Errors caused by ignorance of the lexical meaning of the word. Typical mistakes - criticism - catalog of articles - literary portal blik

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Speech is a channel for the development of intellect,
the sooner the language is learned,
the easier and more complete the knowledge will be assimilated.

Nikolai Ivanovich Zhinkin,
Soviet linguist and psychologist

Speech is conceived by us as an abstract category, inaccessible to direct perception. Meanwhile, this is the most important indicator of a person’s culture, his intellect and, a way of knowing the complex relationships of nature, things, society and transmitting this information through communication.

Obviously, both learning and already using something, we make mistakes due to inability or ignorance. And speech, like other types of human activity (in which language is an important component), is no exception in this respect. All people make mistakes, both in and in oral speech. Moreover, the concept of speech culture, as an idea of ​​"", is inextricably linked with the concept of a speech error. In fact, these are parts of one process, which means that, striving for perfection, we must be able to recognize speech errors and eradicate them.

Types of speech errors

First, let's look at what speech errors are. Speech errors are any cases of deviation from the current language norms. Without their knowledge, a person can live normally, work and communicate with others. But the effectiveness of the actions taken in certain cases may suffer. In this regard, there is a risk of being misunderstood or misunderstood. And in situations where our personal success, this is unacceptable.

The author of the classification of speech errors below is Doctor of Philology Yu. V. Fomenko. Its division, in our opinion, is the simplest, devoid of academic pretentiousness and, as a result, understandable even to those who do not have a special education.

Types of speech errors:

Examples and causes of speech errors

S. N. Zeitlin writes: “The complexity of the mechanism for generating speech acts as a factor contributing to the occurrence of speech errors.” Let's consider special cases, based on the classification of types of speech errors proposed above.

Pronunciation errors

Pronunciation or pronunciation errors occur as a result of violation of the rules of orthoepy. In other words, the reason lies in mispronunciation sounds, sound combinations, separate grammatical constructions and borrowed words. They also include accentological errors - violation of the norms of stress. Examples:

Pronunciation: “of course” (and not “of course”), “poshti” (“almost”), “plot” (“pays”), “precedent” (“precedent”), “iliktric” (“electric”), “colidor” (“corridor”), “laboratory” (“laboratory”), “thousand” (“thousand”), “right now” (“now”).

stress: “calls”, “dialogue”, “contract”, “catalog”, “overpass”, “alcohol”, “beetroot”, “phenomenon”, “chauffeur”, “expert”.

Lexical errors

Lexical errors - violation of the rules of vocabulary, first of all - the use of words in unusual meanings, distortion of the morphemic form of words and the rules of semantic agreement. They are of several types.

The use of a word in an unusual sense. This is the most common lexical speech error. Within this type, there are three subtypes:

• Mixing words that are close in meaning: "He read the book back."
• Mixing words that sound similar: excavator - escalator, ear - colossus, Indian - turkey, single - ordinary.
• Mixing words that are similar in meaning and sound: subscriber - subscription, addressee - addressee, diplomat - diplomat, well-fed - well-fed, ignorant - ignorant. "Cashier for business trips" (necessary - seconded).

word writing. Error examples: Georgian, heroism, underground workers, winder.

Violation of the rules of semantic agreement of words. Semantic agreement is the mutual adaptation of words along the line of their real meanings. For example, you cannot say: I raise this toast", since "raise" means "move", which is not consistent with the wish. “Through the door wide open” is a speech error, because the door cannot be both ajar (slightly open) and wide open (wide open) at the same time.

This also includes pleonasms and tautologies. Pleonasm is a phrase in which the meaning of one component is entirely included in the meaning of another. Examples: “May month”, “traffic route”, “address of residence”, “huge metropolis”, “to be on time”. A tautology is a phrase whose members have the same root: “The task was set”, “The organizer was one social organization"," I wish you a long creative longevity.

Phraseological errors

Phraseological errors occur when the form of phraseological units is distorted or they are used in an unusual meaning. Yu. V. Fomenko distinguishes 7 varieties:

• Change vocabulary phraseological unit: “While the essence and the case” instead of “While the court and the case”;
• Truncation of a phraseological unit: “It was just right for him to hit the wall” (phraseologism: “hit his head against the wall”);
• Expansion of the lexical composition of a phraseological unit: “You turned to the wrong address” (phraseologism: contact the address);
• Distortion of the grammatical form of a phraseological unit: "I can't stand to sit with my hands folded." Correct: "difficult";
• Contamination (association) of phraseological units: “You can’t do everything idly by” (a combination of phraseological units “sleeveless” and “idly folded”);
• The combination of pleonasm and phraseological unit: "A random stray bullet";
• The use of phraseological units in an unusual meaning: "Today we're going to talk about the film from cover to cover."

Morphological errors

Morphological errors are the incorrect formation of word forms. Examples of such speech errors: “reserved seat”, “shoes”, “towels”, “cheaper”, “one and a half hundred kilometers”.

Syntax errors

Syntax errors are associated with a violation of the rules of syntax - the construction of sentences, the rules for combining words. There are a lot of varieties of them, so we will give only a few examples.

• Wrong match: “There are a lot of books in the closet”;
• Mismanagement: "Pay for the fare";
• Syntactic ambiguity: "Reading Mayakovsky made a strong impression"(did Mayakovsky read or did you read Mayakovsky's works?);
• Structural offset: “The first thing I ask of you is your attention.” Correct: “The first thing I ask you is attention”;
• Extra correlative word in the main sentence: "We were looking at those stars that dotted the whole sky."

Spelling mistakes

This type of error occurs due to ignorance of the rules of spelling, hyphenation, abbreviation of words. characteristic of speech. For example: “The dog barked”, “sit on chairs”, “come to the railway station”, “Russian. language", "gram. error".

Punctuation errors

Punctuation errors - incorrect use of punctuation marks with.

Stylistic mistakes

We devoted a separate topic to this topic.

Ways to correct and prevent speech errors

How to prevent speech errors? Your speech work should include:

1. Reading fiction.
2. Visiting theaters, museums, exhibitions.
3. Communication with educated people.
4. Constant work on improving the culture of speech.

Online course "Russian language"

Speech errors are one of the most problematic topics that receive little attention in school. There are not so many topics in the Russian language in which people most often make mistakes - about 20. We decided to devote the course "" to these topics. In the classroom, you will get the opportunity to work out the skill of competent writing using a special system of multiple distributed repetitions of the material through simple exercises and special techniques memorization.

Sources

• Bezzubov A. N. Introduction to literary editing. - St. Petersburg, 1997.
• Savko I. E. Basic speech and grammatical errors
• Sergeeva N. M. Speech, grammatical, ethical, factual errors ...
• Fomenko Yu. V. Types of speech errors. - Novosibirsk: NGPU, 1994.
• Zeitlin S. N. Speech errors and their prevention. – M.: Enlightenment, 1982.

These types of errors include:

Non-distinguishing of paronym words (paronyms are similar-sounding related, single-root words that differ in meaning), for example:

present and provide

warranty and guaranteed

business trip and business trip

place and place

conduct and produce

pay and pay, etc.

Inattention to the shades of the meanings of synonymous words (synonyms are words that have the same or very close meaning); synonyms are rarely absolutely identical, as a rule, they differ in shades of meaning.

Inattention to them, ignorance of the norms of lexical compatibility of words leads to semantic violations, for example:

The presence of pleonasm words in the text (pleonasms are words that are close in meaning); this deficiency is usually the result of an inability to express accurately and concisely, it is often caused by ignorance of the meaning of a borrowed word (when combining words of Russian and foreign origin denoting the same thing), for example:

uselessly disappears

joint cooperation

wasted in vain

advanced avant-garde

practical measures

break interval

mutual assistance to each other

price list

commemorative memorial

time keeping

interior

autobiography of life, etc.

Some pleonasms, however, have acquired a terminological character (for example: "information message") or the character of a stable phrase (for example: "entirely and completely"). Such combinations are also permissible if the word included in the phrase has changed its meaning or acquired a new shade of meaning, for example:

second-hand book (in the sense of "old")

period of time (the word "period" does not mean "time", but "a period of time")

monumental monument ("monumental" - in the meaning of "large", "majestic");

the presence in the text of a tautology (semantic repetitions) that occurs if cognate words are adjacent, for example:

"Achievements reached by the enterprise..."; “the following facts should be taken into account...”; "This phenomenon is manifested in ...".

The repetition of cognate words is permissible if the repeated words are the only carriers of meanings, for example:

“The investigating authorities investigated...”;

verbosity, or speech redundancy, i.e. the use of words and phrases that carry unnecessary information, for example:

Instead of:"Tariffs for the passage of passengers by urban passenger transport"

Necessary:"Tariffs for travel by urban passenger transport"

Instead of:"Program of measures to support the activities of veteran organizations"

Necessary:"Program to support the activities of veteran organizations"

Instead of:“It was found that the existing rates are too high”

Necessary:"The prices were found to be inflated."

Instead: "In his speech, he pointed out certain shortcomings"

Necessary:“In his speech, he pointed out certain shortcomings”;

the use in one phrase of words with opposite meanings, often mutually exclusive, for example:

“The idea of ​​grocery orders was developed jointly with senior officials of the City Hall, and there are enough goods to provide the poor citizens with a minimum necessary products"(if there are "quite enough" goods, then why "minimum"? It should be written: "there are enough goods to provide a minimum");

omission of words, especially verbal nouns of the type: organization, implementation, provision, conduct, approval, etc., for example:

Instead of:"Conducting an experiment on the nutrition of schoolchildren"

Necessary."Conducting an experiment on catering for schoolchildren"

Instead of:"On the Program of social protection of low-income categories of citizens"

Necessary:"On approval of the Program of social protection of low-income citizens".

7.3. Typical language errors in texts

documents

7.3.1. Mistakes related to ignorance of the meanings of words

indistinguishability of words - paronyms (paronyms - similar in sound, related, single-root words that differ in meaning), for example:

present and provide

warranty and guaranteed

business trip and business trip

place and place

conduct and produce

pay and pay, etc.

inattention to the shades of the meanings of synonymous words (synonyms are words that have the same or very close meaning); synonyms are rarely absolutely identical, as a rule, they differ in shades of meanings. Inattention to them, ignorance of the norms of lexical word combination leads to semantic violations, for example:

RIGHT WRONG:

build a farm build a farm

build a bridge build a kiosk

design defects education defects

the presence of pleonasm words in the text (pleonasms are words that are close in meaning); this deficiency is usually the result of an inability to express accurately and concisely, it is often caused by ignorance of the meaning of a borrowed word (when combining words of Russian and foreign origin denoting the same thing), for example:

uselessly disappears

joint cooperation

wasted in vain

advanced avant-garde

practical measures

break interval

mutual assistance to each other

price list

commemorative memorial

time keeping

interior

autobiography of life, etc.

Some pleonasms, however, have acquired a terminological character (for example: "information message") or the character of a stable phrase (for example: "entirely and completely"). Such combinations are also permissible if the word included in the phrase has changed its meaning or acquired a new shade of meaning, for example:

second-hand book (in the sense of "old")

period of time (the word "period" does not mean "time", but "a period of time")

monumental monument ("monumental" - in the meaning of "large", "majestic");

the presence in the text of a tautology (semantic repetitions) that occurs if cognate words are adjacent, for example:

"Achievements reached by the enterprise..."; “the following facts should be taken into account...”; "This phenomenon is manifested in ...".

The repetition of cognate words is permissible if the repeated words are the only carriers of meanings, for example:

“The investigating authorities investigated...”;

verbosity, or speech redundancy, i.e. the use of words and phrases that carry unnecessary information, for example:

Instead of: "Tariffs for the passage of passengers by urban passenger transport"

Necessary: "Tariffs for urban passenger transport"

Instead of: "Program of measures to support the activities of veteran organizations"

Necessary: "Program to support the activities of veteran organizations"

Instead of: "It was found that the existing rates are too high"

Necessary: "The rates were found to be inflated."

Instead of: “In his speech, he pointed out certain shortcomings”

Necessary: "In his speech, he pointed out some shortcomings";

the use in one phrase of words with opposite meanings, often mutually exclusive, for example:

“The idea of ​​grocery orders was developed jointly with responsible employees of the City Hall, and there are enough goods to provide the poor citizens with the minimum necessary products” (if there are “quite enough” goods, then why “minimum”? It should be written: “there are enough goods to provide a minimum");

omission of words, especially verbal nouns of the type: organization, implementation, provision, conduct, approval, etc., for example:

Instead of: "Conducting an experiment on the nutrition of schoolchildren"

Necessary: "Conducting an experiment on catering for schoolchildren"

Instead of: "On the Program of social protection of low-income categories of citizens »

Necessary: "On approval of the Program of social protection of low-income citizens".

7.3.2. Misuse stylistically

colored vocabulary

These types of errors include:

the use of words expressing strictly scientific concepts, and "high" book vocabulary, for example:

"predicts" instead of "anticipates"

"regulated" instead of "depends on"

"asked" instead of "requested"

"linked" instead of "linked"

use in writing words-professionalisms, which are unofficial substitutes for terms, for example:

"complete" instead of "completion of construction"

"work in progress" instead of "under construction"

"diary students" instead of "day students"

"Evening students" instead of "Evening students"

non-cash" instead of "non-cash payment"

the use without explanation of terms that may be incomprehensible to the correspondent, especially for terms that exist in different industries different meaning, as well as terms that have non-terminal meanings in book or colloquial speech;

the use of words of foreign origin that are not included in the vocabulary of the Russian language and have a Russian equivalent, for example:

"announcement" instead of "announcement"

"prolong" instead of "extend"

"representation" instead of "representative meeting"

"sponsor" instead of "philanthropist", "patron", "trustee"

"series" instead of "serial film"

"rotation" instead of "by-election"

"exclusive" instead of "exceptional";

the use of archaisms and historicisms - words and expressions that are out of use, obsolete, for example:

not “with this we direct”, but “we direct”

not "signified" ("the above"), but "named"

not "above-named", but "specified" ("named")

not “this year”, but “this year” (“ current year»)

not "hereby we inform", but "we inform"

not "this act is drawn up", but "the act is drawn up".

7.3.3. Incorrect use of prepositions

Mistakes of this kind include the incorrect use of the prepositions PO, B, C, THANK YOU, and some others.

Constructions with and without the preposition PO differ in stylistic coloring: constructions without a preposition are common, with a preposition they are typical for business speech, for example:

improvement measures

breeding experiments

preventive measures -

processing complex

repair costs

training center.

At the same time, it is not allowed to use the preposition PO instead of the preposition O (OB), if we are talking about a specific topic, the content of a conversation, conversation, speech, for example:

progress report

negotiations for a new deal.

The preposition PO cannot indicate the purpose of the action and should not be used instead of the preposition FOR, for example:

Not properly: “A lot has been done in the region to improve trade”

Correctly: "A lot has been done in the region to improve trade."

The preposition PO should not be used instead of the preposition BECAUSE, if such a reason is indicated that is associated with the behavior, actions of someone, for example:

Not properly: "Machines do not work due to administration's negligence"

Correctly: "The machines do not work due to the administration's indiscipline."

The exceptions are the expressions: "by inattention", "by negligence".

Constructions with and without the preposition С and without it are practically synonymous, but phrases with the preposition С are more characteristic of colloquial speech, without it - to other styles, cf .:

"staffing difficulties" and "staffing difficulties".

The preposition B is obligatory in cases where the phrase refers to volume, size, quantity, for example: at an angle of 40 degrees, 80 meters high, 10-15 meters in size, a team of 20 people.

Similar phrases, but without a preposition, are characteristic of other styles of the language.

The preposition THANKS can be used only in those cases when it comes to positive changes; in case of negative negative consequences only the preposition BECAUSE is possible, for example:

“Thanks to the high qualification of specialists, the task was solved at a high technical level.”

But: “Because of the low quality construction works It will take a significant amount of time to troubleshoot."

Some prepositions can be used synonymously, for example, IN and ON, ON and FOR, IN and FOR, etc. When choosing a preposition, you should be guided by its meaning and what exactly needs to be emphasized in the message, for example:

elevator ride elevator ride

(the preposition B indicates (the preposition NA indicates

location inside) type of lifting device)

send for treatment send for treatment

(the preposition TO indicates (the preposition FOR indicates

direction) goal)

in recent times recently

(preposition B means - “on (preposition FOR means “rejected-

throughout the entire segment, the time zone taken by the target is

time") com")

for the purpose for the purpose

(preposition B means general (preposition C is able to concret-

target orientation) typify, clarify the goal)

Difficult cases of preposition-noun agreement due to not knowing which case the preposition governs can only be cleared up with the help of a dictionary, for example:

Right wrong:

according to order according to order

according to your request according to your request

according to the decision according to the decision, etc.

7.3.4. Usage errors

numerals

When using numerals in the texts of documents, remember:

all numerals are written in numbers, with the exception of financial documents, where, along with a digital record, a verbal interpretation is given;

collective numerals are replaced by quantitative ones: not “five employees”, but “5 employees”.

7.3.5. Syntax errors

Syntax errors are associated with a violation of the structure of the sentence.

The place of the subordinate clause in the main clause depends on which member of the main clause it explains:

if subordinate clause explains any word of the main one, it, as a rule, follows immediately after this word;

if the subordinate clause refers to the entire main clause or to the group of the predicate, then it is placed before the main one if the circumstances of the action are emphasized, or after the main one if it explains the main idea of ​​the sentence.

Instead of: "Buildings, structures, equipment and the adjacent territory of the mortar unit, which are in the use of US-2, please transfer to the OKS"

It is not allowed to combine participial and adverbial phrases with subordinate clauses as homogeneous members of a sentence, for example:

Not properly: “Given that the project on Pushkinskaya Square is one of the first major projects financed by the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, we ask you to consider providing some benefits to the Turkish and Russian partners implementing this project”

Correctly: "Given that the project on Pushkin Square is one of the first major projects funded by the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, we ask you to consider providing some benefits to the Turkish and Russian partners implementing this project."

Not properly: "Aimed at experimental tests a sample of the KU-200 product, which was developed by our institute, was highly appreciated"

Correctly: "The sample of the KU-200 product, developed by our institute, sent for experimental testing, was highly appreciated."

When using participial phrases, it should be remembered that the participle must always be associated with a noun denoting actor- the subject of the action, and in no case - with the object.

Not properly: "Speaking of the city, it is developing normally"

Correctly: "Speaking about the city, I think that it is developing normally."

Not properly: "Assessing the results of the department's work, it has a high percentage of implemented developments"

Correctly: "Assessing the results of the work of the department, we note a high percentage of implemented developments."

7.4. Business communication etiquette

Etiquette is a set port to conduct anywhere. Business etiquette is the order of conduct established in the field of business communication.

Business etiquette is based on:

polite and respectful attitude towards a business partner;

observance of a certain distance between employees occupying different official positions;

the ability to make decisions and the ability to implement them;

honesty in business relations;

the ability to say “yes” and “no” without offending a partner and without hurting his pride;

tolerance for other people's opinions that do not coincide with yours;

the ability to admit one's mistakes, to be self-critical;

the ability to use arguments in a dispute, not authorities.

Because the business conversation- this is in most cases communication through documents, business etiquette manifests itself in the form and content of documents and, above all, in the formulas of appeal, expressions of requests, refusals, claims, methods of argumentation, formulation of instructions, etc.

An appeal is an appeal to the identity of the addressee. The task of the appeal is to establish contact with the addressee, to attract his attention, to interest him.

The appeal was traditionally used in letters of a semi-official nature and letters of invitation addressed to specific individuals (well-known specialists, scientists, cultural figures, deputies, etc.) or a group of people related by the nature of their activities. Appeal - required element commercial correspondence. Recently, the appeal is often used in official correspondence, if the situation requires you to contact the official directly.

When addressing the addressee, his official position, field of activity and some other aspects are taken into account.

The most general conversion formula, which can be used regardless of the factors listed, is:

“Dear Sir ... (surname)!”

“Dear Madam ... (surname)!”

"Dear Sirs!"

When addressing officials of higher and central bodies of state power and administration, presidents (chairmen) of societies, companies, firms, it is possible to address with an indication of the position and without a surname, for example:

"Dear Mr. President!"

"Dear Mr. Chairman!"

"Dear Mr. Mayor!"

"Dear Mr. Minister!"

In invitation letters, notices, it is allowed to address by name and patronymic:

"Dear Igor Konstantinovich!"

When addressing persons of the same professional circle, it is possible to address:

"Dear colleagues!"

The rules of etiquette require: if the text of the document begins with a formula for a personal appeal to the addressee, then at the end of the text, before the signature, there should be the final form of courtesy "With respect, ...".

Since business communication is official in nature and its participants are officials and employees acting on behalf of organizations when formulating requests, inquiries, suggestions, opinions, etc. the form of expression from the first person plural is adopted:

“We bring to your attention a collection of shoes for the season “Spring-Summer-1998” ...

“We present for consideration and approval the draft General Scheme ...”

“We remind you that the deadline for fulfilling the contract dated 10.06.97 No. 18/45

expires..."

“Please inform about the possibility of purchasing a batch of goods ...”

First person formula singular“I ask”, “I offer”, “I invite” is used in letters of confidential content, as well as in documents drawn up on letterheads of officials.

Of great importance is the observance of the norms of business etiquette in the conduct of correspondence.

The first and basic rule of correspondence - do not delay the answer, do not make your correspondent wait. If circumstances develop in such a way that you cannot give an answer within the prescribed time, inform the addressee about this, as well as when you can give a final answer. Sorry for the delay. It would not be superfluous to indicate its objective reason.

Be sincere with your business partner and trust him. Do not write unnecessary letters, do not stoop to “unsubscribes”. Each letter, no matter what issue it may concern, should be as informative as possible (but not wordy).

When preparing a response, be attentive to the design of the addressee’s visit: if the received letter was signed by the head, the answer must be addressed to him, if the deputy head, answer him.

If you were waiting for an answer and it is important to you, in the next letter to your partner, thank him for the answer.

If you are approached with a request that you do not fulfill. you can, explain your refusal, think about what you can offer in return, maybe you will recommend applying to another institution or to you, but later.

A manifestation of etiquette is the use of introductory (appeal) and final politeness formulas.

Eliminate false politeness. Fanciful expressions such as: "Be so kind" or "Do not refuse the courtesy to inform" and others are inappropriate in business letters.

Eliminate the pronouns “I” and “he” from the text of the official letter, replace them with “we” and “You” and remember that passive constructions are preferable to real ones:

not “we will do it”, but “we will do it”

not “You offer”, but “You offered”.

If you are forced to remind your partner of the need to fulfill your obligations, formulate a reminder or complaint calmly and clearly, without harsh expressions, for example:

“According to the Agreement No. _ dated __, your company has assumed obligations to unload wagons with coal coming to our address. However, in January of this year, you delayed the unloading of 47 wagons, as a result of which there was a threat to stop the HPP.”

Literature for Chapter 7

1. Valgina N.S., Svetlysheva V.N. Spelling and Punctuation: A Handbook. - M.; graduate School, 1993.

2. Veselov P.V. Modern business writing in the industry. - M.; Standards Publishing House, 1990.

3. Veselov P.V. Axioms of business writing. - M.; Information and implementation center "Marketing", 1993.

4. Gromova N.M. Fundamentals of business correspondence. - M.; RUSSLIT, 1992.

5. Gromova N.M., Deeva T.M., Krichatova E.V. etc. Your foreign partner (Correspondence, documentation, contracts). - M.; Techno-ecology, 1992.

6. Business correspondence with foreign firms: A practical guide. - M.; Image, 1991.

7. Rakhmanin L.V. Stylistics of business speech and editing official documents. 3rd ed. - M.; High School, 1988.

8. Rosenthal D.E., Telenkova M.A. Dictionary of the difficulties of the Russian language. 6th ed. - M.; Russian language, 1987.

9. Dictionary of abbreviations and abbreviations. - M., 1995.

10. Dictionary of abbreviations of the Russian language / Ed. D.I. Alekseeva. 4th ed. Stereotype. - M.; Russian language, 1984.

Series List of textbooks

... Highereducation). 81. Burmistrova L.M. Finance organizations(enterprises): Proc. allowance.- M.: INFRA-M, 2009.- 240 p.- ( Highereducation... - M. : INFRA-M, 2009. - 640 p. Series: (Highereducation). 70. Treushnikov M.K. Civil process: theory...

The word is the most important unit of language, the most diverse and voluminous. It is the word that reflects all the changes taking place in the life of society. The word not only names an object or phenomenon, but also performs an emotionally expressive function.

And when choosing words, we must pay attention to their meaning, stylistic coloring, usage, compatibility with other words. Since the violation of at least one of these criteria can lead to a speech error.

The main causes of speech errors:

1. Misunderstanding the meaning of the word
2. Lexical compatibility
3. Use of synonyms
4. Use of homonyms
5. The use of ambiguous words
6. Verbosity
7. Lexical incompleteness of the statement
8. New words
9. obsolete words
10. Words of foreign origin
11. Dialectisms
12. Colloquial and colloquial words
13. Professional jargon
14. Phraseologisms
15. Cliches and stamps

1. Misunderstanding the meaning of the word.

1.1. The use of a word in an unusual sense.

Example: The fire got hotter and hotter and hotter. The error lies in the wrong choice of the word:

Get hot - 1. Warm up to very high temperature, get hot. 2. (transl.) To become very excited, to become overcome by some strong feeling.

To flare up - to start strongly or well, to burn evenly.

1.2. The use of significant and functional words without regard to their semantics.

Example: Thanks to the fire that broke out from the fire, a large area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe forest burned down.

In modern Russian, the preposition thanks retains a certain semantic connection with the verb thank and is usually used only in those cases when it refers to the reasons that cause the desired result: thanks to someone's help, support. The error occurs in connection with the semantic distraction of the preposition from the original verb thank. In this sentence, the preposition thanks should be replaced with one of the following: because of, as a result, as a result.

1.3. The choice of words-concepts with different bases of division (concrete and abstract vocabulary).

Example: We offer a complete cure for alcoholics and other diseases.

If we are talking about diseases, then the word alcoholics should be replaced by alcoholism. An alcoholic is someone who suffers from alcoholism. Alcoholism is a painful addiction to the use of alcoholic beverages.

1.4. Incorrect use of paronyms.

Example: The man leads a festive life. I'm in an idle mood today.

Idle and festive - very similar words, single root. But they have different meanings: festive - an adjective for a holiday (festive dinner, festive mood); idle - not filled, not busy with work, work (idle life). To restore the meaning of the statements in the example, you need to swap the words.

2. Lexical compatibility.

When choosing a word, one should take into account not only the meaning that it has in the literary language, but also lexical compatibility. Not all words can be combined with each other. The boundaries of lexical compatibility are determined by the semantics of words, their stylistic affiliation, emotional coloring, grammatical properties, etc.

Example: good leader should show an example to his subordinates in everything. You can show an example, but not a sample. And a model can be, for example, to follow.

Example: Their strong, tempered in life trials friendship was noticed by many. The word friendship is combined with the adjective strong - strong friendship.

Distinguish from a speech error should be a deliberate combination of seemingly incompatible words: a living corpse, ordinary miracle... In this case, we have one of the types of paths - an oxymoron.

In difficult cases, when it is difficult to determine whether certain words can be used together, it is necessary to use a compatibility dictionary

3. The use of synonyms.

Synonyms enrich the language, make our speech figurative. Synonyms may have different functional and stylistic coloring. So, the words mistake, miscalculation, oversight, error are stylistically neutral, commonly used; a hole, an overlay - colloquial; slip - colloquial; blooper - professional slang. The use of one of the synonyms without taking into account its stylistic coloring can lead to a speech error.

Example: Having made a mistake, the director of the plant immediately began to correct it.

When using synonyms, the ability of each of them to be more or less selectively combined with other words is often not taken into account.

Differing in shades of lexical meaning, synonyms can express a different degree of manifestation of a sign, action. But, even denoting the same thing, interchangeable in some cases, in others, synonyms cannot be replaced - this leads to a speech error.

Example: Yesterday I was sad. A synonym for sad is quite suitable here: Yesterday I was sad. But in two-part sentences, these synonyms are interchanged. Sadly, I look at our generation ...

4. The use of homonyms.

Due to the context, homonyms are usually understood correctly. But still, in certain speech situations, homonyms cannot be understood unambiguously.

Example: The crew is in excellent condition. Is the crew a wagon or a team? The word crew itself is used correctly. But to reveal the meaning of this word, it is necessary to expand the context.

Very often, the use in speech (especially oral) of homophones (sounding the same, but spelled differently) and homoforms (words that match in sound and spelling in separate forms) often leads to ambiguity. So, when choosing words for a phrase, we must also pay attention to the context, which in some speech situations is designed to reveal the meaning of the words.

5. The use of polysemantic words.

When including polysemantic words in our speech, we must be very careful, we must monitor whether it is clear exactly the meaning that we wanted to reveal in this speech situation. When using polysemantic words (as well as when using homonyms), context is very important. It is thanks to the context that one or another meaning of the word is clear. And if the context meets its requirements (a segment of speech that is semantically complete, allowing you to establish the meanings of the words or phrases included in it), then each word in the sentence is understandable. But it happens otherwise.

Example: He's already cracked up. It is not clear: or he began to sing, got carried away; or, after singing for a while, he began to sing freely, easily.

6. Verbosity.

There are the following types of verbosity:

6.1. Pleonasm (from the Greek pleonasmos - excess, excess) - the use in speech of words that are close in meaning and therefore logically redundant.

Example: All guests received souvenirs. A souvenir is a keepsake, so memorable in this sentence is an extra word. A variety of pleonasms are expressions such as very huge, very tiny, very beautiful, etc. Adjectives denoting a feature in its extremely strong or extremely weak manifestation do not need to specify the degree of the feature.

6.2. Use of extra words. Superfluous, not because the lexical meaning inherent in them is expressed in other words, but because they are simply not needed in this text.

Example: Then the Druzhba bookstore will take care of that on April 11 so that you can smile.

6.3. Tautology (from the Greek. tauto - the same logos - word) - the repetition of single-root words or identical morphemes. Not only students' writings, but also newspapers and magazines are full of tautological errors.

Example: Business leaders are in a businesslike mood.

6.4. Splitting the predicate. This is a replacement of the verbal predicate with a synonymous verb-nominal combination: fight - fight, clean up - clean up.

Example: The students decided to clean up the school yard. Perhaps, in an official business style, such expressions are appropriate, but in a speech situation it is better: The students decided to clean up the school yard.

Example: In small cheap cafes, you know, where people from their neighborhood go, there are usually no empty seats.

7. Lexical incompleteness of the statement.

This error is the opposite of verbosity. The incompleteness of the statement consists in the omission of the necessary word in the sentence.

Example: The advantage of Kuprin is that there is nothing superfluous. Kuprin may not have anything superfluous, but this sentence lacks (and not even one) word. Or: "... do not allow on the pages of the press and television statements that can incite ethnic hatred." So it turns out - "page of television".

When choosing a word, it is necessary to take into account not only its semantics, lexical, stylistic and logical compatibility, but also the scope of distribution. The use of words that have a limited scope (lexical neoplasms, obsolete words, words of foreign origin, professionalism, jargon, dialectisms) should always be motivated by the conditions of the context.

8. New words.

Unsuccessfully formed neologisms are speech errors. Example: And last year, 23 thousand rubles were spent on patching after the spring thaw. And only the context helps to understand: “patching” is the repair of pits.

9. Obsolete words.

Archaisms - words that name existing realities, but for some reason forced out of active use by synonymous lexical units - must correspond to the style of the text, otherwise they are completely inappropriate.

Example: Now the university had an open day. Here the obsolete word now (today, now, at the present time) is completely inappropriate.

Among the words that have fallen out of active use, historicisms also stand out. Historicisms are words that have fallen out of use due to the disappearance of the concepts they denoted: armyak, camisole, bursa, oprichnik, etc. Errors in the use of historicisms are often associated with ignorance of their lexical meaning.

Example: The peasants can not stand their hard life and go to the chief governor of the city. Governor - the head of some area (for example, a province in tsarist Russia, a state in the US). Therefore, the chief governor is an absurdity, besides, there could be only one governor in the province, and his assistant was called the vice-governor.

10. Words of foreign origin.

Now many people are addicted to foreign words, sometimes not even knowing their exact meaning. Sometimes the context does not accept a foreign word.

Example: The work of the conference is limited due to the lack of leading experts. Limit - to set a limit on something, to limit. foreign word limit in this sentence should be replaced by the words: goes slower, paused, etc.

11. Dialectisms.

Dialectisms are words or set combinations that are not included in the lexical system of the literary language and belong to one or more dialects of the Russian national language. Dialectisms are justified in artistic or journalistic speech to create the speech characteristics of the characters. The unmotivated use of dialectisms indicates a lack of knowledge of the norms of the literary language.

Example: A shaberka came to me and sat the whole evening. Shaberka is a neighbor. The use of dialectism in this sentence is not justified either by the style of the text or by the purpose of the utterance.

12. Colloquial and colloquial words.

Spoken words are included in the lexical system of the literary language, but are used mainly in oral speech, mainly in the field of everyday communication. Vernacular is a word, grammatical form or turn of predominantly oral speech, used in the literary language, usually for the purpose of a reduced, rough characterization of the subject of speech, as well as simple, relaxed speech containing such words, forms and turns. Colloquial and colloquial vocabulary, in contrast to dialect (regional), is used in the speech of the whole people.

Example: I have a very thin coat. Thin (colloquial) - full of holes, spoiled (thin boot). Errors occur when the use of colloquial and colloquial words is not motivated by the context.

13. Professional jargon.

Professionalisms act as colloquial equivalents of terms accepted in a certain professional group: a typo - a blunder in the speech of journalists; steering wheel - in the speech of drivers, the steering wheel.

But the unmotivated transfer of professionalism into general literary speech is undesirable. Such professionalisms as sewing, tailoring, hearing and others spoil literary speech.

In terms of the limited use and nature of expression (joking, reduced, etc.), professionalisms are similar to jargon and are integral part jargons - peculiar social dialects characteristic of professional or age groups of people (jargons of athletes, sailors, hunters, students, schoolchildren). Jargon is everyday vocabulary and phraseology, endowed with reduced expression and characterized by socially limited use.

Example: I wanted to invite guests to the holiday, but the hut does not allow it. Hibara - home.

14. Phraseologisms.

It must be remembered that phraseological units always have figurative meaning. Decorating our speech, making it more lively, figurative, bright, beautiful, phraseological units give us a lot of trouble - if they are used incorrectly, speech errors appear.

14.1. Mistakes in mastering the meaning of phraseological units.

1. There is a danger of a literal understanding of phraseological units, which can be perceived as free combinations of words.
2. Errors may be associated with a change in the meaning of a phraseological unit.

Example: Khlestakov throws pearls all the time in front of pigs, and everyone believes him. Here, the phraseological unit throwing pearls in front of pigs, which means “it’s in vain to talk about something or prove something to someone who is not able to understand it,” is used incorrectly - in the meaning of “invent, weave fables.”

14.2. Errors in mastering the form of phraseological unit.

• Grammatical modification of a phraseological unit.

Example: I'm used to giving myself full reports. Here the form of the number has been changed. There is a phraseological unit to give an account.

Example: He always sits with his arms folded. Phraseologisms such as folded arms, headlong, headlong retain in their composition the old form of the perfect participle with the suffix -а (-я).

Some phraseological units use short forms adjectives, replacing them full forms wrong.

• Lexical modification of a phraseological unit.

Example: It's time for you to take control of your mind. Most of phraseological units is impenetrable: it is impossible to introduce an additional unit into the phraseological unit.

Example: Well, at least hit the wall! The omission of a phraseological unit component is also a speech error.

Example: Everything returns to its own spiral! .. There is a phraseological unit in full circle. Word substitution is not allowed.

14.3. Changing the lexical compatibility of a phraseological unit.

Example: These and other questions are big role in the development of this still young science. There was a mixture of two stable revolutions: plays a role and matters. You can say this: questions have great importance... or questions play a big role.

15. Cliches and stamps.

Chancery - words and expressions, the use of which is assigned to the official business style, but in other styles of speech they are inappropriate, they are clichés.

Example: There is a lack of spare parts.

Stamps are hackneyed expressions with a faded lexical meaning and erased expressiveness. Stamps are words, phrases and even whole sentences that appear as new, stylistically expressive speech means, but as a result of too frequent use, they lose their original imagery.

A variety of stamps are universal words. These are words that are used in the most general and vague meanings: question, task, raise, provide, etc. Usually, universal words are accompanied by stencil appendages: work is everyday, level is high, support is hot. There are numerous journalistic cliches (field workers, a city on the Volga), literary criticism (an exciting image, angry protest).

Cliches - speech stereotypes, ready-made turns used as a standard that is easily reproduced in certain conditions and contexts - are constructive units of speech and, despite frequent use, retain their semantics. Cliches are used in official business documents (summit); in scientific literature(required to prove); in journalism (our own correspondent reports from); in different situations colloquial speech (Hello! Goodbye! Who is the last one?).

§ 7. Speech errors associated with ignorance of the meaning of the word

The semantic accuracy of speech is one of the main conditions that ensure the practical and often legal value of a business text. An incorrectly chosen word can distort the meaning of the message, create an opportunity to interpret this or that phrase in two ways, and finally, give the text an undesirable tone. All this makes it difficult to understand the content of the document.

Indistinguishing paronyms. Paronyms are similar-sounding single-root words that differ in meaning: inhale - take a breath, warranty ■-guaranteed, place - place.

Compare words seconded and business trip. Word seconded derived from the verb send and has the meaning ‘a person sent on a business trip on a business trip’: Seconded cadets are provided with a hostel ...(Nick.); I settled in a small cozy house for business travelers(Paust.). Word business trip derived from a noun business trip and denotes objects, things, circumstances associated with this concept: travel permit, get travel allowance. In oral speech, the word business trip sometimes misused instead of a word seconded: In the Collective Farmer's House, a quick, city-dressed man looked at her ID and said: - Nadia, spend a business trip(Nick.). Such, erroneous from the point of view of strictly standardized literary speech, the use of the word business trip can be observed in business texts: Servicemen, invalids of the Great Patriotic War, business travelers(should: business travelers) tickets are provided out of the general queue.

Compare the use of polysemantic verbs present and provide:

introduce -1) present, report:provide a list of employees, provide evidence; 2) introduce someone to:introduce a new employee to the team, 3) apply (for a promotion, for an award):submit to next rank, submit to the order, 4) compose, discover:be of considerable value, 5) mentally imagine:imagine (oneself) a picture battle; 6) depict, show:present in a funny way.For example:Applications for sports equipment must be submitted to the factory committee.

provide- 1) give at someone's disposal, use:provide an apartment, provide vehicles-, 2) to give the right, the opportunity to do, to carry out something:provide

leave, give the floor, give the post", 3) allow to act independently or leave unattended:leave it to yourself, leave it to chance. For example:Kolkhozes and state farms of the region will receive additional credits.

Obviously the verbs introduce and provide one should not be used instead of the other.

In some cases, paronyms can converge in meaning and be used as synonyms: conduct / produce experience, learn / master the material. It should be borne in mind that the words that form such synonymous pairs always differ both in their lexical compatibility and in shades of meaning; compare: having a lesson - make noise, learn a lesson - master production.

The same correlation of lexical compatibility and significance can be observed, for example, when using verbs place and place. There is a common component in their meaning - ‘give a place, place in a certain place’, therefore these verbs can be used as synonyms: place/accommodate business travelers in a hotel In this context, semantic differences between verbs are of little importance. However, in cases where verbs place and place combined with other words, these differences appear very clearly. Word place can be used in relation to one object, person, or to many: place the student/students in the hostel. Verb place in a similar context means ‘to give everyone their place’ and therefore can only be used in relation to many objects, persons: place pictures on the walls.

Paronyms can differ not only in shades of meaning, but also in ways of grammatical connection with other words. Consider the synonymic series pay - pay - pay‘pay a fee’. On the one hand, unlike verbs pay, pay word pay is used only when it comes to monetary (material) reimbursement of some preliminary expenses (credit, the cost of something): pay the bill<полученный инвентарь>. On the other hand, unlike verbs pay, pay word pay doesn't need a suggestion per. It governs a noun in the accusative form without a preposition, pay for construction <business trip>.

Paronyms may differ in stylistic coloring, cf .: tourist - tourist, ocean - oceanic. As a rule, in this case of the use of paronyms, we observe differences either in their compatibility with other words, or in the shades of meaning that appear when words are combined. Wed: tourist/tourist package, ocean/ocean currents, but on tourist(not tourist) trails, ocean(not oceanic) expanses; forms tourist, oceanic are more common in special (business, scientific) speech and therefore have a stylistic coloring of bookishness. The confusion of paronyms is one of the most gross violations of the norms of literary speech.

Errors in the use of synonyms. Synonyms are words with the same or very close meaning: future - coming, raise - raise, build - build, hasten - hurry. Synonyms are very rarely completely identical to one another. As a rule, they differ in shades of meaning, lexical compatibility or stylistic coloring. Wed: mind‘disagreeing with smth., give your own arguments’; contradict‘assert something opposite, often without sufficient justification’; contradict‘to speak in defiance, and mainly out of stubbornness, a feeling of irritation’; in the same series of synonyms and the verb rebuke(outdated).

Inattention to the shades of the meanings of synonyms, ignorance of the traditional norms of lexical compatibility can lead to a semantic error. Compare synonymous verbs build and erect. Verb build can be used in any context and in combination with any noun when it comes to the construction, construction, construction of something: build a reservoir FROM car >. Verb erect(according to the meaning of the prefix WHO-) can only be used in relation to something that rises above something, rises up: erect a building<.стёны>. When using the verb erect it is also necessary to take into account the fact that it is not customary to combine it with nouns that name buildings for official or everyday use. Not properly: erect(should: build) barn< stable, bath etc.>.

Synonymous words defect, deficiency, defect indicate the imperfection of something, but the conditions for their use are not the same. Word defect usually used only in relation to technical products: design defects. The words flaw, deficiencycan refer both to what is created by nature, and to the processes or results of social activity:Flaws in the team's training were revealed at the very first competition; The lack of binding components is caused by deficiencies in the course of the enzymatic interaction.

Errors in the use of synonyms often occur because a polysemantic word can be synonymous with another in only one of its meanings. For example, the word typical for business texts request in one of the meanings is synonymous with the word requirement(required in plural form): customer requests/requirements. At the same time, it does not have the inherent word requirements meanings ‘norm, the order in which someone-sth. must match': university entrance requirements<.к качеству то- варов>. Word requests synonymous with interests in the context spiritual < cultural > requests(= interests). However, it does not mean ‘what is good is for the benefit of someone-sth.’. Not properly: Personal requests(should: interests) should be harmoniously combined with the public. Finally, the word request as ‘an official appeal demanding to give some smth. information’ is not synonymous with the word question, although some components of their meaning (the moment one person turns to another, the desire to receive an answer) coincide. Not properly: Members of the trade union committee gave detailed answers to inquiries(should: questions) about the construction of a new house.

Pleonasms and tautology. Pleonasm (from gr. peopathosis- overabundance) is called a partial coincidence of the meanings of the words that form the phrase: memorable souvenir (souvenir‘remembrance gift’) advanced avant-garde (avant-garde‘those who are ahead’), joint cooperation (collaboration‘joint problem solving, teamwork’). Pleonastic turns of speech like Hot work is in full swing in the fields; We need to mutually help each other.

The presence of pleonasms in the text is usually considered as speech impediment, the inability to express thoughts accurately and concisely. Indeed, when we speak in April, then why add month? when we talk 150 rubles, does it need to be explained of money(or cash)? Nevertheless, more than one case can be pointed out when the assessment of the correctness or incorrectness of word usage requires caution.

Under the conditions of a certain style of speech, constant contextual lexical compatibility, for example, in official texts, pleonasm can take the form of a stable, phraseologically related phrase: Fully and completely recognize the right of the people to ...; Fully and completely share the feelings ... . Such stable turns of speech do not resist repetitions such as strongly, strongly, strongly, firmly, perform the same expressive-amplifying function, although in relation to a different style of speech. Their use should not be classified as a violation of the stylistic norm of literary speech. Pleonastic terminological phrases like Announcement(any message contains information).

Finally, phrases that are typical pleonasms can change in speech in such a way that the criteria for assessing their correctness or incorrectness also change. Not properly: price list (price list‘price list’), however expressions like retail price list, local price list, within which the concept of price is concretized and takes the form of a detailed phrase. Not properly: own autobiography (autobiography‘description of one’s own life’), however, in certain contexts, the use of this phrase is quite justified: publish your(not another person) autobiography.

A violation of the norms of literary correctness and culture of speech is also tautology - semantic repetitions that occur in cases where the same root words are adjacent in a sentence: The benefits of using mounted units ... ; Consider the following facts... ; This phenomenon is fully manifested in the conditions ... . Tautological repetitions make the phrase dissonant. In addition, they make it difficult to perceive, because they attract special attention to themselves.

The use of homonyms. Homonyms are words that sound the same but differ in meaning: onion'weapon' and onion'plant'; marriage‘marriage’ and marriage‘defect, defect, shortcoming’. In works of fiction and journalism, homonyms are sometimes used as a means of representation. Here is how, for example, the word is played passage in one of the newspaper articles: Let's go to the largest Sverdlovsk store TSUM, or « Passage», as it has long been called the Sverdlovsk. Unexpected passages are really at every turn here. In business texts, such use of homonyms practically does not occur, although it is possible under special conditions (for example, in a speech, if necessary, express your assessment without resorting to the usual wording, etc.).

Some speech errors may also be associated with the phenomenon of homonymy. The most common of them is the use of homonyms (as well as polysemantic words, in which the connection between individual meanings is not clearly felt) in contexts that allow dual understanding.

The possibility of a double understanding of the phrase is sometimes observed when using reflexive verbs. For example: After the examination, patients are sent for treatment at the place of residence.- in this context, the meaning of the verb is not quite clear sent(someone sends the sick or they go, they go); It's easy to fix this error: After examination, patients are sent for treatment ...(this value is more likely).