Due to ignorance. Inappropriate use of foreign words due to ignorance of their meaning

2. Inappropriate use foreign words due to ignorance of their meaning.

Let us give an interpretation of a number of common borrowings (from the "Explanatory Dictionary of Foreign Words by L.P. Krysin (M., 1998) .

Autarky is the economic isolation of a country, aimed at creating a closed national economy capable of doing without the import of goods from abroad.

A broker is an intermediary in concluding transactions on the stock exchange.

Deposit - cash or securities placed with credit institutions.

The debtor is the debtor.

Dealer - a person or institution - a sales representative of an enterprise, firm; exchange intermediary engaged in buying and selling valuable papers.

A dilemma is a situation in which the choice of one of two opposing solutions is equally difficult.

Distributor - a person or institution engaged in the placement on the market of goods produced by an enterprise.

Insinuation is a slanderous fabrication.

Establishment - the ruling and privileged groups of society, as well as the entire system of power and control, with the help of which they exercise their dominance.

Monitoring is the systematic observation of a process in order to record the conformity of the results of this process with the initial assumptions.

Nouveau riche - a rich man - an upstart, a man who got rich on speculation.

Renome - an established (usually favorable) opinion about something.

The server is a service device in automatic information processing systems.

Fiasco - failure, complete failure.

In our opinion, a number lexical errors is associated with ignorance of the meanings of words and set expressions and, due to this ignorance, their incorrect use in speech.

3. We found out that the use of the word “back” instead of “again”, “again” turned out to be a very common mistake: “Gabardine came back to us”, “Rizhsky station should be renamed back ...”, “Later Balanchine gave her (ballerina ) this batch back".

4. Often in the media, a sentence begins with the words "in this regard" ("In this regard, I would like to recall recent events"). Most often, this phrase is used when the text does not indicate any connection between the previous and the next. Correct: "In connection with this . . . ". Thanks to this combination of words, a connection is established between what has already been said and what will be discussed in the future.

5. Lexico-stylistic errors also include ignorance of the features of the lexical compatibility of words in the Russian language. For example: "The standard of living of the people is deteriorating" (correctly: "The standard of living of the people is declining"). The sentence was also incorrectly composed: "In order to improve the crime situation in the city, law enforcement work in an enhanced mode "(criminogenic - conducive to the commission of a crime). Correct:" To change the criminal situation in the city. . . " or "To improve the general environment in the city. . . ".

6. In addition, we, in the course of the study, found cases of incorrect use of the words "main" and "capital":

7. We came to the conclusion that the following types of errors are typical for spontaneous speech:

This series can be continued for a long time. Phenomena of this order in linguistics are commonly called tautologies.

8. Logic errors:

1. Undoubtedly, colloquial elements, colloquial inclusions (namely, inclusions) have the right to life in journalism. However, journalists often lack a sense of proportion in the use of conversational style:

It should be noted that the colloquial tone in information and analytical programs often gravitates towards the rude colloquial, or even completely replaced by it. Evidence of this is frankly rude vocabulary: hawal, freebie, goats, screw it up.

2. As for foreign words, the need for some of them is undeniable, but why do we need "confrontation", "round", "summit", "consensus", "teenager", "show", "brain ring" and hundreds of others! The modern scale of borrowing is detrimental to the Russian literary language:

If a person does not make mistakes in pronunciation, in the use of word forms, in their formation, in the construction of sentences, we call his speech correct. However, this is not enough. Speech can be correct, but "bad", that is, not consistent with the goals and conditions of communication. The concept of "good" speech includes at least three features: richness, accuracy and expressiveness. Rich speech indicators are a large volume active dictionary, a variety of used morphological forms and syntactic constructions. The accuracy of speech is the choice of such language tools, which the best way express the content of the statement, reveal its topic and main idea. Expressiveness is created through the selection of language means that are most appropriate to the conditions and tasks of communication.

If a person has correct and good speech, he reaches the highest level. speech culture. This means that he not only does not make mistakes, but also knows how to build statements in the best way in accordance with the purpose of communication, select the most suitable words and constructions in each case, taking into account who and under what circumstances he is addressing.

A high level of speech culture is an integral feature of a modern person, one should not make mistakes in pronunciation, in the use of word forms, in the construction of sentences, however, this is quite difficult to achieve in the current situation, when the media, which have a significant impact on the speech culture of society, are so far from the norms .

We conducted a mini-survey of test takers:

Do you read software programs without fail?

a) of course, and in the full version - 10%; b) I try, but in reduction - 63%; c) no-27% (!).

How often do you read works of world classics?

a) quite often - 26%; b) rarely - 15%; c) I read light literature - 19%; d) I don't read, I don't have time - 40% (!).

How often do you use linguistic dictionaries?

a) quite often - 20%; b) from time to time - 6%; c) I do not use it - 74% (!).

How often do you turn to the media for information of various kinds?

a) very often - 72%; b) from time to time - 18%; c) rarely - 10%.

Are you familiar with the concept of "culture of speech"?

a) yes-35%; b) I remember something - 29%; c) no-36%.

Can, in your opinion, the speech of the media be incorrect, not in accordance with the norms?

a) quite-12%; b) I don't think - 26%; c) no - 62%.

Do you consider it possible to correct your speech according to the speech of the media?

a) of course - 61%; b) no-14%; c) not always-25%.

After analyzing the research materials and taking into account the results of the mini-survey, we came to the conclusion that:

1) specific gravity speech production of the media in the speech practice of society has increased, the importance of media texts in the public mind has also increased, the power of the media's influence on the culture of people's speech has increased.

2) we stated that the influence of the language of the media on the culture of speech of society is negative, which is a matter of concern for the ecology of the Russian language, the culture of speech modern society.

L. V. Shcherba wrote: “Everyone wants to speak the correct good Russian language, but they don’t know where to find its norms. The answer, in fact, of course, is extremely simple - read the works ... of the indisputable classics of our literature - Gorky, Chekhov, Korolenko, Turgenev, Goncharov etc., and you will find the desired norm in them. In our opinion, the answer of L. V. Shcherba is very relevant, but through this council it will be quite difficult to rectify the situation (see the results of the mini-poll), so we offer our "Program for optimizing the culture of Russian speech":

I. Introduce the subject of rhetoric at school.

II. Organize rhetoric courses for language teachers.

IV. To organize clubs of lovers of Russian speech in schools.

VI. Establish a media award for the purity and correctness of Russian speech.

VII. Organize the release of the program "Censorship" on one of the Russian channels with monitoring of errors in the speech of TV presenters, distributing the latter in the following categories: 1) Miss/Mr. 2) Miss/Mr anti-accuracy of speech; 3) Miss / Mister anti-purity of speech, etc.

VIII. To popularize dictionaries by actively creating their high-quality Internet versions. This step, in our opinion, ensures the availability of dictionary information.

IX. To announce a competition among linguists for the development of an educational program in the culture of speech.

X. Establish All-Russian competition connoisseurs of world classical literature and culture of speech.

We believe that by following our program, we can influence the state of the speech culture of modern society, as well as the culture of society as a whole: "In the attitude of each person to his language, one can judge not only his cultural level, but also his civic value. True love for one's country is unthinkable without love for one's language. A person who is indifferent to his language is a savage. He is harmful in his very essence, because his indifference to the language is explained by complete indifference to the past, present and future of his people "(K. G. Paustovsky).

References

1. Abramov N. The art of talking / / Russian speech. - 1991. - No. 4.

2. Avanesov R. I. Russian literary pronunciation. M., 1972

3. Ageenko F. L., Zarva M. V. Dictionary of stresses of the Russian language. M., 2000

4. Vvedenskaya L. A. Culture of speech. Series "Textbooks, teaching aids". Rostov n/a: Phoenix, 2001.

5. Vvedenskaya L. A. Dictionary of stresses for radio announcers and
television. M., 2004

6. Gvozdev A. N. Modern Russian literary language: phonetics and morphology. M., 1973

7. Grekov VF et al. Handbook for classes in the Russian language. M., Enlightenment, 1968

8. Krysin L.P. Dictionary foreign words. M., 1998

9. L. A. Verbitskaya. Let's talk right. M., 1993

10. Media materials.

11. Materials of essays and tape recordings of spontaneous speech of 11th grade students of the municipal educational institution "Secondary School No. 2, Terek".

12. Novinskaya N. I. Orthoepic dictionary of the Russian language. M., 2004

13. Oganesyan S. S. Culture of speech communication // Russian language at school. No. 5 - 1998

14. Ozhegov S. I. Dictionary of the Russian language. M., 1991

15. Rosenthal D. E. Handbook of spelling and literary editing for press workers. M., 1971

16. Skvortsov L. I. Language, communication and culture // Russian language at school. No. 1 - 1994

17. Formanovskaya N. I. Culture of communication and speech etiquette // Russian language at school. No. 5

Application

Percentage of errors in the culture of media speech.

1. Spelling errors - 40%

2. Spelling errors - 15%

3. Punctuation errors - 6%

4. Grammar errors - 9%

5. Mistakes in word usage - 30%

1. Spelling errors -43%

2. Spelling errors -10%

3. Punctuation errors -5%

4. Grammar mistakes -10%

5. Mistakes in word usage -32%

The media in the course of reforming life in the Russian Federation gave rise to a decrease in the quality level of their products, and above all in the field of language. New footage brought in electronic, and in print mass-media own language, own level of understanding of the culture of speech, own vocabulary, sometimes mechanically borrowed from foreign languages, and primarily Anglo-American. Insufficiently trained new personnel who came to the media in ...

Modern language norms and ethics of communication make it possible to provide the greatest effect in achieving the set communicative tasks. The science dealing with the problems of normalization of speech, developing recommendations for the skillful use of the language, is also called the culture of speech. It contains three components: normative, communicative, ethical. Qualitative assessment of the statement with ...

On the means of speech influence. The twentieth century left in place of classical rhetoric and literature only fiction and proposed a new subject - the culture of speech as a doctrine of the norms of the literary language, and at school - the aspect of speech development. An analysis of new theories and disciplines that emerged at the end of the 20th century through the development of speech technologies shows that they historically date back to rhetoric, often ...

The task of scientists is to establish which manifestations of linguistic taste correspond / do not correspond to the main processes, trends in the evolution of a particular modern literary language, the current system of literary norms and the dynamics of its development. The doctrine of the culture of speech evaluates speech facts, establishing the degree of their normativity, the appropriateness of use in a given speech situation, their motivation ...

out of ignorance

Out of ignorance

adv. the situation the reasons

Due to ignorance of something, ignorance of something.

Explanatory Dictionary of Efremova. T. F. Efremova. 2000 .

See what "Unknowingly" is in other dictionaries:

Adverb, number of synonyms: 5 without intent (12) ignorantly (5) by chance (26) ... Synonym dictionary

Or ignorance, a reference to the ignorance of the opponent in the dispute in matters related to the subject of the dispute; the mention of such facts or provisions that none of the arguing knows and is not able to verify. For example, a well-known principle is given, but ... Glossary of Logic Terms

Argument to ignorance (manipulation)- an indication of the opponent's lack of knowledge about the subject of speech and the protected position, as well as an emphasis on the fact that the asserted position is difficult or impossible to verify. Not a very worthy speech trick. It is widely believed that we, they say, ... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary of Psychology and Pedagogy

argument for ignorance- (manipulation) an indication of the opponent's lack of knowledge about the subject of speech and the position being protected, as well as an emphasis on the fact that the asserted position is difficult or impossible to verify. Not a very worthy speech trick. Distributed ... ... Culture of speech communication: Ethics. Pragmatics. Psychology

- (b. 04/15/1935) special. on problems of the theory of knowledge and methods. science; cand. philosophy Sciences, Assoc. Genus. in Moscow. Graduated from physics. math. f t of the Tajik state. university (1957), Ph.D. in the Department of Philosophy. the same university (1966). Worked n. With. Institute of Astrophysics of the Academy of Sciences ... ... Big biographical encyclopedia

- (lat.) An argument for ignorance. Evidence calculated on the ignorance of the persuaded. Philosophical encyclopedic Dictionary. M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. Ch. editors: L. F. Ilyichev, P. N. Fedoseev, S. M. Kovalev, V. G. Panov. 1983... Philosophical Encyclopedia

The character of the animated series "The Simpsons" Moe (Morris) Lester Sizlak Paul ... Wikipedia

Sophistical denials- “SOPHISTICAL REFUTATIONS” (“Zocpicmkol EA.£uhol”, Latin “Sophistici Elenchi”) is a treatise by Aristotle. This essay is regarded by most commentators as the ninth book of Topics. Its subject matter is "sophistic... Encyclopedia of Epistemology and Philosophy of Science

A legal or natural person who deliberately or out of criminal ignorance violates the legislation on environmental management, which led to the emergence of a crisis or catastrophic state in nature. Dictionary of business terms. Akademik.ru… … Glossary of business terms

Kopievich or Kopievsky, Ilya Fedorovich is one of the employees of Peter the Great to spread education in Russia. Compiled and published Russian books that came out of Tessing's printing house in Amsterdam. Later, he started his printing house and, having received from ... ... Biographical Dictionary

Books

• The life and extraordinary adventures of the soldier Ivan Chonkin. Book 1. Inviolable Person, Vladimir Voinovich. Chonkin lived, Chonkin is alive, Chonkin will live! A simple soldier Ivan Chonkin during the Great Patriotic War gets into ridiculous situations: out of ignorance he takes policemen prisoner, shoots back from ...

“Risks and Insurance 1. Risks Risk, as M. Bulgakov remarked, arises as a result of ignorance of the future. All of our lives..."

Yes, man is mortal, but that would be half the trouble.

The bad thing is that he is sometimes suddenly mortal, that's the trick!

M. Bulgakov. The Master and Margarita

Risks and insurance

The risk, as M. Bulgakov remarkably formulated it, arises due to

ignorance of the future. Our whole life is saturated with risks:

1. The death of a breadwinner may leave his family without a source of income.

2. Financial consequences of permanent disability

(disability) can be even more serious - in addition to the loss of a source of income for the family, the disabled person himself needs to live on something and, probably, be treated.

3. The death of an employee of the enterprise may require the employer to pay the benefit agreed in the employment contract. If a misfortune befalls one of the key workers, financial problems may even be related not so much to the payment of benefits to the family of the deceased, but to the losses that the enterprise will incur due to the time required to find a full replacement.

4. A fire can lead to the loss of an apartment, cottage or industrial premises.

5. Investment results may differ materially from those expected:

Instead of the expected growth in the price of shares, there may be a sharp collapse in the stock exchange;

Rising inflation has depreciated the funds on bank deposits.

Strictly speaking, the depreciation of investments in bank deposits or bonds is a typical situation in modern Russia; it would be more accurate to say depreciated even more than expected.

6. The company's costs may turn out to be much higher than expected, as a result of which it will suffer serious losses.

7. The son entered paid department prestigious expensive university. His parents assumed that after two years of classes with expensive tutors, he would be able to study for free.

8. All businesses bear the (marketing) risk of reduced demand for their products. The reasons can be very diverse: competition, changing consumer preferences, changing prices for raw materials, etc.

Risks can be divided into two large groups: speculative and pure.

Speculative risks imply the possibility of both losses and profits.

A neutral result (no loss, no profit) is also possible. The last four risks are examples of speculative risks. Investing in stocks can provide returns that an investor could not even dream of; a son can enter a free department, and even find a well-paid part-time job while studying. The first four risks are examples of pure risks - at best, these events will not occur, it is impossible to profit from pure risks.

Insurance deals with pure risks. Insurance provides protection to customers against financial loss that may occur in the future due to unforeseen events, but is not intended to generate profit. Insurance protects against the financial consequences of the death of a breadwinner, loss of property in a fire, damage to third parties, etc. In order for insurance not to turn into a kind of bet, when concluding an insurance contract, an insurable interest is required, which implies that the event, as a result of which Insurance Company will have to make an insurance payment, will actually cause a loss to a potential client. If it were possible to conclude insurance contracts in relation to any events, such as the death of an outsider, damage to someone else's property, etc., then insurance would turn into an illegal sweepstakes.

In property and liability insurance, this principle is always followed:

insurance coverage is paid only when losses occur. At the same time, a person familiar with life insurance may have some questions. Cumulative life insurance implies the payment of insurance coverage for the survival of the insured person until the end of the insurance period. Moreover, with mutual insurance, the client has investment opportunities that are very similar to the game on the stock exchange. What does it mean?

The answer is that in fact, life insurance provides the client with two services:

1) compensation for losses resulting from the death of the insured person;

2) an investment instrument.

The first service can be considered as insurance in the "narrow" sense of the word; the statement that insurance deals only with pure risks is fully applicable to it.

2. From the Customer's Perspective Both individuals and businesses plan for their future. To do this, they use financial planning and risk management, even if they do not know this terminology.

Consider, for example, the financial planning of a young family consisting of two people, newlyweds Ivan and Maria, 22 years old, who graduated from the university and are starting an independent adult life. The source of income for this young family is their future salary. They have no savings, as well as no apartment, summer house or car. They have ordinary, one might say typical, family plans: to give birth to children, raise them, educate them, buy an apartment, a summer house, a car, provide for themselves in old age. Fulfilling these plans involves balancing future expenses with future income.

A young family predicts future income and future expenses. Future earnings are projected taking into account expected salary increases and declining incomes for childbirth and childcare.

At the expense of the funds remaining after payment of current expenses, they plan to create funds (savings) for the following purposes:

Making the first installment for the purchase of an apartment;

Purchasing a car;

Teaching children at school and at the university;

Provisions in old age.

The listed costs are planned.

Loss of property due to fire, accident and other incidents;

Medical expenses due to illness or accident;

Loss of income in the event of death or disability of one of the spouses;

Compensation for losses caused to other persons as a result of a car accident or flooding of neighbors and other events. This type damages is called third party liability.

The solution to this problem is called risk management or (direct tracing paper from English) risk management. The first step in risk management is the identification of existing risks.

1. Risk avoidance. The family may not buy a car and drive public transport. This will avoid many of the risks associated with it, such as loss of the car due to theft or accident, death or injury in a car accident, damage to third parties.

2. Risk reduction. The family can take steps to reduce the likelihood of adverse events or their consequences: healthy lifestyle life, give up skiing, install iron doors in the apartment, put it on an alarm system, install smoke detectors and fire extinguishers, etc.

3. Transfer of risk. The transfer of risk means the transfer of financial responsibility for certain events to another party - an individual or organization. As a rule, it is not possible to do this for free; you have to pay for everything. The most commonly used method of risk transfer is insurance1. As a result of the conclusion of the insurance contract, the insurer, in exchange for a certain amount of money (insurance premium), assumes the obligation to pay insurance coverage if the events specified in the contract occur, for example, the death of the insured person. There are three types of insurance:

Property insurance - insurance against loss associated with damage to the property of the insured resulting from a fire, but, of course, not the only one. In particular, a technique called hedging associated with the use of derivatives is used to protect against financial risks.

theft, accident, flood, hail, etc.

Liability insurance - insurance against loss associated with the death of third parties, causing damage to their property or health.

Personal insurance – insurance in case of losses related to death, accident or illness of the Insured Person.

This type of insurance is the subject of this book.

4. Risk acceptance. For some risks, the family may not take any action. Risk acceptance means that the family assumes full financial responsibility for its implementation, or, using the terminology accepted in insurance and risk management, leaves the risk on its own deduction. Risk acceptance occurs both for relatively small losses, which the family may well attribute to current expenses, and for serious risks. Reasons for taking serious risks range from a "random" calculation to the hope that one spouse's salary will be enough to feed the family in the event of the death or disability of the other.

Partial risk-taking is also possible, for example, the family is able to cope with the loss of income associated with the death of one of the spouses, but not both. In this case, she can buy life insurance, which provides for the payment of insurance coverage only in the event of the death of both spouses, which will cost much less. When insuring property and / or liability, a loss insurance contract may provide for the payment of insurance coverage equal to the excess of loss over a certain amount established by the contract, called the deductible. For example, with fire insurance, a deductible of 20 thousand rubles means that with a loss of 10 thousand rubles.

there is no insurance payment, and with a loss of 100 thousand rubles, the insurance payment will be 80 thousand rubles. This means that the policyholder assumes the risk of loss in the amount of up to 20 thousand rubles and insures a possible excess over this amount.

It is difficult to imagine a family that could transfer all the risks;

part of the risks always remains on its own retention. Therefore, the funds (savings) listed above should be replenished with one more - in case of unforeseen expenses. Of course, in real life a family is unlikely to have a large number of funds earmarked for different purposes. If there are corporate pension programs at the enterprises where Ivan and Maria work, they may well turn out to be the only “specialized” funds of the family.

In general, all four methods apply. At the same time, it should be noted that these methods of risk management are inherently heterogeneous: the first two are aimed at combating the risk and / or its consequences, while the third and fourth are ways of financing the risk. The transfer of risk avoids the uncertainty of future costs associated with the related risks, for example, death insurance allows, in exchange for paying regular fixed contributions, compensate for losses associated with the loss of a breadwinner. Acceptance of risk means the readiness to pay for the resulting losses; in extreme cases, it means a readiness for the complete loss of livelihoods.

If the risk can be avoided, then there will be no need to finance it.

The adoption of risk mitigation measures reduces expected losses, but still requires a choice of how the risk is financed. Depending on the method of risk financing adopted, the actions taken will reduce the insurance premium, reduce the likelihood of losses or reduce the amount of losses.

The need for risk transfer depends on the specific situation. In general, the need for insurance is the higher, the more dependents in the family (children, unemployed spouses, parents in need of material assistance), and the less savings or other property that can be sold if necessary. If by the age of 30 Ivan and Maria make good money, buy an apartment, a dacha and a car, inherit another apartment, and the children are still only in plans for the future, then the need for insurance will be clearly lower than if there are three children and Mary, engaged only in household chores.

Financial planning and risk management of a business venture is more complex than family financial planning, however, its essence remains the same.

The enterprise plans its development, creates funds for future development in the form of retained earnings and transfers part of the risks through insurance and other methods of risk transfer, such as hedging financial risks.

The company's need for insurance depends on its financial position and size. The larger the enterprise and the higher it own funds, the greater its ability to keep risks on its own hold.

In conclusion, we note that in financial planning it is necessary to take into account the current taxation and use effective, from the point of view of taxation, methods of planning and risk transfer.

3. From the point of view of the insurance company The insurance business is to take on the risks of its clients for a set fee. An insurance company can accept risks that its customers cannot keep on their own because it uses the principle of risk pooling. For example, consider death insurance for a period of one year. With a large number of insured persons, the insurance company knows that only a relatively small proportion of them will die during the term of the insurance. This result follows both from common sense and from the theory of probability, which states that the larger the number of insured, the more accurately you can predict the size of the total payments of the insurance company. This allows the insurance company to take a small contribution from each client and pay out, in the event of death, an amount that can exceed the premium by hundreds of times.

Is it possible, however, that despite common sense and the theory of probability, the number of deaths will be very large and the company will suffer losses or even go bankrupt? Yes, if the company does not take necessary measures, it can actually happen.

Try to give examples2.

Who is easiest to insure in case of death? Those who know that they will soon die, or at least believe that the probability of their death is very high. These can be seriously ill people, people who decide to commit suicide or climb Everest, etc. If no action is taken, death insurance will primarily be carried out in hospitals for the seriously ill. In this case, without contradicting the theory of probability, the number of deaths can be very large.

Insurance companies are commercial, not charitable organizations, so they do not accept all risks for insurance, but only risks that meet certain requirements.

1) The loss must result from a random event. Illness or death must not be the result of intentional actions of the insured person;

in particular, the life insurance contract usually provides for the denial of insurance coverage in the event of suicide or suicide attempt3.

In the case of mixed life insurance, insurance coverage is paid under all contracts. Therefore, at first glance, there is a violation of this principle. This, however, is not the case, since the specific date of occurrence of the loss is a random event - death can occur at any time during the term of insurance, or a person can survive until the end of the term of insurance.

2) The fact of the occurrence of the event specified in the contract (insured event), which provides for the payment of insurance coverage, must be subject to objective verification. The fact of the death of the insured person is usually not in doubt, however, cases of fraud are also possible here: for example, a false death certificate can be provided abroad.

Disability or the initial diagnosis of a critical illness is not so obvious. Disability is not always easy to check, and the initial diagnosis of, say, cancer may not be primary at all; in fact, the disease could have been detected before the conclusion of the insurance contract. To prevent fraud, insurance companies carefully prescribe insured events, exceptions and measures to verify the occurrence of an insured event. One of these measures is the requirement. When teaching the theory of probability, the following example is often given. It is extremely unlikely that a hundred men and not a single woman walked down the street. The teacher invited the students to look out the window and make sure that his words were right... A company of soldiers was walking down the street!

The legislation of some countries limits the period during which you can not pay insurance coverage in the event of the death of the Insured.

timely notification of the insurance company about the insured event; with a large delay in notification, it is more difficult to verify the circumstances of the insured event.

A life insurance contract usually provides for the payment of insurance coverage established by the contract. For example, a life insurance contract may provide for the payment of one million rubles. in the event of the death of the insured person, 750 thousand rubles in the event of a disability of the first group and 500 thousand rubles.

rubles in case of disability of the second group. However, the contract may provide for compensation for actual losses incurred; these include, for example, medical expenses insurance contracts. In this case, the size of the loss should also be subject to objective verification.

3) The volume of losses (insurance payments) must be predictable. For example, in the case of a one-year death insurance, the company, based on statistics, assumes that out of 1,000 insured men, 7 will die. This allows it to determine the cost of insurance and set the insurance premium. If the company could not predict the number of insured events, it would not be able to assign a premium commensurate with the risk.

Of course, the company cannot predict whether an insured event will happen to a particular insured person4, but it can quite accurately predict the number of insured events for a specific group of insured persons. If the contract provides for compensation for actually incurred losses, then the company predicts not only the number of insured events, but also the average amount of insurance payment.

What is needed to ensure the predictability of the amount of losses? First, it is necessary to identify the main risk factors and evaluate their impact on the probability of an insured event and, if necessary, the amount of insurance payment.

Consider this issue on the example of the same one-year death insurance.

Even a non-specialist knows that mortality depends on:

The age and gender of the person;

health conditions;

smoking. It's not that a drop of nicotine kills a horse; insurance companies are not interested in horses. It's just that, other things being equal, smokers have a much higher mortality rate than non-smokers;

Professions - some professions are associated with an increased risk of accident or occupational disease; others are associated with more high level income and therefore the best nutrition living conditions, access to health care.

Lessons dangerous species sports, etc.

A significant threat to the insurance company is the so-called moral hazard, i.e. in fact, the risk of fraud on the part of the client, which can hide factors that significantly affect mortality.

Actuarial joke. How is a Sicilian actuary different from an English one? The English actuary knows how many people will die; Sicilian - knows who will die.

Every life insurance company has a guide for assessing the level of risk associated with a particular person interested in life insurance. In the application for insurance, the applicant provides information about himself that is necessary to assess the level of risk associated with him. If necessary, in order to obtain more accurate information about the health status of a potential client, a medical examination is also carried out. As a result, all potential clients are divided into fairly homogeneous groups in terms of the risk of death. In insurance, this is called risk classification, and the process of risk classification is called underwriting.

Like any business, an insurance company is exposed to the usual business risks, such as:

Investment risk;

Marketing risk;

Too high transaction costs;

Fire, flood, death or illness of employees, etc.

Like any other enterprise, an insurance company manages its risks and insures (in other insurance companies) its property, liability and life and health of its employees. However, there is another type of insurance specific to the insurance company, which is called reinsurance.

The need for reinsurance arises when the insurance company takes on too much risk for insurance, for example:

There is, although a low probability, that a large number of insured persons will die as a result of one event, for example, the crash of an airplane carrying employees of one enterprise, an earthquake, flood, etc.

A very high sum insured for a specific policy: for most insured persons, the insurance payment in case of death does not exceed two million rubles, and for one client, the insurance payment is 100 million rubles.

Doom a large number insured persons as a result of a single event, or the death of a person whose death benefit is many times higher than the average level, may adversely affect the financial position of the insurer or even lead to its bankruptcy. Therefore, he transfers part of his risks to another insurance company, i.e. in exchange for the insurance premium, another insurance company assumes the payment of part of the insurance coverage. Since the insurer transfers part of the risks accepted for insurance, such insurance is called "reinsurance".

Reinsurance is especially important for small companies with limited own funds; note that currently Russian companies in life insurance you can't call them big.

Note. A large company that promises under an employment contract to pay insurance coverage in the event of the death of its employees bears risks similar to those of an insurance company with the same number of death insureds. Like an insurance company, it can predict expected benefit payments and insure only against the possibility of large losses. One way to implement this approach is to create captive insurance companies that keep risks within the holding.

Conclusion

This book is devoted to the consideration of life and health insurance products and everything connected with them. Insurers develop new insurance products and upgrade existing ones in order to fully meet the needs of customers in insurance coverage. Insurance is inextricably linked with the concept of risk; in order to understand insurance, in particular life and health insurance, it is necessary to understand the risks associated with it, i.e.

risks of both parties of the insurance contract, namely the insured (client of the insurance company) and the insurer (insurance company).

An understanding of customer risk is essential in order to develop insurance products that are in demand by customers and to give specific individuals (individual or legal) the right advice on which insurance options best suit their needs.

Many employees of insurance companies believe that they do not need to know the risks that the insurance company itself bears; management, financiers, actuaries deal with these risks. This opinion is especially widespread among those involved in the sale of insurance. However, this is not true. Understanding the risks of an insurance company is necessary in order to understand the existing restrictions on the development or sale of certain insurance products. In particular, it will be much easier for marketers to participate in the development of new products and the modernization of existing ones if they understand that in order to receive a high commission, they need to give up something.

President of the Russian Federation CEO Center for Corporate Strategists ... " ~ # "g.-1" " and ion No. UDV: U3316. / account. CALCULATING THE COST OF PRODUCTS Training program institutions higher education on...» ECONOMIC COMMISSION COMMITTEE ON ECONOMIC COOPERATION AND INTEGRATION First session Geneva, September 27-28, 2006...»

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FIRST LESSON

Spelling of derived prepositions

Goals:

- to teach how to write derivative prepositions correctly, to distinguish derivative prepositions from a homonymous form;

- develop the ability to work with text: highlight new information, establish cause-and-effect relationships, form new ideas based on the data received;

- educate communication, independence.

Required material: educational text on a separate sheet for each, tests.

DURING THE CLASSES

1. Updating existing knowledge.

CHALLENGING STAGE

Reception "True and False Statements"

Read aloud only the true statements.

Prove that these statements are correct. Give examples. Why are the rest of the statements wrong? Prove with examples. We will return to these statements a little later.

1. Derivatives are prepositions that consist of two words.

2. All prepositions are always written separately from the words with which they are used.

3. All prepositions are written in one word.

4. The spelling of derivative prepositions must be remembered.

5. In a sentence, a preposition cannot be replaced by another preposition or conjunction.

6. Derived prepositions are homonymous to independent parts of speech.

- Try to formulate the topic of our lesson: what are we going to talk about?

What goals can we set for ourselves?

3. Learning new material.

STAGE OF REFLECTION

Reception "Insert"

BUT. Reading the training text on your own (see "Spelling of prepositions"), make notes in it:

"V" - I know this information;

“+” is new information for me;

"?" - This information is not clear to me, I have questions.

Spelling of prepositions

1. Prepositions are always written separately from the words with which they are used: with me, to my sister, to school.

2. Compound prepositions from behind, from under, over written with a hyphen.

3. Derived prepositions can be written in one word ( instead of, like, as a result of, like, towards, in spite of, in view of, about, around etc.) or two (in moderation, during, in continuation, in conclusion, in contrast).

4. The spelling of derivative prepositions must be remembered, inquire about their spelling in the spelling dictionary.

5. Prepositions can be replaced by other prepositions or conjunctions.

For example: about = about; in spite of = in spite of; towards = to, to; instead of = for; due to = due to; like = like.

6. Derived prepositions must be distinguished from similar (homonymous) forms of significant parts of speech with prepositions:

Due to (= due to) drought the river became shallow.- As a result (into what?) A lot of people got involved in the case of the fire.

Let's talk about (= about) the trip. - Money was received into the account (to what?) of the bank.

A dog ran out towards (= to) me.- I did not count on (what?) meeting with friends.

Despite (= in spite of) the rain, the walk took place. He passed without looking at us.

In view of (= because of) the upcoming exam, the walks stopped.- Swim in the sight of the city. Keep in mind.

During lesson. - Along the river.

In continuation holidays. - In the continuation of the film.

Finally fireworks were given. – In the conclusion of the expert, an assessment was given.

7. Preposition due to has a causal value; prepositions during, during convey the value of time.

Prepositions as a result of, in the course of, in the course of, in the end have a letter at the end e.

REFLEX STAGE

B. Work with educational text.

What information from the text did you know?

- Write down the prepositions, the spelling of which you were familiar with.

What new did you learn from the text?

Write down those prepositions whose spelling you did not know.

What are these suggestions called?

- Make up and write down sentences with derivative prepositions that are written in one word.

What can replace these prepositions?

- Make up and write down sentences with derivative prepositions that are written in two words.

What is the significance of these prepositions?

C. Practicing the skill of writing derivative prepositions.

Writing a dictation

There have been changes along the river. For a month I visited my grandmother. Despite the prohibitions of doctors, he continued to train. He answered without looking at the book. The mistake was due to ignorance of the area. A mistake was made in the investigation of Ivanov's case. Will you help me continue my search? Leaves will fall off over the course of a week.

Working with tests

I option. Indicate the number of the line in which there is no derivative preposition.

1. To arrive on time (for) a meeting we left early.

2. When (for) a meeting An old man came out to the guests, I immediately recognized him.

3. B(continued) During the day, my father reminisced about his life several times.

4. (B) consequence accident, the elevator did not work (for) a week.

II option. Indicate the line number in which there is a derivative preposition.

1. (At first lesson we read the text.

2. We are going camping (together with parents.

3. (Together meteorite fall formed a crater.

4. (During rivers there was a kind of unsettling calm.

Mutual verification.

4. The result of the lesson.

- Reiterate the correct statements.

What derivative prepositions are written in one word?

What derivative prepositions are written in two words?

- How to distinguish derivative prepositions from consonant forms of significant parts of speech with prepositions?

5. Multi-level homework.

1st level – obligatory minimum – exercise...

2nd level - draw up a diagram or cluster on the topic "Spelling of derivative prepositions".

Level 3 - select or compose the text of the dictation, which will include the studied derivative prepositions.

SECOND LESSON

Homonymy of derivative prepositions and forms of independent parts of speech

Goals:

- to develop the skill of determining the part of speech of outwardly similar words;

- develop the ability to correctly write homonymous words different parts speech.

Required material: multimedia complex, slide presentation.

DURING THE CLASSES

1. Beginning of the lesson.

CHALLENGING STAGE

Reception "Delayed answer"

(In parallel, we give an individual task: to prepare a report on homoforms based on the specified material.)

What is the name of an animal that changes color depending on external environment?

– Can there be something in common between a chameleon and some linguistic phenomena?

STAGE OF REFLECTION

Read the text, determine if there are chameleon words in it.

(A slide with highlighted words is presented if students find this task difficult.)

Can rivers age? Despite to the difference of opinion, we are forced to answer: "Yes." It's a shame that there are in the list of aging also and Kuban rivers. These are Eya, Chelbas, Kirpili and Ponura. In continuation over the centuries there have been gradual changes during rec. Their valleys are shallow, but wide due to great fullness in the old days. Now these rivers are shallow. During in summer and autumn they dry up in places. They can be passed that's why shallow water despite under your feet. And so year after year...

What explains this? Let's do a little investigation. Let us remember that the power source of the steppe rivers is atmospheric precipitation and groundwater. Instead of natural protection, such as virgin steppes and riverine forests, we now see plowed areas and cut down massifs. Due to this river began to silt up. It's hard to get in these days instead of pristine beauty, which old-timers remember in ancient kind Kuban Cossacks. Because of no error. Rivers age and fade. But they can be rejuvenated! That's why we are all interested in continuation consequences.

REFLEX STAGE

So, back to the beginning of the lesson. Do you remember the question asked? Can you find the chameleon words?

Choose a name for chameleon words from the proposed linguistic terms: synonyms, homonyms, antonyms.

So how are chameleons and homonyms similar?

Yes, homonyms change their meaning depending on belonging to a particular part of speech, like chameleons change their color depending on the environment.

2. Joint definition of the topic and objectives of the lesson.

State the topic of our lesson. What tasks will we set for ourselves?

So, the topic of our lesson is Homonymy of words of different parts of speech. If together we can determine the part of speech of outwardly similar words, then we can write them correctly.

3. Actualization of existing knowledge.

Reception "Cluster"

What are homoforms, homographs and homophones?

(Listen to the prepared student.)

Homographs are spelled the same, homophones sound the same. The main difficulty for the student is homophones. They are spelled differently.)

4. The main part of the lesson.

- Does the spelling of a word depend on its belonging to a particular part of speech?

(In context.) Let's return to the text.

Exercise. Write out from the text any sentence with chameleon words. Define them as part of speech.

Find in the text or come up with a sentence with a homonym for given word and write it down.

- Name the sentences in which derivative prepositions are used, and prove that these are prepositions.

How are these sentences written? What prepositions are written separately? Which ones are merged?

So, what needs to be done in order not to make mistakes in writing the named prepositions and their homonymous combinations? (Determine the part of speech...)

Work on multi-level cards

1st level. Write the words together or separately. List the suggestions.

In_the_time.

As a consequence of the rains.

About the trip.

In spite of difficulties.

Changes in the_stream_ of the river.

As a consequence of the Ivanov case.

Put money into a bank account.

He walked without looking at his feet.

2nd level. Add words, mark parts of speech.

There are many whirlpools in the_stream_ of the Kuban River. There were many sunny days last year. As a result of the intense heat, the river became shallow. There were a lot of unclear things about the accident case. From the beginning we were sad. Four months have passed since the beginning of the year.

3rd level. Write the words, mark the parts of speech. In brackets indicate the possible replacement of prepositions, adverbs, nouns and participles.

go ahead (before- suggestion) columns. He rode ahead (behind- adverb).

He was inside (____) a trolleybus. It's cold outside, but inside ____) warm. The children went around to the district (____) glades. Quiet in_okrug (____). He was sent to work in_okrug (____). Despite (____) bad weather, the tournament took place. He ran despite (____) on the sides.

Warning dictation

Work for two hours - note unexpected changes in the course of the disease; during the winter season - see in the continuation of the film; to say in conclusion - to be in prison; due to drought - to participate in the investigation of the case; a flower like a lily - pay attention to the similarity of the figures.

Lesson summary

- What are homonyms?

Why are homophones difficult to write?

How to determine the part of speech of superficially similar words?

How are prepositions written?

- What prepositions are written separately, together?

6. Homework.

You will complete the cards for other levels as homework.

Write a text on the topic “How to rejuvenate rivers?” Using chameleon words.

If time remains

Shall we play?

Let's take an unusual interpretation of words. Linguists call such an unusual interpretation of words individual-author's homonymy. It is based on a lot of jokes. Our task is to give a humorous interpretation of the proposed word. For example: bad meetings - meeting in the square, lead - Pig farm worker nonsense - plasticine of low quality, harvest - exchange of handshakes spruce forest - mouth, poplar - a pedestrian, lady - bar manager swift - the hairdresser, classmate - nutritionist, sniffle - duet.

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E.L. TRUMP

Misconception (error) is an erroneous idea about any fact when concluding a contract, regardless of the will of the counterparty. Delusion (mistake) differs from deceit in that the second party does not influence the erring one in order to persuade it to a bad deal. An obligation arising from a contract entered into in error is considered null and void.

The misunderstanding could not have arisen from the extreme negligence of one of the parties, due to the fact that, through her own fault, she did not delve into the transaction, despite the fact that all the facts were communicated to her. The error could only come from ignorance of the facts (error facti) essential to the conclusion of the contract.

Just like a mistake due to extreme negligence, an error due to ignorance of a legal prescription (error iuris) was not recognized. It was believed that Roman citizens could not be mistaken about the prescriptions of law, a priori it was assumed that all citizens were legally savvy: "Iuris quidem ignorantiam cuique nocere" - "ignorance of law harms anyone" (D. 22. 6. 9). Only women, warriors, minors and some illiterate persons could refer to error iuris, but only as an exception.

The following misconceptions may have occurred during the conclusion of the transaction:

• - an error in the essence and nature of the transaction (error in negotiation). If one side thought that they would sell the thing, and the other believed that it was being given as a gift, then there was a misunderstanding about the nature of the transaction. The will of the parties regarding the nature of the transaction must be the same, therefore, in this case, the will to conclude the contract was imaginary, and the transaction was declared invalid;
• - an error in the subject of the transaction (error in re, error in corpore) leads to its invalidity: "When there is a disagreement regarding the subject itself, the sale is obviously invalid" (D. 18. I. 9). As with an error in the nature of the transaction, the problem lies in the need for the agreed will of the parties to conclude a transaction, and if there is no agreement on such an essential condition as an object, then the transaction cannot create an obligation. If, for example, they made a mistake in the name of the object, but not in the object itself, the transaction was recognized as valid: "An erroneous description of the object does not harm" (D. 35. 1.33);
• - an error about the essence of the object (error substantial) - this is a delusion about the material from which the object is made. For example, the party believed that a gold jewelry was bought, but it turned out that it was only gilded. Concerning such errors there were various opinions. Some Roman jurists believed that what is being bought is a thing, not its material. Others objected that the material is of great importance in the purchase, so the material of the item is an essential condition of the contract and a mistake about the nature of the item should lead to the invalidity of the transaction. Directly opposite statements of such Roman jurists as Marcellus and Ulpian are known, the first of which emphasized the insignificance of the material, and the second, on the contrary, spoke of its significance. Gradually, the opinion about the significance of the material prevailed and error substantia began to be recognized as law;
• - error in the identity of the counterparty (error in persona) An error in the identity of the party with whom the transaction was concluded most often occurred in acts of inheritance and marriage law, as well as transactions in which the occurrence of an obligation was associated with a specific person (for example, a partnership agreement).