Report on Old Russian Literature 9. What is Old Russian Literature

Academic science uses periodization ancient Russian literature based on the historical principle, starting from the 11th century:

• Literature Kievan Rus(XI - the first third of the XIII century)
• Literature of the Period of Fragmentation and the Tatar-Mongol Yoke (second third of the 13th–14th centuries)
• Literature from the times of the unification of the northeastern principalities into a single Muscovite state (end of the 14th - beginning of the 15th century)
• Literature of the centralized Russian state (late 15th–16th centuries)
• Literature of the stage of the formation of the Russian nation (XVI-XVII centuries)

The stages in this periodization were the most important historical events, such as

• Tatar-Mongol invasion in 1237-1240,
• occurrence specific principalities in the post-space of Kievan Rus,
• unification of northeastern lands,
• the rise of Moscow and the creation of the Muscovite state, its further flourishing and the separation of the Russian nation.

But historians of literature differ on this point. All existing periodizations are similar, but at the same time they differ. The number of stages varies from 4 to 7. There were attempts by D.I. Chizhevsky, D.S. Likhachev, G.K. Wagner to identify periods in ancient Russian literature based on the style of eras. But to consensus the scientists never came.

Literature of Kievan Rus (XI - the first third of the XIII century)

The literature of this period, which arose with the introduction of Christianity in Russia, is closely connected with the church. Monks were the first chroniclers Sophia Cathedral and the Kiev Caves Monastery.

The Tale of Bygone Years is the oldest written source of that time. It consists of chronicle materials written and rewritten by several authors of the 10th-11th centuries. The Tale of Bygone Years came in the form of the Lavrentiev, Ipatiev and Radziwill lists created in the following centuries. The annals set out in chronological order the main events in the state and in the world, described the dynasties of princes, armed campaigns, biblical stories, used stories and legends from folklore and Holy Scripture. The history of Kievan Rus is interpreted by many according to this source.

Other examples of literature from this period were:

• oratorical prose "The Word of Law and Grace" (1037 - 1050 of the 11th century) by Illarion,
• set of legal rules "Russian Truth" (1019-1054) Yaroslav the Wise,
• biography "The Tale of Boris and Gleb" (mid-11th century) by an unknown author,
• pedagogical prose "Teaching children" by Vladimir Monomakh,
• a sample of pilgrimage records "Walk of Abbot Daniel",
• "Prayer" by Daniil Zatochnik (1213 - 1236),
• philosophical reflections "The Parable of the Human Soul" by Cyril of Turov (end of the 12th century).

In 2000, Novgorod archaeologists found three waxed wooden boards with scratched letters. This find was called the Novgorod Code and is dated no later than the 1st quarter of the 11th century. Psalms are written on the tablets, but older texts are “hidden” under the wax. Scientists have yet to unravel this riddle, like the riddle of the Book of Veles.

Literature of the fragmentation period (mid-13th-14th centuries)

In the period of the absence of a single center, the annals in the individual principalities were kept in their own way. Kyiv, Novgorod and Pskov chronicle collections have come down to us. The legendary "Tale of Igor's Campaign" (circa 1185) became the apogee of the development of literature during the fragmentation period. Written in figurative language, which absorbed folk beliefs, The Tale of Igor's Campaign told about the campaign of the Russian princes in 1185 against the Polovtsy, which ended in failure. The word is imbued with patriotism and the desire to unite the scattered Russian lands.

There is such a genre as a military story:

• "Tale of the murder in the Horde of Mikhail of Chernigov and his boyar Fedor",
• "The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu".

Both in the “Word about the destruction of the Russian land” and in “The Life of Alexander Nevsky”, written after the death of the Grand Duke, the greatness and power of the Russian land, the courage and glory of Russian soldiers are sung.

Literature from the times of the unification of the northeastern principalities into a single Muscovite state (end of the 14th - beginning of the 15th century)

Expressive-emotional style and themes dominate in literature. After the Tatar-Mongolian period in many big cities chronicle writing is revived, works of a historical nature and panegyric hagiography appear. On the wave of admiration from the victory in the Battle of Kulikovo, military stories “The Legend of the Battle of Mamaev” and “Zadonshchina” arise.

Literature of the centralized Russian state (late 15th–16th centuries)

Translated literature, journalism, and historical prose are developing.

Fiction (secular narrative literature translated from other languages) also spread during this period:

• "The Tale of Dracula"

• "The Tale of Basarga".

Literature of the stage of the formation of the Russian nation (XVI-XVII centuries)

During this period dominated traditional forms, there is an official influence on literature from the rulers, individual styles are suppressed.

• "The Life of Archpriest Avvakum", written by himself,
• "The Tale of Peter and Fevronia of Murom" Yermolai-Erasmus,
• a collection of spiritual rules and instructions "Domostroy", attributed to the priest of the Annunciation Cathedral Sylvester,
• collection of religious content "Great Cheti-Minei",
• travel records of ambassadors "Trifon Korobeinikov's journey to Tsargrad"

and “The Tale of the Repose and Burial of M.V. Skopin-Shuisky” are the brightest works of that time.

During this period, the transition to new literature took place, the basis of which was the professionalism of each individual author, his personal perception of reality, protests and preferences.

1. Literature of the period of Kievan Rus (XI-XII centuries)

This is the literature of a single ancient Russian people. The literature of this period is also called the literature of Kievan Rus. The Kievan state was one of the most advanced states of its time. The Russian land was famous for its rich cities. In the XII century. it had more than 200 cities. Kyiv, Novgorod, Chernigov, Smolensk belonged to the number of the most ancient Russian cities.

In Kyiv and other Russian cities from the end of the 11th century in Kyiv, the sister of Prince Yaroslav, Anna, established a women's school, the first in Europe. Literature of the XI-XII centuries. was the basis on which the subsequent development of the literatures of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus took place. The main monuments of this period are associated with Kyiv. Here the most important genres of literature are created: chronicle, historical story, life, word.

2. Literature of the period of feudal fragmentation and unification of North-Eastern Russia (XII-XV centuries)

The process of feudal fragmentation led to the disintegration of Kievan Rus and the formation of new political and cultural centers: Vladimir, Moscow, Novgorod, Tver principalities. Literature develops in each of them separately. But during the period of the struggle against the Tatar-Mongols, literature called for the unification of all forces to fight against the enemies. The most significant literary monuments of this period are “The Prayer of Daniel the Sharpener”, “The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu”, “Zadonshchina”, “Journey Beyond the Three Seas”, “The Tale of Peter and Fevronia”.

3. Literature of the period of the centralized Russian state (XVI-XVII centuries)

During this period, the literature of the emerging Russian nation was created. The ecclesiastical worldview is giving way to a secular one, and a more mass democratic readership is emerging. Literary genres are becoming more democratic both in form and content. Artistic fiction arises, which until the 17th century. was not in the literature. Literature of the 17th century was mainly journalistic in nature, reflecting the ideological positions of the warring parties (Correspondence of Tsar Ivan the Terrible with Prince Andrei Kurbsky). The literature of this period is characterized by the development of the story, presented in its various genre exploits: hagiographic (“The Tale of Yuliana Lazarevskaya”), historical (“The Tale of the Azov Siege of the Don Cossacks”), everyday life (“The Tale of Woe and Misfortune”), satirical (“The Tale of the Shemyakin Court”, “The Tale of Yersh Ershovich”, “The Tale of the Hawk Moth”).

An outstanding writer of the 17th century. was Archpriest Avvakum, the author of the Life.

In addition to democratic literature in the XVII century. high literature continues to develop, a special style arises, called "baroque". Baroque was an aristocratic phenomenon, opposed to Russian democratic and satirical literature. This trend embraced court poetry and dramaturgy.

6. Main themes and genres of Old Russian literature

So, literature Ancient Russia there were very special circumstances of occurrence, a special place and functions in the life of society. It was they who were ahead of the system of the original genres. In fact, it was "of one topic and one plot. This plot is world history, and this topic is the meaning of human life" - as D.S. Likhachev noted

The genres of ancient Russian literature were as follows: chronicles and chronographs - about the history of the world, chronicles - about the history of Russia; further - countless biblical books and paleos (from the Greek. palayos - ancient) - the same description of biblical events, but with reasoning and interpretation. The lives of the saints were popular - a large collection of biographies of Christian ascetics, famous for their piety and asceticism, or who died for their religious beliefs at the hands of pagans or non-believers, and patericons - collections of short, often action-packed stories from the life of monks. Teachings and "words" represented the genre of solemn eloquence : the first denounced vices, welcomed virtues and in every possible way instructed believers in Christian morality; and in the second, pronounced in the church during the service, religious symbols and meanings of church holidays were revealed. Dogmatic writings were also related to them - they dealt with theological issues and denounced heresies. The modern genre of "travel notes" had walking in its ancestors - stories about traveling to the "Holy Land", that is, Palestine: pilgrims, their authors, not only recounted biblical traditions related to the places they walked, but also described architecture, nature and customs of those places. Many genres of modern times - such as everyday romance or short story, dramaturgy - will appear only much later - in the 15th or even 17th century, but this does not mean at all that the Old Russian reader was not interested in either emotional prose or descriptions of life. ordinary people. A household joke story, a love song, a fairy tale, a legend and a heroic epic existed in Ancient Russia, but not at all in written form, that is, in the form of folklore, not literature: it was too irrational to write down accessible and well-known works of oral literature on expensive parchment by the efforts of a few scribes, busy with more necessary Christian and historical literature. Unfortunately, we cannot completely reconstruct ancient folklore, but its later examples that have come down to us and its mentions in the literature of the older period itself give us undoubted evidence of the presence of an extensive system of genres of ancient Russian folklore. The system of literary genres was not specific to only one ancient Russian literature: in Byzantium in the 9th-10th centuries. we find almost the same genres in the same proportions. Secular genres - a love story and lyric poetry - will appear in Byzantine literature a little later, in the 11th-12th centuries, but under the conditions of a strict selection of literature for translation of this kind, books were practically not represented in Ancient Russia, with rare exceptions: for example, an epic poem about Digenis Akrita. Pay attention to one more important circumstance: up to the 17th century. Literary fiction was not allowed in literature. Fiction should be understood as the fiction of the author himself: the scribe always only wrote down for the witnesses of the events will appear in Russian literature no earlier than the 15th century, although he will still disguise himself as a hero of a distant country or of ancient times. Only one genre allowed frank fiction, but only in order to illustrate any idea - this is an apologist, or a parable.

1.The emergence of DRL, its specificity. DRL arose in the 11th-17th centuries. Folklore: fairy tales, proverbs, ritual poetry, sayings; Mythology: topological legends, military songs, epics, legends. 988- Baptism of Russia. Greco-Byzantine culture. Socio-historical background of DRL: 1) the formation of the state-va (decomposition of the communal-tribal system, the formation of feudalism); 2) Formation of the nation; 3) the existence of highly developed forms of CNTs; 4) the emergence of writing (863, Cyril and Methodius created the word alphabet - the cultural dawn of the Eastern and Southern Slavs). Books came to Russia through Bulgaria from Byzantium: religious books (bible); apocrypha - religion. banned publications; hagiography - lives of saints; historiographic books - chronicles, stories; natural-science-opis. rast., animal world; patristics - the works of the church fathers (John Chrysostom, Gregory the Low, Basil the Great). Specificity: 1) DRL wears handwritten character. 2) Anonymity (inpersonality) the author does not realize himself as an author, he is a “guide”, he only fixes the facts, does not strive to stick out, we will not allow fiction, fiction is a lie); 3) historicism . 4) Texts exist in collections . Variation instability. The scribe could change the text . 5) Retrospectiveness. Constant sense of connection . 6) monumentalism. The desire of the DR writer to enter and comprehend the life of a private person or a separate people in the history of mankind. 7 ) Pr-I DRL did not stand out as a type of literary creative, because literature was inextricably linked with religion, science, and philosophy. 8 ) DRL was created in the Church Slavonic language. Pagan traditions in Ancient Russia were not written down, but were transmitted orally. Christian teaching was set forth in books, therefore, with the adoption of Christianity in Russia, books appeared. The need for books in Russia at the time of the adoption of Christianity was great, but there were few books. The process of copying the books was long and complicated. The first books were written by charter, more precisely, they were not written, but drawn. Each letter was drawn separately. Continuous writing appeared only in the 15th century. First books. The oldest Russian book from the books that have come down to us is the so-called Ostromir Gospel. The parchment on which the first books were written was very expensive. Therefore, the customers are rich people, or the church. The oldest Russian chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years" under 1037 reports that Prince Yaroslav the Wise had a passion for books, he ordered to gather scribes who translated and wrote many books. In the first half of the XI century. many monuments of Byzantine and Bulgarian literature really become known in Russia. Liturgical texts or monuments containing the foundations of the Christian worldview and Christian morality predominated among the books. However, the scribes brought from Bulgaria, translated or rewrote works of other genres: chronicles, historical and historical stories, works of natural science, collections of sayings.

2. Genres DRL, periodization DRL. Genre called a historically established type of literary work, an abstract sample, on the basis of which the texts of specific literary works are created. Old Russian literature developed largely under the influence of Byzantine literature and borrowed from it a system of genres. The specificity of the genres of ancient Russian literature lies in their connection with traditional Russian folk art. Genres of Old Russian literature are usually divided into primary and unifying. primary genres. These genres are called primary because they served as building material for unifying genres. Primary genres: life, word, teaching, story. The primary genres also include the weather record, chronicle story, chronicle legend and church legend. life . The genre of life was borrowed from Byzantium. This is the most common and favorite genre of DRL. Life was an indispensable attribute when a person was canonized, i.e. were considered saints. Life was always created after the death of a person. It performed a great educational function. In addition, life deprived a person of the fear of death, preaching the idea of ​​the immortality of the human soul. Life was built according to certain canons. Canons of Life: 1) The pious origin of the hero of life, whose parents must have been righteous. A saint was born a saint, but did not become one; 2) The saint was distinguished by an ascetic way of life, spent time in solitude and prayer; 3) A description of the miracles that took place during the life of the saint and after his death; 3) The Saint was not afraid of death; 4) The life ended with the glorification of the saint (the life of the holy princes Boris and Gleb).

Old Russian eloquence. This genre was borrowed by ancient Russian literature from Byzantium, where eloquence was a form oratory. In ancient Russian literature, eloquence came in three varieties: Didactic (instructive); political; Solemn. Teaching. Teaching is a kind of genre of ancient Russian eloquence. Teaching is a genre in which ancient Russian chroniclers tried to present a model of behavior for any ancient Russian person: both for a prince and for a commoner. The most striking example of this genre is the Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh included in The Tale of Bygone Years. Word. The word is a kind of genre of ancient Russian eloquence. An example of the political variety of ancient Russian eloquence is"The Tale of Igor's Campaign". An example of political eloquence is the “Word about the destruction of the Russian land”. The author glorifies the bright past and mourns the present. exemplary solemn variety of ancient Russian eloquence is the “Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion, which was created in the first third of the 11th century. The main idea of ​​the "Word about Law and Grace" is that Russia is as good as Byzantium. Tale. The story is a text of an epic nature, telling about princes, about military exploits, about princely crimes. Examples are "The Tale of the Battle on the Kalka River", "The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu Khan", "The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky".

Uniting genres The primary genres acted as part of the unifying genres, such as the chronicle, the chronograph, the cheti-menei, and the patericon. chronicle is a story about historical events. This is the most ancient genre ancient Russian literature. In Ancient Russia, the chronicle reported on the historical events of the past, but it was also a political and legal document. The oldest chronicle is The Tale of Bygone Years. The chronicle tells about the origin of the Russians, about the genealogy of the Kyiv princes and about the emergence of the ancient Russian state. Chronograph - these are texts containing a description of the time of the 15th-16th centuries.

Chet's Menaion (literally "reading by months") - a collection of works about holy people. patericon - a description of the life of the holy fathers. Separately, it should be said about the genre Apocrypha . Apocrypha - from the ancient Greek language as "hidden, secret." These are works of a religious-legendary nature. Apocrypha became especially widespread in the 13th-14th centuries, but the church did not recognize this genre and does not recognize it to this day. Likhachev identifies periods: 1) period 11th-early 12th century a monumental-historical style dominates in literature, the relative unity of literature: a single Kievan literature. Literature is developing in two centers - Kyiv and Novgorod. Time of appearance of the first Russian Lives. (“The Life of Boris and Gleb” is the first Russian Life). The origin of the original Russian genre - chronicle - "The Tale of Bygone Years" (PVL). 2) period mid-12th century - first third of the 13th century. New literary centers appear: Suzdal, Rostov, Smolensk, Galich, etc. Local literary features - local themes. Time started feudal fragmentation. 1 and 2 periods - this is the literature of Kievan Rus, because. dominated by the style of monumental historicism (media). 3) period late 13th - early 14th century. The period of the Mongol-Tatar invasion. Literature dies for a while - one theme dominates in literature - the theme of the fight against the invaders, hence tragedy, patriotism, citizenship - these are the leading features of the time. 4) period late 14th - first half of the 15th century. The age of pre-revival, Russia is economically and culturally reborn, the expressive-emotional style dominates (typical for hagiographies). 5) period second half of the 15th century. Translated works penetrate into the DRL: "The Tale of Dracula", "The Tale of Basarga". In 1453, Constantinople (the capital of Byzantium) fell, and literature was democratized. The influence of Byzantium does not have an important meaning on the life of Russia, on the development of culture; becomes an independent, incomplete state. A single central state (Moscow and Novgorod) begins to form, a heretical shutdown occurs. 6) period Mid 16th century. The main feature is the dominance of the journalistic style: the time of the struggle between the nobility and the boyars. 7) period 17th century Transition to new literature. The development of the individual principle in the work of writers is increasing (authorship, theater, poetry appear).

6.PVL: types of chronicle narration. 1)weather records. They are short. The simplest element in the chronicle text, which only informs about the event, but does not describe it. 2) Chronicle story. They are based on oral political traditions, but the chronicler takes from them only the factual side, and not the moral assessment. 3) chronicle story- this is an extended form of weather record. Containing a business story about important events. 4)chronicle story. It presents the ideal image of the prince. 5) The documents, cat. taken from book archives, contracts, "Russian Truth" - the first set of laws. 6) Composition Tales of Bygone Years also included legends. For example - a story about the origin of the name of the city of Kyiv on behalf of Prince Kyi; legends about the Prophetic Oleg, who defeated the Greeks and died from the bite of a snake hiding in the skull of the deceased prince's horse; about Princess Olga, cunningly and cruelly taking revenge on the Drevlyane tribe for the murder of her husband. The chronicler is invariably interested in news about the past of the Russian land, about the founding of cities, hills, rivers, and about the reasons why they received these names. This is also reported in the legends. AT Tales of Bygone Years the proportion of legends is very large, since the initial events of ancient Russian history described in it are separated from the time of the work of the first chroniclers by many decades and even centuries. 7) A significant part of the text in Tales of Bygone Years occupy battle stories, written in the so-called military style, and princely obituaries. 8) Composition Tales of Bygone Years turn on and tales of saints, written in a special hagiographic style. Such is the story about the brothers-princes Boris and Gleb under 1015, who, imitating the humility and non-resistance of Christ, meekly accepted death at the hands of their half-brother Svyatopolk (According to Academician Shakhmatov, at first the legend about Boris and Gleb was written by an unknown author, which was included in the "Ancient chronicle code", on the basis of which the "Tale of Bygone Years" was subsequently compiled), and the story of the holy Cave monks under 1074.

At the end of the 10th century, the literature of Ancient Russia arose, the literature on the basis of which the literature of the three fraternal peoples developed - Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian. Old Russian literature arose along with the adoption of Christianity and was originally called upon to serve the needs of the church: to provide church rite, disseminate information on the history of Christianity, educate society in the spirit of Christianity. These tasks determined both the genre system of literature and the features of its development.

The adoption of Christianity had significant consequences for the development of books and literature of Ancient Russia.

Old Russian literature was formed on the basis of a unified literature of the southern and Eastern Slavs, which arose under the influence of Byzantine and ancient Bulgarian culture.

Bulgarian and Byzantine priests who came to Russia and their Russian students needed to translate and rewrite books that were necessary for worship. And some books brought from Bulgaria were not translated, they were read in Russia without translation, since there was a closeness of the Old Russian and Old Bulgarian languages. Liturgical books, lives of saints, monuments of eloquence, chronicles, collections of sayings, historical and historical stories were brought to Russia. Christianization in Russia required a restructuring of the worldview, books about the history of the human race, about the ancestors of the Slavs were rejected, and Russian scribes needed essays that would set out Christian ideas about world history, about natural phenomena.

Although the need for books in the Christian state was very great, the possibilities for satisfying this need were very limited: in Russia there were few skilled scribes, and the writing process itself was very long, and the material on which the first books were written - parchment - was very expensive . Therefore, books were written only for rich people - princes, boyars and the church.

But before the adoption of Christianity in Russia, Slavic writing was known. It found application in diplomatic (letters, treaties) and legal documents, there was also a census between literate people.

Before the emergence of literature, there were speech genres of folklore: epic tales, mythological legends, fairy tales, ritual poetry, lamentations, lyrics. Folklore played an important role in the formation of national Russian literature. There are legends about fairy tale characters, about the heroes, about the foundations of the ancient capitals about Kyi, Shchek, Khoriv. There was also oratorical speech: the princes spoke to the soldiers, delivered a speech at feasts.

But literature did not begin with records of folklore, although it continued to exist and develop with literature even for a long time. For the emergence of literature, special reasons were needed.

The impetus for the emergence of ancient Russian literature was the adoption of Christianity, when it became necessary to acquaint Russia with the sacred scripture, with the history of the church, with world history, with the lives of the saints. Churches under construction could not exist without liturgical books. And also there was a need to translate from the Greek and Bulgarian originals and distribute a large number of texts. This was the impetus for the creation of literature. Literature had to remain purely ecclesiastical, cult, especially since secular genres existed in oral form. But in fact, everything was different. Firstly, the biblical stories about the creation of the world contained a lot of scientific information about the earth, the animal world, the structure of the human body, the history of the state, that is, they had nothing to do with Christian ideology. Secondly, chronicles, everyday stories, such masterpieces as “Words about Igor's Campaign”, “Instruction” by Vladimir Monomakh, “Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik turned out to be outside the cult literature.

That is, the functions of literature at the time of its emergence and throughout history are different.

The adoption of Christianity contributed to the rapid development of literature for only two centuries; in the future, the church hinders the development of literature with all its might.

And yet the literature of Russia was devoted to ideological issues. The genre system reflected the worldview typical of Christian states. “Old Russian literature can be regarded as the literature of one theme and one plot. This plot is world history, and this topic is the meaning of human life ”- this is how D. Likhachev formulated the features of literature in his work ancient period Russian history.

There is no doubt that the Baptism of Russia was an event of great historical importance, not only politically and socially, but also culturally. The history of ancient Russian culture began after the adoption of Christianity by Russia, and the date of the Baptism of Russia in 988 becomes the starting point for the national historical development of Russia.

Beginning with the Baptism of Russia, Russian culture now and then faced a difficult, dramatic, tragic choice of its path. From the point of view of cultural studies, it is important not only to date, but also to document this or that historical event.

1.2 Periods of the history of ancient literature.

The history of ancient Russian literature cannot but be considered in isolation from the history of the Russian people and the Russian state. Seven centuries (XI-XVIII centuries), during which ancient Russian literature developed, are full of significant events in historical life Russian people. The literature of Ancient Russia is evidence of life. History itself established several periods of literary history.

The first period is the literature of the ancient Russian state, the period of the unity of literature. It lasts a century (XI and early XII centuries). This is the age of the formation of the historical style of literature. The literature of this period develops in two centers: in the south of Kyiv and in the north of Novgorod. A characteristic feature of the literature of the first period is the leading role of Kyiv, as cultural center throughout the Russian land. Kyiv is the most important economic link on the world trade route. The Tale of Bygone Years belongs to this period.

Second period, mid-twelfth century. - first third of the thirteenth century This is the period of the emergence of new literary centers: Vladimir Zalessky and Suzdal, Rostov and Smolensk, Galich and Vladimir Volynsky. During this period, local themes appeared in literature, various genres appeared. This period is the beginning of feudal fragmentation.

Next comes short period Mongol-Tatar invasion. During this period, the stories “Words about the destruction of the Russian land”, “The Life of Alexander Nevsky” are created. During this period, one topic is considered in the literature, the topic of the invasion of the Mongol-Tatar troops into Russia. This period is considered the shortest, but also the brightest.

The next period, the end of the XIV century. and the first half of the 15th century, this is a period of patriotic upsurge in literature, a period of chronicle writing and historical narrative. This century coincides with the economic and cultural revival of the Russian land before and after the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380. In the middle of the XV century. new phenomena appear in literature: translated literature, the “Tale of Dracula”, “The Tale of Basarga” appear. All these periods, from the XIII century. by the 15th century can be combined into one period and defined as a period of feudal fragmentation and the unification of North-Eastern Russia. Since the literature of the second period begins with the capture of Constantinople by the Crusaders (1204), and when the main role of Kyiv has already ended and three fraternal peoples are formed from a single ancient Russian people: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian.

The third period is the period of literature of the Russian centralized state of the XIV - XVII centuries. When the state plays an active role in international relations of its time, and also reflects the further growth of the Russian centralized state. And from the 17th century starts new period Russian history. .

The concept of "Old Russian literature" includes literary works of the XI-XVII centuries. The literary monuments of this period include not only literary works proper, but also historical works (chronicles and chronicle stories), descriptions of travels (they were called walks), teachings, lives (stories about the life of people ranked by the church as a host of saints), messages, essays of the oratorical genre, some texts of a business nature. In all these monuments there are elements of artistic creativity, an emotional reflection of modern life.

The vast majority of ancient Russian literary works did not retain the names of their creators. Old Russian literature, as a rule, is anonymous, and in this respect it is similar to oral folk art. The literature of Ancient Russia was handwritten: the works were distributed by copying texts. In the course of the manuscript existence of works for centuries, texts were not only copied, but often reworked due to changes in literary tastes, the socio-political situation, in connection with the personal preferences and literary abilities of the scribes. This explains the existence of various editions and variants of the same monument in the manuscript lists. Comparative textual analysis (see Textology) of editions and variants enables researchers to restore the literary history of a work and decide which text is closest to the original author's text, and how it has changed over time. Only in the rarest cases do we have the author's lists of monuments, and very often in later lists texts reach us that are closer to the author's than in the lists of earlier ones. Therefore, the study of ancient Russian literature is based on an exhaustive study of all lists of the studied work. Collections of ancient Russian manuscripts are available in large libraries in different cities, in archives and museums. Many works have been preserved in a large number of lists, many in a very limited number. There are works represented by a single list: "Instruction" by Vladimir Monomakh, "The Tale of Woe-Misfortune", etc., in a single list, the "Tale of Igor's Campaign" has come down to us, but he also died during Napoleon's invasion of Moscow in 1812 G.

A characteristic feature of Old Russian literature is the repetition in different works of different times of certain situations, characteristics, comparisons, epithets, metaphors. The literature of Ancient Russia is characterized by "etiquette": the hero acts and behaves as he should, according to the concepts of that time, act, behave in given circumstances; specific events (for example, a battle) are depicted using constant images and forms, everything has a certain ceremoniality. Old Russian literature is solemn, majestic, traditional. But over the seven hundred years of its existence, it has gone through a difficult path of development, and within the framework of its unity, we observe a variety of themes and forms, a change in old and the creation of new genres, a close connection between the development of literature and the historical destinies of the country. All the time there was a kind of struggle between living reality, the creative individuality of the authors and the requirements of the literary canon.

The emergence of Russian literature dates back to the end of the 10th century, when, with the adoption of Christianity in Russia as the state religion, service and historical-narrative texts in Church Slavonic were to appear. Ancient Russia, through Bulgaria, from which these texts mainly came, immediately joined the highly developed Byzantine literature and the literature of the southern Slavs. The interests of the developing Kievan feudal state demanded the creation of their own, original works and new genres. Literature was called upon to instill a sense of patriotism, to assert the historical and political unity of the ancient Russian people and the unity of the family. old Russian princes denounce princely strife.

Tasks and themes of literature in the 11th - early 13th centuries. (questions of Russian history in its connection with world history, the history of the emergence of Russia, the struggle against external enemies - the Pechenegs and Polovtsy, the struggle of princes for the throne of Kyiv) determined the general character of the style of this time, called by academician D.S. Likhachev the style of monumental historicism. The emergence of Russian chronicle writing is connected with the beginning of Russian literature. As part of the later Russian chronicles, the Tale of Bygone Years has come down to us - a chronicle compiled by the ancient Russian historian and publicist monk Nestor around 1113. At the heart of the Tale of Bygone Years, which includes both a story about world history and records by year about events in Russia, and legendary legends, and narrations about princely strife, and laudatory characteristics of individual princes, and philippics condemning them, and copies of documentary materials, lie even earlier chronicles that have not come down to us. The study of lists of Old Russian texts makes it possible to restore the lost names of the literary history of Old Russian works. 11th century The first Russian lives (princes Boris and Gleb, hegumen of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery Theodosius) are also dated. These lives are distinguished by literary perfection, attention to the pressing problems of our time, and the vitality of many episodes. The maturity of political thought, patriotism, publicism, and high literary skill are also characteristic of the monuments of oratorical eloquence Hilarion’s “Sermon on Law and Grace” (1st half of the 11th century), the words and teachings of Cyril of Turov (1130-1182). The "Instruction" of the great Kyiv prince Vladimir Monomakh (1053-1125).

In the 80s. 12th century the author unknown to us creates the most brilliant work of ancient Russian literature - "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". The specific topic to which the "Word" is devoted is the unsuccessful campaign in 1185 to the Polovtsian steppe of the Novgorod-Seversky prince Igor Svyatoslavich. But the author is concerned about the fate of the entire Russian land, he recalls the events of the distant past and present, and the true hero of his work is not Igor, not the Grand Duke of Kyiv Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich, who is given a lot of attention in the Lay, but the Russian people, the Russian land. In many ways, the “Word” is associated with the literary traditions of its time, but, as a work of genius, it is distinguished by a number of features that are unique to it: the originality of the processing of etiquette techniques, the richness of the language, the refinement of the rhythmic construction of the text, the nationality of its very essence and the creative rethinking of oral techniques. folk art, special lyricism, high civic pathos.

The main theme of the literature of the period of the Horde yoke (1243 of the 13th century - the end of the 15th century) is national-patriotic. The monumental-historical style takes on an expressive tone: the works created at that time bear a tragic imprint and are distinguished by lyrical elation. Great importance the idea of ​​a strong princely power acquires in literature. Both in the annals and in separate stories (“The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu”), written by eyewitnesses and going back to oral tradition, it tells about the horrors of the enemy invasion and the infinitely heroic struggle of the people against the enslavers. The image of an ideal prince - a warrior and statesman, the defender of the Russian land - was most clearly reflected in the "Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky" (70s of the XIII century). A poetic picture of the greatness of the Russian land, Russian nature, the former power of the Russian princes appears in the "Word of the Destruction of the Russian Land" - in an excerpt from a work that has not completely reached, dedicated to the tragic events of the Horde yoke (1st half of the 13th century).

Literature of the 14th century - 50s 15th century reflects the events and ideology of the time of the unification of the principalities of northeastern Russia around Moscow, the formation of the Russian people and the gradual formation of the Russian centralized state. During this period, ancient Russian literature began to show interest in the psychology of an individual, in his spiritual world (though still within the bounds of religious consciousness), which led to the growth of the subjective principle. An expressive-emotional style arises, characterized by verbal sophistication, ornamental prose (the so-called "weaving of words"). All this reflects the desire to depict human feelings. In the 2nd half of the 15th - early 16th century. stories appear, the plot of which goes back to oral stories of a novelistic nature (“The Tale of Peter, the Prince of the Horde”, “The Tale of Dracula”, “The Tale of the Merchant Basarga and his son Borzosmysl”). The number of translated monuments of a fictional nature is significantly increasing, and the genre of political legendary works (“The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir”) is becoming widespread.

In the middle of the XVI century. Old Russian writer and publicist Yermolai-Erasmus creates "The Tale of Peter and Fevronia" - one of the most remarkable works of literature of Ancient Russia. The story is written in the tradition of an expressive-emotional style, it is built on the legendary legend of how a peasant girl, thanks to her mind, became a princess. The author widely used fairy-tale techniques, at the same time, social motives sound sharply in the story. "The Tale of Peter and Fevronia" is largely connected with the literary traditions of its time and the previous period, but at the same time it is ahead of modern literature, it is distinguished by artistic perfection, bright individuality.

In the XVI century. the official character of literature is strengthened, its hallmark becomes pomp and solemnity. Works of a generalizing nature, the purpose of which is to regulate the spiritual, political, legal and everyday life. The "Great Menaions of the Chetya" are being created - a 12-volume set of texts intended for everyday reading for each month. At the same time, Domostroy was written, which sets out the rules of human behavior in the family, detailed tips for housekeeping, and rules for relationships between people. In literary works, the individual style of the author is more noticeable, which is especially clearly reflected in the messages of Ivan the Terrible. Fiction is increasingly penetrating into historical narratives, giving the narrative greater plot entertainment. This is inherent in the "History of the Grand Duke of Moscow" by Andrei Kurbsky, and is reflected in the "Kazan History" - an extensive plot-historical narrative about the history of the Kazan kingdom and the struggle for Kazan by Ivan the Terrible.

In the 17th century the process of transforming medieval literature into modern literature begins. New purely literary genres, the process of democratization of literature is underway, its subject matter is significantly expanding. Events of the Time of Troubles and the Peasant War of the late 16th - early 17th centuries. change the view of history and the role of an individual in it, which leads to the liberation of literature from church influence. The writers of the Time of Troubles (Avraamiy Palitsyn, I.M. Katyrev-Rostovsky, Ivan Timofeev, etc.) try to explain the deeds of Ivan the Terrible, Boris Godunov, False Dmitry, Vasily Shuisky not only as a manifestation of divine will, but also as the dependence of these deeds on the person himself, his personal features. In literature, there is an idea of ​​the formation, change and development of a human character under the influence of external circumstances. A wider circle of people began to engage in literary work. The so-called posad literature is born, which is created and exists in a democratic environment. A genre of democratic satire arises, in which state and church orders are ridiculed: legal proceedings are parodied (“The Tale of the Shemyakin Court”), church service (“Service to the Tavern”), Holy Bible(“The Tale of a Peasant's Son”), clerical practice (“The Tale of Yersh Yershovich”, “Kalyazinskaya Petition”). The nature of the lives is also changing, which are increasingly becoming real biographies. The most remarkable work of this genre in the XVII century. is the autobiographical "Life" of Archpriest Avvakum (1620-1682), written by him in 1672-1673. It is remarkable not only for its lively and vivid story about the harsh and courageous life path the author, but with an equally vivid and passionate depiction of the social and ideological struggle of his time, deep psychologism, preaching pathos, combined with a confession full of revelation. And all this is written in a lively, juicy language, sometimes high bookish, sometimes bright colloquial and everyday.

The rapprochement of literature with everyday life, the appearance of a love affair in the narrative, psychological motivations for the hero's behavior are inherent in a number of stories of the 17th century. (“The Tale of Grief-Misfortune”, “The Tale of Savva Grudtsyn”, “The Tale of Frol Skobeev”, etc.). Translated collections of a short story character appear, with short edifying, but at the same time anecdotally entertaining stories, translated chivalric novels (“The Tale of Bova the King”, “The Tale of Yeruslan Lazarevich”, etc.). The latter, on Russian soil, acquired the character of original, "their" monuments and eventually entered the lubok folk literature. In the 17th century poetry develops (Simeon Polotsky, Sylvester Medvedev, Karion Istomin and others). In the 17th century the history of great ancient Russian literature ended as a phenomenon that was characterized by common principles, which, however, underwent certain changes. Old Russian literature, with its entire development, prepared the Russian literature of modern times.