus and the Azov coast, repelled the onslaught of the Pechenegs, etc. But returning after a campaign against Byzantium, Svyatoslav's detachment was defeated by the Pechenegs , and Svyatoslav himself was killed.

The unifier of all the lands of the Eastern Slavs as part of Kievan Rus was the son of Svyatoslav - Vladimir (960-1015), nicknamed the “Red Sun” by the people, who built a number of border fortresses to strengthen the borders of the state from the raids of numerous nomads.

Norman theory . The narrative of the chronicler Nestor about the calling of the Varangians to the Russian land later found a rather contradictory interpretation by historians. The founders of the Norman theory are considered to be German historians. Gottlieb Bayer, Gererd Miller and August Schlozer. Being invited to Russia during the reign of Anna Ioannovna and the heyday of Bironovism, the authors of this "theory" and its supporters exaggerated the role of the Scandinavian warriors in the formation of statehood in Russia. It was this "theory" that was raised to the shield by the Nazis in order to justify the attack in 1941 on our Motherland and accuse Russia of being unable to develop independently.

But the state, as a product of internal development, cannot be introduced from outside. This is a long and complicated process. Appropriate conditions are necessary for the emergence of statehood, the awareness by the majority of members of society of the need to limit tribal power, property stratification, the emergence of tribal nobility, the emergence of Slavic squads, etc. Of course, the very fact of attracting the Varangian princes and their squads to the service of the Slavic princes is beyond doubt. The relationship between the Varangians (Normans - from the Scandinavian “man of the north”) and Russia is also indisputable. The invited leaders of the Rurik mercenary (allied) rati in the future, obviously, acquired the functions of arbitrators, and sometimes civil power. The subsequent attempt of the chronicler in support of the ruling dynasty of Rurikovich to show its peaceful, and not predatory, violent origins is quite understandable and understandable. However, rather controversial, in our opinion, is the “argument” of the Normans that the Varangian king Rurik was invited with the brothers Sineus and Truvor, the fact of whose existence history does not report anything else. Meanwhile, the phrase “Rurik came with relatives and squad” in Old Swedish sounds like this: “Rurik came with sine hus (his family) and true thief” (loyal squad).

In turn, the extreme anti-Norman point of view proving the absolute originality of the Slavic statehood, the denial of the role of the Scandinavians (Varangians) in political processes contradicts known facts. The mixing of clans and tribes, overcoming former isolation, establishing regular relations with near and distant neighbors, and finally, the ethnic unification of North Russian and South Russian tribes (all these) are characteristic features of the advancement of Slavic society to the state. Developing similarly to Western Europe, Russia simultaneously approached the boundary of the formation of a large early medieval state. And the Vikings (Varangians), as in Western Europe, stimulated this process.

At the same time, Norman statements can hardly be called a theory. They actually lack an analysis of sources, a review of known events. And they testify that the Varangians appeared in Eastern Europe when the Kievan state had already taken shape. It is also impossible to recognize the Varangians as the creators of statehood for the Slavs for other reasons. Where are any noticeable traces of the influence of the Varangians on the socio-economic and political institutions of the Slavs? To their language, culture? On the contrary, in Russia there was only Russian, not Swedish. and treaties of the 10th century. with Byzantium, the embassy of the Kyiv prince, which, by the way, included the Varangians of the Russian service, was issued only in two languages ​​- Russian and Greek, without traces of Swedish terminology. At the same time, in the Scandinavian sagas, service to Russian princes is defined as a sure path to acquiring glory and power, and Russia itself is a country of untold wealth.

social order . Gradually, in Kievan Rus, a state governance structure developed, at first, in many respects similar to the Western institution of vassalage, which included the concept of freedom, granting autonomy to vassals. So, the boyars - the highest stratum of society - were vassals of the prince and were obliged to serve in his army. At the same time, they remained full masters of their land and had lesser vassals. The Grand Duke ruled the territory with the help of a council (Boyar Duma), which included senior warriors - the local nobility, representatives of cities, and sometimes the clergy. At the Council, as an advisory body under the prince, the most important government issues: the election of a prince, the declaration of war and peace, the conclusion of treaties, the issuance of laws, the consideration of a number of judicial and financial cases, etc. The Boyar Duma symbolized the rights and autonomy of vassals and had the right to "veto". The younger squad, which included boyar children and youths, yard servants, as a rule, was not included in the Prince's Council. But in resolving the most important tactical issues, the prince usually consulted with the squad as a whole. With the participation of princes, noble boyars and representatives of cities, feudal congresses also gathered, at which issues affecting the interests of all principalities were considered. A management apparatus was formed that was in charge of legal proceedings, the collection of duties and tariffs.

The main cell of the social structure of Russia was the community - a closed social system, recognized to organize all types of human activity - labor, ritual, cultural. Being multifunctional, it relied on the principles of collectivism and leveling, was the collective owner of the land and lands. The community organized its internal life on the principles of direct democracy (election, collective decision-making) - a kind of veche ideal. In fact, the state structure was based on an agreement between the prince and the people's assembly (veche). The composition of the veche is democratic . The entire adult male population with noisy approval or objection made the most important decisions on issues of war and peace, disposed of the princely table (throne), financial and land resources, authorized collections of money, discussed legislation, removed the administration.

An important feature of Kievan Rus , which has developed as a result of constant danger, especially from the steppe nomads, has become general arming of the people , organized by decimal system (hundreds, thousands). In urban centers there were thousands - the leaders of the military city militia. It was the numerous people's militia that often decided the outcome of battles. And it was not subordinate to the prince, but to the veche. But as a practical democratic institution, it was already in the 11th century. began to gradually lose its dominant role, retaining its strength for several centuries only in Novgorod, Kyiv, Pskov and other cities, continuing to exert a noticeable influence on the course of social political life Russian land.

Economic life. The main economic occupations of the Slavs were agriculture, animal husbandry, hunting, fishing, and crafts. Byzantine sources characterize the Slavs as tall, bright, settled people, as they "build houses, wear shields and fight on foot."

A new level of development of the productive forces, the transition to arable, settled and mass agriculture, with the formation of relations of personal, economic and land dependence, gave the new production relations a feudal character. Gradually, the slash-and-slash system of agriculture is replaced by two and three-field systems, which leads to the seizure of communal lands. strong people- the process of loosing the earth takes place.

By the X-XII centuries. in Kievan Rus, a large private landownership is taking shape. The feudal patrimony (patrimony, i.e. paternal possession) becomes a form of land ownership, not only alienable (with the right to buy and sell, donate), but also inherited. The patrimony could be princely, boyar, monastic, church. The peasants living on it not only paid tribute to the state, but became land dependent on the feudal lord (boyar), paying him rent in kind for using the land or working off corvée. However, a significant number of residents were still independent peasants-communes, who paid tribute in favor of the state to the Grand Duke.

The key to understanding the socio-economic structure of the ancient Russian state can largely be polyudie - the collection of tribute from the entire free population ("people"), chronologically covering the end of the 8th - the first half of the 10th century, and locally until the 12th century. It was actually the most naked form of domination and submission, the exercise of the supreme right to land, the establishment of the concept of citizenship.

The wealth collected on a colossal scale (food, honey, wax, furs, etc.) not only satisfied the needs of the prince and his retinue, but also accounted for a fairly high proportion of ancient Russian exports. Slaves, servants from captives or people who fell into heavy bondage, who found demand in international markets, were added to the collected products. The grandiose, well-guarded military-trading expeditions falling on summer time, delivered the export part of polyudya along the Black Sea to Bulgaria, Byzantium, the Caspian Sea; Russian land caravans reached Baghdad on their way to India.

Features of the socio-economic system Kievan Rus are reflected in "Russian Truth" - the true code of ancient Russian feudal law. Striking with a high level of lawmaking, developed for its time by the legal culture, this document was valid until the 15th century. and consisted of separate norms of the "Law of the Russian", "Ancient Truth" or "The Truth of Yaroslav", Supplement to the "Truth of Yaroslav" (regulations on the collectors of court fines, etc.), "Pravda Yaroslavichi" ("The Truth of the Russian Land", approved by the sons Yaroslav the Wise), the Charter of Vladimir Monomakh, which included the "Charter on cuts" (percentage), "Charter on purchases", etc.; "Spread Truth".

The main trend in the evolution of "Russian Pravda" there was a gradual expansion of legal norms from the princely law to the environment of the squad, the definition of fines for various crimes against the person, a colorful description of the city to attempts to codify the norms of the early feudal law that had developed by that time, covering every inhabitant of the state from princely warriors and servants, feudal lords, free rural community members and townspeople to serfs, servants and those who did not own property and were in the full possession of their master, the actual slaves. The degree of lack of freedom was determined by the economic situation of the peasant: smerdy, ryadovichi, purchasers-farmers, for one reason or another, fell into partial dependence on the feudal lords, worked out a significant part of the time on the patrimonial lands.

Pravda Yaroslavichi reflects the structure of the patrimony as a form of land ownership and organization of production. Its center was the mansions of the prince or boyar, the houses of his confidants, the stables, the barnyard. An ognischanin, the prince's butler, ruled the patrimony. The princely entrance was engaged in the collection of taxes. The work of the peasants was led by ratai (arable) and village elders. In the patrimony, organized on the principle of self-sufficiency, there were artisans and artisans.

Kievan Rus was famous for its cities. It is no coincidence that foreigners called her Gardarikoy - the country of cities . At first they were fortresses, political centers. Overgrown with new settlements, they became the center of handicraft production and trade. Even before the formation of Kievan Rus, the city Kyiv, Novgorod, Beloozero, Izborsk, Smolensk, Lyubech, Pereyaslavl, Chernihiv and others developed on the most important water trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks." In the XXI century. a new generation of political and trade and craft centers is being created: Ladoga, Suzdal, Yaroslavl, Murom, etc.

In Kievan Rus, more than 60 types of crafts were developed (carpentry, pottery, linen, leather, blacksmithing, weapons, jewelry, etc.). The products of artisans sometimes diverged for tens and hundreds of kilometers around the city and abroad. Cities also took over the functions of trade and exchange. In the largest of them (Kyiv, Novgorod) there was a wide and regular trade in rich and extensive bazaars, both out-of-town and foreign merchants lived permanently. Foreign economic ties acquired particular importance in the economic life of Kievan Rus. Russian merchants "ruzariy" were well known abroad, they were provided with significant benefits and privileges: treaties 907, 911, 944, 971. with Byzantium, etc. Among the five most important main trade routes Constantinople-Byzantine, Trans-Caspian-Baghdad, Bulgarian, Reginsburg and Novgorod-Scandinavian the first two were the most important.

It is interesting that the internal trade in Russia, especially in the 19th century, was predominantly "exchange" character . Then, along with the exchange, the monetary form appears. Initially, cattle (leather money) and furs (kuns - marten fur) acted as money. Russkaya Pravda also mentions metallic money. The hryvnia kun (oblong silver ingot) served as the main counting metal monetary unit. The hryvnia kuna was subdivided into 20 nogat, 25 kuna, 50 rezan, etc. Having existed on the ancient Russian market until the 14th century, this monetary unit was replaced by the ruble. The minting of its own coin in Russia began in the 21st century. Along with it, foreign coins also circulated. The political and socio-economic life of the Slavs of the ancient Russian state was supplemented by spiritual life.

Christianization of Russia. With the formation and development of the ancient Russian state, the formation of a single Russian nationality, paganism, with its many deities in each tribe, the traditions of the tribal system and blood feud, human sacrifice, etc., ceased to meet the new conditions of social life. Undertaken Prince Vladimir of Kyiv I (980-1015), at the beginning of his reign, attempts to somewhat streamline the rites, raise the authority of paganism, turn it into a single state religion were unsuccessful. Paganism has lost its former naturalness and attractiveness in the perception of a person who has overcome tribal narrowness and limitation.

Neighbors of Russia – Volga Bulgaria who professed Islam Khazar Khaganate who converted to Judaism Catholic West and the center of Orthodoxy - Byzantium tried to gain common faith in the face of the rapidly gaining strength of the Russian state. And Vladimir I, at a special Council in Kyiv, after listening to ambassadors from neighbors, decided to send Russian embassies to all lands to get acquainted with all religions and choose the best. As a result, Orthodox Christianity was chosen, which impressed the Russians with the splendor of the decoration of cathedrals, the beauty and solemnity of services, the grandeur and nobility of the Orthodox Christian idea - a kind of idyll of forgiveness and unselfishness.

The first reliable information about the penetration of Christianity into Russia dates back to the 11th century. Christians were among the combatants of Prince Igor, Princess Olga was a Christian, who was baptized in Constantinople and encouraged her son Svyatoslav to do this. In Kyiv there was a Christian community and the church of St. Elijah. In addition, long-standing trade, cultural and even dynastic ties (Vladimir the Red Sun himself was married to the sister of the Byzantine emperors Anna) of Kievan Rus and Byzantium played an important role in this choice. By the way, the close family relations of the ruling dynasties, in turn, excluded the vassal dependence of the young Russian state on the Byzantine center of Christianity.

Prince Vladimir of Kyiv, who was baptized in 988, began vigorously to establish Christianity on a national scale. By his order, the inhabitants of Kyiv were baptized in the Dnieper. On the advice of Christian priests, mostly immigrants from Bulgaria and Byzantium, the children of the "best people" were handed over to the clergy for literacy, Christian dogmas and upbringing in the Christian spirit. Similar actions were carried out in other lands. In the north of the country, where they remained strong pagan traditions, attempts at baptism sometimes met with difficulties, led to uprisings. So, to conquer the Novgorodians, even a military expedition of the people of Kiev, led by the uncle of the Grand Duke Dobrynya, was required. And over a number of subsequent decades and even centuries in rural areas there was dual faith - a kind of combination of previous ideas about the world of the supernatural, pagan burial mounds, violent holidays of the native antiquity with elements of the Christian worldview, worldview.

The adoption of Christianity was of great importance for the further development of the ancient Russian state. It ideologically consolidated the unity of the country. Conditions were created for the full cooperation of the tribes of the East European Plain in the political, commercial, cultural fields with other Christian tribes and nationalities on the basis of common spiritual and moral principles. Baptism in Russia created new forms of inner life and interaction with the outside world, tore Russia away from paganism and the Mohammedan East, bringing it closer to the Christian West.

Christianity in Russia was adopted in the eastern, Byzantine version, later called - Orthodoxy, i.e. true faith . Russian Orthodoxy guided a person to spiritual transformation. However, Orthodoxy did not provide incentives for social progress, for the transformation real life of people. In the future, such an understanding of the goals of life began to diverge from the European-type attitude to transformative activity, and began to slow down development.

The formation of civilization in the Russian lands (XI-XV centuries)

Feudal fragmentation . Russia majestic and vast still remained unstable public entity . State unity was maintained to a large extent military power Kyiv princes. Period feudal fragmentation in Russia - an inevitable step in the evolution of feudal society, economic basis which serves natural economy with its isolation and isolation. The strengthening of the feudal aristocracy in Novgorod, Rostov, Ryazan and other lands led to a struggle for independence. Economic development, the growth of cities were also accompanied by a desire for independence. Already in the middle of the XI century. in ancient Russia, signs of the fragmentation of the state began to be more and more clearly revealed, and by the end of the century its disintegration began. Vladimir the Red Sun distributed allotments in different lands to his 12 sons. Other princes did the same. After his death, a time of strife, conflicts, rivalry came.

As a result of this tough struggle, in 1019 the great prince of Kyiv became Yaroslav (c. 978-1054), later named Wise . Under him, Kievan Rus reached the peak of its power, and secured itself from the raids of the Pechenegs. During the years of his reign, a grandiose 13 dome Saint Sophia Cathedral , which had a pronounced stepped-pyramidal composition, which differed from the Byzantine architectural tradition, the Pechersky Monastery was founded. Widely held literacy, correspondence and translation of books from Greek into Russian, in St. Sophia Cathedral was arranged book depository.

The compilation of "Russian Truth" is associated with the name of Yaroslav. Under him, for the first time in 1051, not a Byzantine, but a Russian statesman and writer Hilarion became the Metropolitan of Kyiv.

O wide international recognition of the Russian state The period of Yaroslav the Wise and his descendants is also evidenced by the extensive dynastic ties between the Kievan and European ruling houses. So, Yaroslav himself was married to a Swedish princess, daughter Anna was married to the French king, daughter Elizabeth was married to the Hungarian king, the third daughter Anastasia was the wife of the Norwegian king. His son Vsevolod became the son-in-law of the Byzantine Emperor Constantine Monomakh. Therefore, the grandson Vladimir receives the nickname Monomakh. Yaroslav's sister married the Polish king, and her granddaughter married the German emperor. Before his death, Yaroslav, urging his sons to live peacefully, divides the state between his five sons in the hope that now not one person, but the entire princely family will rule the state. But the strife did not subside, each of the sons sought to take possession of the Kyiv principality, many sovereign lands arose - principalities. Their number grew: by the middle of the XII century. - 15, by the beginning of the 13th century. - about 50 now.

AT period of feudal fragmentation local princes showed great concern for the well-being, cultural and economic development of their lands: new cities appeared, handicraft and trade grew noticeably, estates left by inheritance, the areas of cultivated land expanded, methods of its processing were improved. So, if in the XI century. written sources include 60 new cities, then in the XII century. - over 130.

And yet such rapid growth lasted until the normal, natural development was not affected by the factor of external conquest. During the period of feudal fragmentation, the country's overall military potential was extremely weakened. The intensity of international trade has significantly decreased. But the main thing is that the constant strife and the increasing fragmentation of possessions made it easier for foreigners to conquer Russian lands.

The Union of Yaroslavichs, the sons of Yaroslav the Wise, breaks up in the course of princely civil strife and popular unrest. At the initiative of Prince Vladimir Monomakh (1053-1125) at the Lyubech Congress at the end of the 11th century. (1097) the complete independence of local feudal centers was even recognized: "... each maintains his own patrimony." Since that time, the Russian land has ceased to be the total possession of a whole family. The possessions of each fiefdom became hereditary property.

Vladimir Monomakh tried to maintain and strengthen the international authority of Russia. Under him, the "Charter of Vladimir Monomakh" was published, which improved legal status merchants, streamlining the collection of interest by usurers, regulating the entry into servility and the institute of purchasing . During his reign, the initial Russian chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years" was compiled. The crown of Russian tsars was introduced in Russia - the cap of Monomakh. The son of Vladimir Monomakh - Mstislav (1076-1132) was able to maintain the unity of the Russian lands for some time. But then the country finally broke up into a dozen and a half principalities-states. In the second half of the XII century. Russia turns into a kind of federation of principalities, headed by the Grand Duke of Kyiv, whose power was weakening more and more. The period of feudal fragmentation lasted from the 30s. 12th century until the end of the 15th century.

The main princely lands. The most significant in the territory of Kievan Rus, not inferior to the large European states in terms of occupied territory, were south-west - Galicia-Volyn, in the north-west - Novgorod, in the north-east - Vladimir-Suzdal lands .

The history of the rise of the Galician principality is associated with the name Yaroslav Osmomysl , so named for the knowledge of eight foreign languages. Volyn prince Roman Mstislavovich (? -1205) carried out the unification of the Galician and Volyn principalities (1199), captured Kyiv, forming one of the largest states in Europe. His son Daniel (1201-1264), after a long and fierce struggle for the throne, unites southwestern Russia and the Kyiv land, becoming one of the most powerful Russian princes.

Galicia-Volyn principality , distinguished by very favorable natural and climatic conditions, wealth, crowdedness and beauty of cities (Galych, Vladimir-Volynsky, Kholm, Berestye (Brest), Lvov, Przemysl, etc.), crossed by the most important trade routes of pan-European significance, turned out to be very tempting for the invaders. First, the Mongol-Tatars, then the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Volhynia) and Poland (Galych) deprived these lands of their independence.

The largest center of Russian Slavs was in the northwest Novgorod . Developing relatively independently, it was distinguished by its closeness to the European type of development. It was very favorable for the fate of Novgorod that he was not subjected to strong Tatar-Mongol plunder, although he paid tribute. In the struggle for the independence of Novgorod, Prince Alexander Nevskiy (1220-1263), who not only repelled the onslaught of German-Swedish aggression (Battle of the Neva, Battle of the Ice - 40s of the XIII century), but showed a flexible policy, making concessions to the Golden Horde and organizing resistance to the offensive of Catholicism from the West .

The development of the Novgorod Republic (the end of the 195th century) was carried out, perhaps, similarly to the city-republics of the Hanseatic League, as well as the city-republics of Italy (Venice, Genoa, Florence). She possessed a huge land fund and the richest crafts. Favorable position at the crossroads of trade routes Western Europe - Russia-East-Byzantium. Remoteness from the raids of nomads, etc. All this allowed the strong, wealthy, corporate united boyars to avoid a monarchical form of government, to establish a feudal boyar republic. The actual power belonged to the boyars, the higher clergy and eminent merchants. All the highest executive bodies - posadniks (head of government), thousand (head of the city militia and judge for commercial affairs), bishop (head of the church, manager of the treasury, controlled the external relations of Veliky Novgorod), etc. were replenished from the boyar nobility. However, senior officials were elected. So, for example, in the second half of the XII century. Novgorodians, like no other in the Russian lands, began to choose their own spiritual shepherd - the bishop (archbishop of Novgorod), which brings the republic closer to the Protestant tradition. On this land, perhaps earlier than in Europe, reformist tendencies appeared in relation to the church, anticipating the European reformation, and even atheistic moods. The position of the prince was also peculiar. He did not have full state power, did not inherit Novgorod land, but was invited only to perform representative and military functions (professional warrior, head of the squad). Any attempt by the prince to interfere in internal affairs inevitably ended in his expulsion: over 200 years, there were 58 princes.

And yet, the rights of the highest authority belonged to the people's assembly - the veche, which had broad powers: considering the most important issues of domestic and foreign policy, inviting the prince and concluding an agreement with him, electing a trade policy so important for Novgorod, a posadnik, a commercial court, etc.

In the northeast of Russia, a large and independent Vladimir-Suzdal (first called Rostov-Suzdal) principality . Remoteness from the steppe nomads in the south, landscape obstacles for easy penetration of the Varangians from the north, possession of the upper reaches water arteries(Volga, Oka), through which rich Novgorod merchant caravans passed, significant immigration from the south, developed since the 11th century. a network of cities (Rostov, Suzdal, Murom, Ryazan, Yaroslavl, etc.), etc., made this principality rich and powerful. In addition, the principality was headed by very energetic and ambitious princes.

The names of Vladimir Monomakh and his son Yuri Dolgoruky (1090-1157) are associated with the formation and development of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, who were distinguished by their desire to expand their territory and subjugate Kyiv. In addition to Moscow, built by him on the site of a boyar estate and first mentioned in the annals in 1147, Yuryev-Polsky, Dmitrov, Zvenigorod, Pereyaslavl, Kostroma and others were created or strengthened under him. In turn, the share of the grandson of Vladimir Monomakh Andrey Bogolyubsky (1111-1174), nicknamed so for a significant reliance on the church in the struggle for power, the unification of Russian lands and the transfer of the center of all Russian political life from the rich boyar Rostov, first to a small town, and then with unprecedented splendor built up Vladimir-on- Klyazma.

The policy of Andrei, who died as a result of the boyar conspiracy, was continued by his brother Vsevolod Big Nest , nicknamed so for his large family. Under him, there was a significant strengthening of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, which became the strongest in Russia and one of the largest feudal states in Europe, the core of the future Muscovite state, which again gathered Russia in the 15th century. Vsevolod influenced the politics of Novgorod, received a rich inheritance in the Kiev region. Almost completely disposed of the Ryazan principality, etc. Having completed the fight against the boyars, he finally established a monarchy in the principality. By this time, the nobility was increasingly becoming the backbone of princely power. It was made up of servants, military men, householders, servants, dependent on the prince and receiving land from him for temporary possession (estate), monetary payment in kind, or the right to collect princely income. The economic rise of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality continued for some time under the sons of Vsevolod. However, this process was interrupted in 1238 by the Mongol-Tatar invasion.

It should be noted that Europe also did not escape the collapse of the early medieval states, fragmentation and local wars. Then the process of formation of secular nation-states, which still exist, was developed here. Perhaps, Ancient Russia, having gone through a period of disintegration, could come to a similar result. And here a national state could form, a single people could form. But that did not happen. And although, as in Europe, the 13th century became a turning point in the history of Russia, for Europe it was the time of the beginning of active advancement along the path of a progressive type of development, but for our state the fate turned out to be different.

The fight against the Mongol-Tatar conquerors . Political fragmentation, constant princely strife facilitated the implementation of large-scale plans of the Mongolotatars, begun by the leader of the Mongol tribes, Prince Temuchin (Temujin), named Genghis Khan (Great Khan) - the rulers of the world (c. 1155-1227). The Mongols attacked Northern China, conquered Siberia, invaded Khorezm, Northern Iran and other lands and began to move towards the Russian lands. Genghis Khan proved to be not only a skilled and cruel commander, but also an outstanding ruler.

The Mongols led a nomadic lifestyle, had an unprecedented cavalry army with excellent organization and iron discipline, with a single command. Well armed with bows and sharp sabers, clad in helmets and cuirasses of sealskin, moving easily on fast horses, they were almost invulnerable to arrows. Even the highest Chinese military equipment for that time was used.

Already in first major collision in the Azov steppes on the river Kalke (1223) the combined Russian forces and the Polovtsians could not resist the Mongols, clearly organized and welded into a single whole, where every ten was bound by mutual responsibility (everyone was punished for the fault of one). In addition, serious disagreements between the Russian princes came to light; there was no support from the powerful princes of Kyiv and Vladimir. For the first time, Russia suffered such heavy damage - nine-tenths of the combined forces were killed, but the Tatar-Mongols were exhausted, they could not move forward and turned back.

In 1237, having returned from the steppes under the leadership of Genghis Khan's grandson Batu (1208-1255), the conquerors crossed the Volga and invaded Russia. Ryazan, Vladimir, Suzdal, Moscow were plundered and burned, the southern Russian lands (Chernigov, Kyiv, Galicia-Volyn, etc.) were devastated. During February 1238, 14 Russian cities were destroyed. In 1241, the Mongols also invaded Europe, devastating Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, the Balkans, and reached the borders of Italy and Germany. But, having lost significant forces on Russian soil, not daring to leave the Russians in the rear, Batu returned to the Volga region, where he formed the powerful Golden Horde (1242).

The defenders of the Russian fatherland put up unprecedented, heroic, selfless and stubborn resistance. However disparate forces, the lack of a unified command, insufficiently strong fortifications of cities, the militia, which constitutes the bulk of the Russian army and consists of urban and rural workers, inferior in numbers, weapons, and fighting qualities and skills to warlike nomads, all this caused a terrible disaster for Russia. The damage inflicted by the Golden Horde was colossal: dozens of destroyed cities, many people killed or driven into slavery, a significant Horde exit (an annual tribute to the Horde), which was collected by military detachments led by the Baskaks according to a specially conducted census, interrupted ties with Europe, etc. d. Nevertheless, the scattered, depopulated, decaying Russian land not only retained its statehood, but, as rightly noted A.S. Pushkin, "... torn to pieces and drained of blood, stopped the Mongol-Tatar invasion on the edge of Europe", saved European civilization.

Severe trials could not but affect the future of Russia. Perhaps it was the 250-year-old Mongol-Tatar yoke that determined that “Asian beginning”, which then turned into heavy serfdom and fierce autocracy for Russia. In fact, the Mongol-Tatars broke the Russian historical fate and stimulated another.

Formation and rise of the Muscovite state (XIII-XV centuries)

Features of occurrence Moscow state. The Mongol-Tatar yoke bled the Russian land. It weakened it not only economically, it also slowed down political life. Under conditions of economic development slowed to the limit, overcome feudal fragmentation, achieve the formation of a national state similar to Western counterpart, was quite difficult. The character of Russian history began to differ more and more noticeably from that of Europe. In Russia, to create a strong unified state, a huge centralization of power was required, which was acquiring more and more despotic, cruel features. Almost the entire population of the country was involved in the formation of serf relations.

By the end of the XIII century. devastated Russian land were dozens specific principalities, which with each new generation of princes continued to split up. There was a fierce struggle between the princes for the grand princely throne of Vladimir, who sought to receive a label (letter) for reigning from the Horde Khan. A particularly sharp rivalry flared up between the descendants of Alexander Nevsky - princes of Tver and Moscow appanages. Grandson of Alexander Nevsky, Moscow prince Ivan Danilovich, nicknamed Kalita (purse for money) (? -1341), managed to eliminate the opponent, not without the help of the Horde. Tver was burned, and the principality was ruined. Having abandoned the Basque (Baskak - Mongol tribute collector), the Horde now entrusted its collection to the Moscow prince.

So, the great reign of Vladimir finally passed to the Moscow princes. Hiding part of the "Horde exit", Ivan Kalita, and then his successor sons, significantly increased the power of their principality. They also expanded its territory, where by buying, and where by seizing land by force. Feeling confident in his abilities, the grandson of Ivan Kalita, the Moscow prince Dmitry Ivanovich (1350-1389), nicknamed Donskoy, at the head of the Russian army in 1380 on the Kulikovo field at the confluence of the Nepryadva River with the Don defeated the Horde of Mamai (? -1380 ). After this defeat, Mamai hoped to assemble a new army for a campaign against Russia. But upon returning to the Horde, he was overthrown, fled to the Crimea and was killed there. The victory of the Russians on the Kulikovo field was a serious beginning of the expulsion of the Mongol-Tatars.

The formation of the Moscow centralized state . The process of collecting lands and strengthening their power, begun by the first Moscow princes, continued actively. And after many years of hard struggle between the princes, Moscow irreversibly turns into the political center of the fragmented Russian lands, into the capital of an emerging powerful state, the size of which shook the imagination of contemporaries.

Ivan III (1440-1505) annexes Novgorod (1478), canceling the veche and installing his governor. This was followed by the particularly important politically Tver land and Vyatka. The cautious and prudent politician Ivan III managed to complete the expulsion of the Horde by a long "standing" on the Ugra River (a tributary of the Oka). And in November 1480 the Horde yoke ended. Ivan III was faced with the task of uniting the Russian lands around Moscow and centralizing the grand duke's power.

Along with the expansion of territory and the struggle for independence, the Moscow princes set themselves the task of strengthening the economy, creating a strong system of government and a large army. During this period, they expand the practice of granting estates to their service people. Unlike estates, these lands remained state property and were given for temporary use only for the period of service, especially military. Under Ivan III, the Sudebnik was adopted (1497), which marked the beginning of the attachment of peasants to the land. Now the peasant could move from one landowner to another only once a year (a week before and a week after St. George's Day - November 26), subject to payment of the elderly - compensation to the landowner for the loss of labor.

The system of central government is beginning to develop. It included the treasury (financial, foreign policy and other national affairs), palaces (management from the center of the newly annexed lands), governors (appointed from the center of the rulers of the districts), etc. The Moscow princes took measures to strengthen their power. All aspects of public life were subject to a specially designed solemn ritual.

The long process of gathering the fragmented Russian lands into a single state was coming to an end. Ivan III took the title of Grand Duke of All Russia. He had the seal of the great sovereign, on one side of which was depicted a double-headed eagle, on the other a rider fighting a dragon, and an inscription around: "John, by the grace of God, ruler of all Russia." Moscow became the center of a large Russian centralized state. It is declared the successor of Byzantium and the center of Orthodoxy. The idea of ​​the union of princely power with the Christian world was embodied in philosophy: “Moscow is the third Rome”.

Thus, Kievan Rus (IX-XII centuries) - a society of military democracy, a country of trade and cities - was most actively involved in European affairs. This is essentially an early medieval society in which personally free people were the predominant social category.

However, from the middle of the XII century. centrifugal forces intensified here, which led to the feudal fragmentation of Kievan Rus: it broke up into a dozen and a half independent principalities. This factor led to the weakening of the defensive power of the state, Russia was invaded by foreign conquerors (Swedes, Lithuanians, Germans) and at the beginning of the 13th century. was enslaved by the Golden Horde.

The long Mongol-Tatar yoke pushed back Russia, delayed its development for 2-3 centuries, and possibly caused Eurasian Russianness. In the second half of the XIII-XIV centuries. Moscow princes began the process of collecting lands and strengthening their power, which took place in difficult conditions of confrontation with the Golden Horde, as well as overcoming the separatism of the specific princes. It was accompanied by the promotion of a new estate to the historical arena of Russia - the military service nobility (landlords) as a social support of the grand duke's power and the approval of the local system of land tenure. This process ended with the formation at the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. a powerful state that demanded a rigid centralization of power. The progressive process of the formation of a unified state was accompanied by the gradual enslavement of the peasants in the legislative order.

The Slavic ethnic group is considered young. long before its appearance on the planet, many states, civilizations, cultures were formed, flourished and perished. Among the most ancient is the native culture of Egypt and the culture of the Mayan peoples (4 thousand BC), the culture of the island of Crete, and the culture of the pre-Aryan civilization in the region of the Indus River (3 thousand BC).

Among the most ancient states is the Sumerian state (3 thousand BC) Babylon, Shan Yin, the Egyptian kingdom (2 thousand BC). Greek and Roman civilization (1000 BC - 1000 AD) is considered to be the original peaks of the originality of antiquity.

Scientists are still arguing about the origin of the Slavs, a variety of concepts and theories are being discussed.

I. Migration theories - supporters of these theories believe that the Slavs were born in the era of the great migration of peoples and, as a result of complex migration processes, managed to gain a foothold on the territory of the Danube River (the former Roman province of Noricum)

II. Autochthonous - i.e. theories local origin of the Slavs, the birthplace of the Slavic ethnic group is called the land east of the Elba River, west of the Dnieper River, south of the Pripyat River, north of the Ross River.

Most scientists believe that the 6th century AD became a turning point in the history of the Slavs. it was at this time that the Slavic massif began into 4 categories into the Slavs of the northern and southern, western and eastern. The Eastern Slavs managed to gain a foothold in the area of ​​the Dnieper River and gradually extended their influence to the Baltic and Black Seas. 7-8 in the AD began the process of formation of the basic prerequisites for the emergence of the state among the Eastern Slavs.

State is a system of various institutions designed to ensure the survival, existence and development of a community of people living in the same territory.

Causes of the emergence of the state among the Eastern Slavs.

I. a sharp aggravation of social contradictions within the East Slavic tribes. Largely associated with the beginning of the technical revolution (active use of iron tools)

II. the need to ensure the security of the territory that the Eastern Slavs already considered their own. (The main threat comes from the east, the Khazar Khaganate), (South - Byzantine Empire), (West - Bulgarian state, Hungarian, Polish, etc.), (North - Varangians)

III. the need to ensure the coexistence of the Eastern Slavs with the tribes of other ethnic groups living on the territory of the East European Plain.

In the history of the formation of the ancient Russian state, there are several reference points.

862 - the leader of the hired Varangian squad Rurik established control over the situation in Novgorod.

882 – Oleg united the lands of Novgorod and Kyiv under his rule.

911 - one of the first Russian-Byzantine treaties.

988 - Baptism of Russia Vladimir 1

1019-1054 the reign of Yaroslav the Wise, the heyday of the state.

1097 congress of princes in Lyubyach (each keeps his own fatherland)

1113-1125 - reign of Vladimir Monomakh.

Characteristic features of the ancient Russian state

1) a weak state apparatus. Its functions were not clearly defined, the prestige among the population was not very high, it was not very numerous. The basis of the state apparatus was the family of the Grand Duke and his retinue (about 1000 people), while the number of all-Russian militia, which gathered for military campaigns, reached 50,000 people.

2) a very complex social structure of the population, a motley ethnic composition. By the 10th century total strength the inhabitants of the state was about 4.5 mil people who belonged to a wide variety of ethnic groups.

3) Christianity as dominant state religion.

4) the rapid emergence of written laws. 11 in Russkaya Pravda 3, the main editions are short, lengthy, abbreviated over a hundred lists.

5) a high level of cultural development. Culture is a system of material and spiritual values ​​created by man. Most of the achievements of ancient Russian culture are somehow connected with Russian culture. Orthodox Church(tithe church, St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod) literature (word about law and grace, the tale of bygone years, Novgorod birch bark letters, proverbs, lyrical songs, epics)

P.S. scientists note the very low standard of living of the majority of the inhabitants of the ancient Russian state; short life expectancy, a young man from 14 was considered an absolutely adult, and girls of 12 years old were marriageable.

At 17, Fristophorus Zillarius, a professor at the Gallic University, proposed to divide world history for antiquity, the Middle Ages and modern times. Disputes about when the Middle Ages began in European countries have been going on for many years and are far from over (395 - division of the Roman Empire into western and eastern. 476 - abdication of Romulus Augustulus. Id.)

Today, the term Middle Ages or the Middle Ages is understood as a special historical era in the development European states. This era implies a number of essential features in the life of these states.

A) the feudal system of land tenure. (with such a system, land owners, feudal lords or seigneurs, provide their vassals with land holdings (fiefs) for service, serfs work on these allotments, who pay dues or work out the master)

B) the system of vassalage. (This is a system of special hierarchical relations between feudal lords based on the principle of personal dependence.)

C) the dominance of the church in the cultural and political life of the state.

D) the ideals of monasticism and chivalry.

The history of the Russian Middle Ages, most scientists begin with the era of feudal fragmentation, the reasons for the onset of which are different points view, among the main causes of feudal fragmentation in Russia is usually called.

I. The development of the system of feudal land tenure. (already by 10 the exploitation of dependent peasants had become more profitable L than the traditional collection of tribute and duties) = fiefdoms are becoming a mass phenomenon. The owners of the estates were interested in creating a strong local government L, able to quickly and effectively protect from the interest. (What are the interests)

II. The rapid growth of cities. in 10 sources fix 25 large Russian cities that have become the centers of political, cultural, economic life, having accumulated great wealth, the cities began to interfere in the relationship of the princes, violating the traditional procedure for the transfer of power.

III. The weakening of the pressure of the nomads in the east, which coincided with the growing pressure on the Russian lands from the west.

IV. The crisis of the control system (the process of constant expansion of the territories of the ancient Russian state by the end of the 10th century led to its logical result, the Grand Duke of Kyiv lost the ability to control the situation throughout the state) (weak information flows); weak transport communications;

V. The crisis of the norms of ancient Slavic ethics (the fall of morality).

The first turmoil began in 972 (after the death of Grand Duke Svyatoslav) Yaropol and Vladimir.

1016- after the death of Vladimir, Svyatopolk and Yaroslav, Boris, Gleb.

1073 after the death of Yaroslav the Wise.

1093 - after the death of Vsevolod.

By the middle of the 12th century, there were already 15 independent principalities on the territory of the former Old Russian state, in the 13th century there were about 50. In the 14th century there were 250. But simultaneously with the processes of disintegration in the 12th-13th centuries, the processes of unification of Russian lands were going on. The new centers of the new Russian statehood were the Galicia-Volyn principality, the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, and Novgorod land.

Consequences of feudal fragmentation.

One side

1) the rapid development of crafts, agriculture, trade, in some lands and principalities.

2) the formation of institutions of political power on the ground (power has become closer to the people).

3) the heyday of medieval Russian culture. (Assumption Cathedral in Galich, Dmitrovsky Cathedral in Vladimir, Church of the Intercession on the Nerl.)

But on the other side.

1) Destruction of material and spiritual values ​​during strife.

2) death of people. Russians kill Russians.

3) weakening of the military potential of the Russian lands.

Mongol invasion.

Scientists know very little about the Mongolian ethnos, it is known that it originated on the border of the steppes and deserts of Central Asia (Baikal), it is known that its formation took place in the 11th-12th centuries, it is known that Genghis Khan played a special role in its history. Scientists argue about the reasons for the migration of the Mongols, which began at the end of the 11th century and was very stable. Perhaps this was due to the search for new pastures, perhaps the Mongols were looking for the shortest paths to the rich regions of the world, perhaps the movement of the Mongols was associated with the peculiarities of their worldview (the last sea).

The first clash of the Mongols and Russia May 1, 1223 on the river. Kalka(Sea of ​​Azov), despite the victory, the Mongol troops did not go deep into the Russian lands. In 1235, at the kurultai in the town of Karakorum, a decision was made on a large campaign. The advance of troops began in 1237. The main fighting began in 1238. On March 4, 1238, the Mongols defeated the troops of the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yuri on the Sit River. 14 cities of northeastern Russia were devastated. But at the same time, Novgorod was not ruined. In 1239, the Mongols undertook a campaign against southwestern Russia, through which they went to Eastern Europe, at the same time, the inhabitants of Novgorod had to repel an attack by the Swedes (1240) at the mouth of the Neva River and the Germans (1242) at Lake Peipus.

In the middle of the 13th century, a state of the Golden Horde was formed on a vast territory from the Danube to Altai. Russian lands were declared part of this state. A very ambiguous relationship developed between the Golden Horde and the Russian lands. The nature of these relationships continues to be debated to this day.

I. The Solovyov-Horde yoke became the main reason for the slow development of Russia, but it did not change the essence of Russian statehood. Arguments: a) the Mongols did not create their own ruling dynasty in Russia. B) Mongolian laws did not apply in Russian lands. C) the Mongols did not touch the spiritual basis of Russian statehood - Orthodoxy.

II. The Karamzin-Horde yoke changed the essence of Russian statehood. Arguments: a) veche institutions of power have disappeared in many Russian cities. B) the nature of the relationship between the princely power and its environment has fundamentally changed (vassal relations have been replaced by relations of allegiance. c) a sharp drop in the general level of culture, the death penalty, torture, the number of books and literate people is sharply decreasing.

III. Gumilyov - there was no Horde yoke, but there was a mutually beneficial compromise between the Russian lands and the Golden Horde. the essence of the compromise - the horde received huge material and human resources of Russia, Russia received protection from Western states that sought to extend their influence to the territory of Russia. The Mongols stimulated the trade of Russian merchants from the east, brought Eastern culture into Russian cultural traditions, updated the highest echelons of the Russian nobility.

At the turn of the 13th-14th centuries, the process of unification of Russian lands within the framework of a single state began, compared to Western Europe, it began late, was of a forced nature and went through the following chronological stages.

At the end of the first millennium of our era, Indo-European Slavs lived in the north of the European part of modern Russian territory. These were free people who were engaged in agriculture and kept livestock.

About them military history little is known, since there was no written language, and oral traditions did not convey the relevant legends to us. Perhaps these were generally peaceful tribal communities, whose members sometimes participated in major military campaigns under the leadership of representatives of other peoples.

According to the chronicles of the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium), the Slavs, together with the Avars, besieged Thessalonica at the beginning of the 7th century AD. In the same century, the Slavs are mentioned during the siege of Constantinople, along with the Bulgars and the Germans.

Obviously, they themselves were subjected to hostile attacks, since there are references to the fact that in those distant times Slavic slaves were traded in Europe.

Medieval Russia

Later chronicles tell us that the Slavs (Slovenes) invited the Varangians from the Baltic Sea as rulers in order to ensure internal order in society. The Varangians were Scandinavian Germans, who, perhaps, were connected with the Slovenes not only by Indo-European genetic kinship, but also by closer family ties. Since the southern coast of the Baltic Sea at that time was inhabited by Slavic tribes, which closely interacted with the Germans to the west and north.

The first invited Slovene prince known to us, Rurik, became the founder of the dynasty of Russian rulers Rurikovich. Under their leadership, Russia destroyed the Khazar Khaganate, adopted Christianity from the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium), successfully repulsed the attempts of Western conquerors (German crusaders) to seize Russian territories and managed to maintain statehood under the yoke of the Mongol Empire.

Having recovered from a long period of subjugation to the Mongol rulers, the power of the Rurikids was concentrated in Moscow, which became the center of the "gathering" of lands.

The Eastern Roman Empire, which perished under the onslaught of Muslims, passed the baton to Moscow Orthodox Christianity, making Moscow the Third Rome, and the Moscow ruler subsequently the king.

The ingenious policy of Ivan III made it possible to glorify and strengthen Russia so that it became attractive to the Orthodox Lithuanian nobility from the west. Thus began the period of attempts at the European modernization of the Russian state.

The grandson of Ivan III, Ivan IV the Terrible, made an attempt to establish diplomatic and commercial contacts with European rulers. The answer was a sharp rejection of the Muscovite state. The West made it clear that it would not tolerate Muscovy in Europe on an equal footing. Ivan the Terrible tried to force the West to reckon with the interests of the rapidly growing Moscow, which by that time had already conquered the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates in the east. The result of the confrontation between Moscow and the united West was the difficult Livonian War. The West lost the Livonian Order (completely destroyed by Russian soldiers) and part of its territories, and the Muscovite state was so exhausted by the protracted war that it was forced to impose restrictions on the freedoms of the peasants as emergency (temporary) economic measures.

After a long fruitful reign of Ivan the Terrible, his son ruled for some time, after which the Rurik dynasty was cut short, which gave rise to the Time of Troubles and the attempts of the West to destroy Russian statehood. Moscow was able to recover from this blow and chose a new secular ruler, who became the ancestor of the Romanov dynasty.

Beginning of the New Age in Russia

Temporary emergency economic measures restricting the freedoms of the peasants were not only not canceled, but were deepened and expanded by the Romanovs. Peter I Romanov finally enserfed the Russian people, allowing them to be traded like cattle. He gave the administration of the Russian state into the hands of alien foreigners, who called Russia in their own way Russia. Under the Europhile Peter I, Russia ceased to exist.

General characteristics of medieval Russia

In the history of the Russian state and culture, the period from the 9th to the 17th centuries. belongs to a special place. It was in the Middle Ages that the borders of the state were mainly determined, the ethno-cultural foundations of future nations and national languages ​​were laid, Orthodox-Christian social ideals and basic values ​​were formed, and a rich culture developed. There is a huge historiography about this period.

Among the issues that traditionally cause discussions among historians are such as: the origin of the term "Rus", the role of exogenous factors in the early stages of the formation of ancient Russian statehood, the genesis of feudalism among the Eastern Slavs and the role of the geopolitical factor that influenced the specifics of Russian history and culture, the concept of Pre-Renaissance in Russian culture of the late XIV-XV centuries. and etc.

There are three periods in the history of medieval Russia: I - ancient history Russian state from the second half of the 9th century. until the 30s of the XIII century; II - the second half of the XIII-XV centuries; III - the beginning of the XVI-XVII centuries.

The history of the Old Russian state can be divided into three stages. The first of them is the time of a rather long “gathering” of the East Slavic lands. It has been stretched since the 80s of the 9th century. almost to the end of the tenth century. The second stage is the time of existence of a relatively unified Kievan early feudal state, approximately from the time of Vladimir I until the 20s of the XIII century, when it finally disintegrated into independent principalities. And, finally, the third stage - the domination of feudal fragmentation - from the 20s of the XII century. before the Mongol invasions of the 30-40s of the XIII century.

The unification of the East Slavic lands was prepared by internal socio-economic processes. Slavic at its core, Kievan Rus absorbed the Baltic, Finno-Ugric tribes, and the unification of the North and South was accelerated by the participation of the Varangian squads in this process.

Within the framework of the Old Russian state, the genesis of feudalism took place, the specificity of which was reflected in the formation of its basis - feudal land ownership, the social class structure. A particularly significant development factor was the adoption at the end of the tenth century. Christianity, which turned into a form of the ideology that dominated medieval society, which determined the psychology and social behavior people of that time.

The Baptism of Russia was an important stage in the development of its culture, which acquired completely new features. The Byzantine influence became the most significant after the adoption of Christianity, however, it was soon rethought and reworked on the basis of an original culture, the origins of which date back to ancient times.

The history of the Russian lands of the II period can be divided into three stages. The first covers the 40s of the XIII - the beginning of the XIV century. and is characterized by a deep demographic crisis, a slowdown in socio-economic development, which was the result of the Mongol-Tatar invasion of the 30s of the XIII century. The second stage falls on the XIV century.

At this time, the crisis was gradually overcome, the development of feudal relations accelerated, political centers were formed, fighting for a leading position in the region, and the first attempts were made to liberate themselves from the foreign yoke. The third stage - the 15th century - is characterized by a relatively rapid growth of productive forces, the involvement in the development of feudalism of lands with a Finno-Ugric population due to internal colonization in North-Eastern Russia. Cities are fortified.

By the end of the XV century. a state of the type of estate monarchy was formed - the Muscovite state, which achieved complete liberation from the Mongol-Tatar dependence. Starting from the XV century. the prerequisites for the formation of new nationalities, the allocation of their languages, features of material and spiritual culture gradually took shape. Within the Russian state, the reunification of the former lands of Kievan Rus began.

For two and a half centuries, Russian culture has gone from a terrible ruin, which stopped its development, through a stubborn revival, which led to the highest achievements of the late XIV-XV centuries. Diverse in its local characteristics, it increasingly took shape as a single whole.

In the III period, in the conditions of the Muscovite state, the phenomenon of Russia was formed in its main features. Then the very name of the country was born and fixed.

Slowly fading into the past medieval Russia. In the 17th century the process of the genesis of capitalist relations was already irreversible. The state structure of Russia underwent significant changes - from a class-representative monarchy, it turned into an absolutist monarchy. There was a crisis of religious ideology and church organization. Society has become more open. During the middle of the second half of the XVI-first third of the XVII century. there was a turn from the culture of Ancient Russia to the culture of Russia of the New Age. This was the beginning of a new period in Russian history - the preparation of the country for the era of reforms of Peter I.