Test artificial languages ​​in the modern information world. Why create artificial languages

Artificial languages- specialized languages ​​in which vocabulary, phonetics and grammar have been specially developed for the implementation of certain goals. Exactly purposefulness distinguishes artificial languages from natural. Sometimes these languages ​​are called fake, invented languages. invented language, see an example of usage in the article). There are already more than a thousand such languages, and new ones are constantly being created.

Nikolai Lobachevsky gave a remarkably bright assessment artificial languages To what do they owe their brilliant successes to science, the glory of modern times, the triumph of the human mind? Without a doubt, to his artificial language!

The reasons for creating an artificial language are: facilitating human communication (international auxiliary languages, codes), giving additional realism to fiction, linguistic experiments, providing communication in a fictional world, language games.

Expression "artificial language" sometimes used to refer to planned languages and other languages ​​developed for human communication. Sometimes they prefer to call such languages ​​“planned”, since the word “artificial” has a disparaging connotation in some languages.

Outside the Esperanto community, "planned language" refers to a set of rules relating to natural language with the aim of unifying (standardizing) it. In this sense, even natural languages ​​can be artificial in some respects. The prescriptive grammars described in ancient times for classical languages ​​such as Latin and Sanskrit are based on the codification rules of natural languages. Such sets of rules are something between the natural development of a language and its construction through a formal description. The term "glossopoeia" refers to the construction of languages ​​for some kind of artistic purpose, and also means these languages ​​themselves.

Review

The idea of ​​creating a new language of international communication originated in XVII-XVIII centuries as a result of the gradual decrease in the role of Latin in the world. Initially, these were predominantly projects of a rational language, independent of the logical fallacies of living languages, and based on a logical classification of concepts. Later, projects appeared based on the model and materials of living languages. The first such project was the Universalglot published by Jean Pirro in 1868 in Paris. Pirro's project, which anticipated many details of later projects, went unnoticed by the public.

The next project of the international language was Volapuk, created in 1880 by the German linguist J. Schleyer. He caused a very big resonance in society.

The most famous artificial language was Esperanto (Ludwik Zamenhof, 1887) - the only artificial language that has become widespread and has united quite a few supporters of an international language around itself.

Of the artificial languages, the most famous are:

• basic english
• Esperanto
• Makaton
• Volapuk
• interlingua
• latin-blue-flexione
• lingua de planeta
• loglan
• Lojban
• Na'vi
• novial
• occidental
• solresol
• ithkuil
• Klingon
• elvish languages

The number of speakers of artificial languages ​​can only be given approximately, due to the fact that there is no systematic record of speakers. According to the Ethnologue, there are "200-2000 people who speak Esperanto from birth".

As soon as an artificial language has speakers who are fluent in the language, especially if there are many such speakers, then the language begins to develop and, therefore, loses its status as an artificial language. For example, Modern Hebrew was based on Biblical Hebrew, not created from scratch, and has undergone significant changes since the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948. However, linguist Gilad Zuckerman claims that modern Hebrew, which he calls "Israeli", is a Semitic-European hybrid based not only on Hebrew but also on Yiddish and other languages ​​spoken by followers of the religious movement. revival. Therefore, Zuckerman approves of the translation of the Hebrew Bible into what he calls "Israeli". Esperanto as modern colloquial differs significantly from the original version published in 1887, so that modern editions Fundamenta Crestomatio 1903 calls for many references to syntactic and lexical differences between early and modern Esperanto.

Proponents of artificial languages ​​have many reasons for using them. The famous but controversial Sapir-Whorf hypothesis says that the structure of language affects the way we think. Thus a "better" language must enable the person who speaks it to think more clearly and intelligently; this hypothesis was tested by Suzette Haden Elgin when she created the feminist language Laadan, which featured in her novel native tone. Constructed language can also be used to limit thoughts, like Newspeak in George Orwell's novel, or to simplify, like the language of Tokipon. On the contrary, some linguists, such as Steven Pinker, argue that the language we speak is "instinct". Thus, each generation of children invents slang and even grammar. If this is true, then it will not be possible to control the range of human thought through the transformation of language, and such concepts as "freedom" will appear in the form of new words when the old ones disappear.

Proponents of artificial languages ​​also believe that a particular language is easier to express and understand concepts in one area, but more difficult in other areas. For example, different computer languages ​​make it easier to write only certain kinds of programs.

Another reason for using artificial language may be the telescope rule, which says that it takes less time to first learn a simple artificial language and then natural language than to learn only natural language. For example, if someone wants to learn English, they can start by learning Basic English. Constructed languages ​​such as Esperanto and Interlingua are easier due to the lack of irregular verbs and some grammar rules. Numerous studies have shown that children who first learned Esperanto and then some other language achieved a better level of language proficiency than those who did not first learn Esperanto.

The ISO 639-2 standard contains the code "art" for artificial languages. However, some constructed languages ​​have their own ISO 639 codes (for example, "eo" and "epo" for Esperanto, "jbo" for Lojban, "ia" and "ina" for Interlingua, "tlh" for Klingon, and "io" and "ido" for Ido).

Classification

There are the following types of artificial languages:

• Programming languages ​​and computer languages ​​- languages ​​for automatic processing of information using computers.
• Information languages ​​are languages ​​used in various information processing systems.
• Formalized languages ​​of science - languages ​​intended for symbolic notation scientific facts and theories of mathematics, logic, chemistry and other sciences.
• International auxiliary languages ​​(planned) - languages ​​created from elements of natural languages ​​and offered as an auxiliary means of interethnic communication.
• Languages ​​of non-existent peoples created for fiction or entertainment purposes, for example: the Elvish language invented by J. Tolkien, the Klingon language invented by Mark Okrand for a fantasy series "Star Trek", the Na'vi language created for the film Avatar.
• There are also languages ​​that were specifically designed to communicate with extraterrestrial intelligence. For example, Linkos.

According to the purpose of creation, artificial languages ​​can be divided into the following groups:

• philosophical and logical languages- languages ​​that have a clear logical structure of word formation and syntax: Lojban, Tokipona, Ithkuil, Ilaksh.
• Auxiliary languages- designed for practical communication: Esperanto, Interlingua, Slovio, Slovian.
• Artistic or aesthetic languages- created for creative and aesthetic pleasure: Quenya.
• Languages ​​for setting up an experiment, for example, to test the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (that the language spoken by a person limits consciousness, drives it into certain limits).

According to their structure, artificial language projects can be divided into the following groups:

• A priori languages- based on logical or empirical classifications of concepts: loglan, lojban, ro, solresol, ifkuil, ilaksh.
• A posteriori languages- languages ​​built mainly on the basis of international vocabulary: interlingua, occidental
• mixed languages- words and word formation are partly borrowed from non-artificial languages, partly created on the basis of artificially invented words and word-formation elements: Volapuk, Ido, Esperanto, Neo.

According to the degree of practical use, artificial languages ​​are divided into the following projects:

• Widespread languages: Ido, Interlingua, Esperanto. Such languages, like national languages, are called "socialized", among artificial ones they are united under the term planned languages.
• Artificial language projects that have a number of supporters, such as Loglan (and its descendant Lojban), Slovio, and others.
• Languages ​​that have a single speaker - the author of the language (for this reason, it is more correct to call them "linguo projects", and not languages).

Ancient linguistic experiments

The first mention of an artificial language in antiquity appeared, for example, in Plato's Cratylus in Hermogenes' assertion that words are not inherently related to what they refer to; what people use part of my own voice... to the subject". Athenaeus of Naucratis in the third book of Deipnosophistae tells the story of two people: Dionysius of Sicily and Alexarchus. Dionysius of Sicily created such neologisms as menandros"virgin" (from menei"wait" and andra"husband"), menekratēs"pillar" (from menei, "remains in one place" and kratei, "strong"), and ballantion"spear" (from balletai enantion"thrown against someone"). By the way, ordinary Greek words for these three parthenos, stulos and akon. Alexarch of Macedon (brother of King Cassander) was the founder of the city of Ouranoupoli. Afinite recalls a story where Alexarchos “offered a strange dictionary, calling the rooster the ‘crow of dawn’, the barber ‘the razor of death’… and the herald aputes[from ēputa, "loud-voiced"]". While the mechanisms of grammar proposed by the classical philosophers were developed to explain existing languages(Latin, Greek, Sanskrit), they were not used to create a new grammar. Panini, who supposedly lived at the same time as Plato, in his descriptive grammar of Sanskrit created a set of rules for explaining the language, so the text of his work can be considered a mixture of natural and artificial language.

Early artificial languages

The earliest artificial languages ​​were considered "supernatural", mystical, or divinely inspired. The Lingua Ignota language, recorded in the 12th century by St. Hildegard of Bingen, was the first completely artificial language. This language is a form of private mystical language. An example from Middle Eastern culture is the Baleibelen language, invented in the 16th century.

Language improvement

Johann Trithemius in his essay Steganography tried to show how all languages ​​can be reduced to one. In the 17th century, interest in magical languages ​​was continued by the Rosicrucian Order and the alchemists (like John Dee and his Enochian language). Jakob Boehme in 1623 spoke of the "natural language" (Natursprache) of the senses.

The musical languages ​​of the Renaissance were associated with mysticism, magic, and alchemy, and were sometimes also called the language of the birds. The Solresol project of 1817 used the concept of "musical languages" in a more pragmatic context: the words of this language are based on the names of seven musical notes used in various combinations.

17th and 18th centuries: the emergence of universal languages

In the 17th century, such "universal" or "a priori" languages ​​appeared as:

• A Common Writing(1647) Francis Lodwick;
• Ekskybalauron(1651) and Logopandecteision(1652) Thomas Urquhart;
• Ars signorum George Dalgarno, 1661;
• Essay towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language John Wilkins, 1668;

These early taxonomic artificial languages ​​were dedicated to creating a system of hierarchical language classification. Leibniz used a similar idea for his language Generalis of 1678. The authors of these languages ​​were not only busy reducing or modeling grammar, but also compiling a hierarchical system of human knowledge, which subsequently led to the French Encyclopedia. Many of the artificial languages ​​of the 17th and 18th centuries were pazigraphic or purely written languages ​​that did not have an oral form.

Leibniz and the compilers of the Encyclopedia realized that it was impossible to definitely fit all human knowledge into the “Procrustean bed” of a tree-like scheme, and, consequently, to build an a priori language based on such a classification of concepts. D'Alembert was critical of the universal language projects of the previous century. Individual authors, generally unaware of the history of the idea, continued to propose taxonomic universal languages ​​until the early 20th century (e.g. Rho), but the most recent languages ​​were limited to a specific area, such as mathematical formalism or computation (e.g. Linkos and languages programming), others were intended to disambiguate syntactically (for example, Loglan and Lojban).

19th and 20th centuries: auxiliary languages

Interest in a posteriori auxiliary languages ​​arose with the creation of the French Encyclopedia. During the 19th century there was a large number of international auxiliary languages; Louis Couture and Léopold Lo in their essay Histoire de la langue universelle (1903) considered 38 designs.

The first international language was Volapuk, created by Johann Martin Schleyer in 1879. However, disagreements between Schleyer and some prominent users of the language led to the decline of Volapük's popularity in the mid-1890s, and this gave rise to Esperanto, created in 1887 by Ludwik Zamenhof. Interlingua originated in 1951 when the International Auxiliary Language Association (IALA) published its Interlingua-English dictionary and accompanying grammar. The success of Esperanto has not prevented the emergence of new auxiliary languages, such as Leslie Jones's Eurolengo, which contains elements of English and Spanish.

The 2010 Robot Interaction Language (ROILA) is the first language for communication between humans and robots. The main ideas of the ROILA language are that it should be easy for humans to learn and be efficiently recognized by computer speech recognition algorithms.

Artistic languages

Artistic languages ​​created for aesthetic pleasure begin to appear in the early contemporary literature(in Gargantua and Pantagruel, in utopian motifs), but become known as serious projects only at the beginning of the 20th century. A Princess of Mars by Edgar Burroughs was perhaps the first science fiction novel to use artificial language. John Tolkien was the first scholar to discuss artistic languages ​​publicly, delivering a lecture entitled "A Secret Vice" at a convention in 1931.

By the beginning of the first decade of the 21st century, artistic languages ​​have become quite common in science fiction and fantasy works, which often use a very limited but definite vocabulary, indicating the existence of a full-fledged artificial language. Artistic languages ​​appear, for example, in Star Wars, star trek, The Lord of the Rings (Elvish), Stargate, Atlantis: The Lost World, Game of Thrones (Dothraki and Valyrian), Avatar, computer adventure games Dune and Myst.

Modern Communities of Constructed Languages

From the 1970s to the 1990s, various journals about constructed languages ​​were published, such as: Glossopoeic Quarterly, Taboo Jadoo and The Journal of Planned Languages. The Artificial Languages ​​(Conlang) mailing list was founded in 1991, later the AUXLANG mailing list dedicated to international auxiliary languages ​​spun off. In the first half of the 1990s, several journals devoted to artificial languages ​​were published in the form of e-mails, several journals were published on websites, these are journals such as: Vortpunoj and Model Languages(Model Languages). The results of the Sarah Higley survey show that the participants of the artificial languages ​​mailing list are primarily men from North America and Western Europe, fewer participants from Oceania, Asia, the Middle East and South America, the age of participants varies from thirteen to sixty years; the number of participating women has been increasing over time. More recently founded communities include the Zompist Bulletin Board(ZBB; since 2001) and the Conlanger Bulletin Board. On the forums, there is communication between participants, a discussion of natural languages, participants solve questions - do certain artificial languages ​​have the functions of a natural language, and what interesting functions of natural languages ​​\u200b\u200bcan be used in relation to artificial languages, these forums post short texts that are interesting in terms of translation, as well as discussions about the philosophy of artificial languages ​​and the goals of the participants in these communities. ZBB data showed that a large number of participants spend relatively little time on one artificial language and move from one project to another, spending about four months for learning one language.

Collaborative artificial languages

The Talos language, the cultural basis for the virtual state known as Talossa, was created in 1979. However, as interest in the Talo language grew, the Committee on the Use of the Talo Language, as well as other independent organizations enthusiasts. The Villnian language is based on Latin, Greek and Scandinavian. Its syntax and grammar are reminiscent of Chinese. The main elements of this artificial language were created by one author, and its vocabulary was expanded by members of the Internet community.

Most artificial languages ​​are created by one person, like the Talos language. But there are languages ​​that are created by a group of people, such as Interlingua, developed by International Association auxiliary language and Lojban created by the Logical Language Group.

Collaborative development of artificial languages ​​has become common in last years, as artificial language designers began to use Internet tools to coordinate design development. NGL/Tokcir was one of the first Internet collaborative designed languages ​​whose developers used a mailing list to discuss and vote on grammatical and lexical design issues. Later, The Demos IAL Project developed the International Auxiliary Language in a similar collaborative manner. The Voksigid and Novial 98 languages ​​were developed using mailing lists, but neither was published in its final form.

Several artistic languages ​​have been developed on various language wikis, usually with discussion and voting on phonology and grammar rules. An interesting variant of language development is the corpus approach, such as Kalusa (mid 2006), where participants simply read a corpus of existing sentences and add their own, perhaps maintaining existing trends or adding new words and constructions. The Kalusa mechanism allows visitors to rate offers as acceptable or unacceptable. In the corpus approach, there are no explicit indications of grammatical rules or explicit definitions of words; the meaning of words is inferred from their use in various sentences of the corpus by various readers and participants, and grammar rules can be inferred from sentence structures that were most highly rated by participants and other visitors.

Esperanto is the world's most widely spoken artificial language. Now, according to various sources, it is spoken by several hundred thousand to a million people. It was invented by the Czech ophthalmologist Lazar (Ludwig) Markovich Zamenhof in 1887 and got its name from the author's pseudonym (Lazar signed in the textbook as Esperanto - "hoping").

Like other artificial languages ​​(more precisely, most of them), it has an easy-to-learn grammar. The alphabet has 28 letters (23 consonants, 5 vowels) and is based on Latin. Some enthusiasts have even nicknamed it "Latin of the new millennium".

Most Esperanto words are made up of Romance and Germanic roots: roots are borrowed from French, English, German and Italian. There are also many international words in the language that are understandable without translation. 29 words are borrowed from Russian, among them the word "borscht".

Harry Harrison spoke Esperanto and actively promoted this language in his novels. Thus, in the cycle "The World of the Steel Rat", the inhabitants of the Galaxy speak mainly Esperanto. About 250 newspapers and magazines are published in Esperanto, and four radio stations broadcast.

Interlingua (occidental)

Appeared in 1922 in Europe thanks to the linguist Edgar de Wahl. In many ways it is similar to Esperanto: it has a lot of borrowings from the Romano-Germanic languages ​​and the same language construction system as in them. The original name of the language - Occidental - became a hindrance to its spread after the Second World War. In the countries of the communist bloc, it was believed that after the pro-Western language, anti-revolutionary ideas would also creep in. Then Occidental became known as Interlingua.

Volapyuk

In 1879, God appeared to the author of the language, priest Johann Martin Schleyer, in a dream and ordered him to invent and write down his own language, which Schleyer immediately took up. All night he wrote down his grammar, word meanings, sentences, and then whole verses. Volapyuk became the basis German, Schleyer boldly deformed the words of English and French, transforming them into new way. In Volapuk, for some reason, he decided to abandon the sound [p]. More precisely, not even for some reason, but for a very specific one: it seemed to him that this sound would cause difficulties for the Chinese who decided to learn volapuk.

At first, the language became quite popular due to its simplicity. It published 25 magazines, wrote 316 textbooks in 25 languages, and operated 283 clubs. For one person, Volapuk even became their native language - this is the daughter of Professor Volapuk Henry Conn (unfortunately, nothing is known about her life).

Gradually, interest in the language began to decline, but in 1931 a group of Volapukists led by the scientist Ary de Jong reformed the language, and for some time its popularity increased again. But then the Nazis came to power and banned all foreign languages ​​in Europe. Today, there are only two or three dozen people in the world who speak Volapuk. However, Wikipedia has a section written in Volapük.

Loglan

Linguist John Cooke coined loglan (log ical lan guage) in 1955 as an alternative to conventional, "imperfect" languages. And suddenly a language that was created for the most part for scientific research found its fans. Still would! After all, it does not have such concepts as tense for verbs or number for nouns. It is assumed that this is already clear to the interlocutors from the context of the conversation. But there are a lot of interjections in the language, with the help of which it is supposed to express shades of emotions. There are about twenty of them, and they represent a spectrum of feelings from love to hate. And they sound like this: wow! (love), wow! (surprise), wow! (happiness), etc. And there are no commas or other punctuation marks. Miracle, not language!

Designed by Ohio priest Edward Foster. Immediately after its appearance, the language became very popular: in the first years, even two newspapers were published, manuals and dictionaries were published. Foster was successful in obtaining a grant from the International Auxiliary Language Association. main feature Ro language: words were built according to a categorical scheme. For example, red is bofoc, yellow is bofof, orange is bofod. The disadvantage of such a system: it is almost impossible to distinguish words by ear. This is probably why the language did not arouse much interest among the public.

Solresol

Appeared in 1817. French creator Jean-Francois Sudre believed that everything in the world can be explained with the help of notes. Language, in fact, consists of them. It has a total of 2660 words: 7 one-syllable, 49 two-syllable, 336 three-syllable and 2268 four-syllable. To denote opposite concepts, the mirroring of the word is used: fall - good, lafa - bad.

Solresol had several scripts. It was possible to communicate on it by writing down the notes on the stave, the names of the notes, the first seven digits of the Arabic script, the first letters of the Latin alphabet, special shorthand symbols and the colors of the rainbow. Accordingly, it was possible to communicate in solresol not only by pronunciation of words, but also by playing musical instrument or singing, as well as in the language of the deaf and dumb.

The language found a lot of fans, including among famous people. Famous followers of Solresol were, for example, Victor Hugo, Alexander Humboldt, Lamartine.

Ithkuil

A specially designed language to communicate in philosophical themes(however, this can just as well be done in any other language, it will still be incomprehensible!). The creation of the language took its author John Quijada almost 30 years (from 1978 to 2004), and even then he believes that he has not yet finished with a vocabulary set. By the way, there are 81 cases in Ithkuil, and the meanings of words are transmitted using morphemes. Thus, a long thought can be conveyed very briefly. As if you wanted to archive the words.

tokipona

The simplest artificial language in the world was created in 2011 by Canadian linguist Sonia Helen Kisa (real name, however, Christopher Richard). There are only 118 words in the tokipon vocabulary (each of which has several meanings), and it is generally assumed that speakers will understand what is being said from the very context of the conversation. The creator of the tokipona believes that he has come close to understanding the language of the future, which Tyler Durden spoke about in Fight Club.

Klingon

Linguist Mark Okrand invented Klingon by order of Paramount Pictures, it was supposed to be spoken by aliens in the Star Trek movie. They actually talked. But besides them, numerous fans of the series have adopted the language, and currently there is the Klingon Language Institute in the USA, which publishes periodicals and translations of literary classics, there is Klingon-language rock music (for example, the Stokovor band performs its death metal songs exclusively in Klingon) , theatrical productions, and even a section of the Google search engine.

People have been experiencing this problem since ancient times."language barrier". They solved it in different ways: for example, they learned other languages ​​or chose one language for international communication (in the Middle Ages, Latin was the language of scientists all over the world, and now English is understood in most countries). Pidgins were also born - a kind of "hybrids" of two languages. And since the 17th century, scientists have thought about creating a separate language that would be easier to learn. Indeed, in natural languages ​​there are many exceptions and borrowings, and their structure is determined by historical development, as a result of which it can be very difficult to trace the logic, for example, the formation of grammatical forms or spelling. Artificial languages ​​are often referred to as planned because the word "artificial" can evoke negative associations.

most famous and the most common of them is Esperanto, created by Ludwik Zamenhof in 1887. "Esperanto" - "hoping" - is the pseudonym of Zamenhof, but later this name was adopted by the language he created.

Zamenhof was born in Bialystok, in the Russian Empire. Jews, Poles, Germans and Belarusians lived in the city, and relations between representatives of these peoples were very tense. Ludwik Zamenhof believed that the cause of interethnic hostility lies in misunderstanding, and even at the gymnasium he made attempts to develop a “common” language based on the European languages ​​​​he studied, which at the same time would be neutral - non-ethnic. The structure of Esperanto was created to be quite simple for ease of learning and memorization of the language. The roots of the words were borrowed from European and Slavic languages, as well as from Latin and ancient Greek. There are many organizations whose activities are dedicated to the spread of Esperanto, books and magazines are published in this language, there are broadcast channels on the Internet, and songs are created. Also for this language there are versions of many common programs - such as the office application OpenOffice.org, the Mozilla Firefox browser. and also the Esperanto version has a search engine Google system. The language is supported by UNESCO.

Beyond Esperanto, there are many other artificially created languages, both widely known and not common. Many of them were created with the same goal - to develop the most convenient means for international communication: Ido, Interlingua, Volapuk and others. Some other artificial languages, such as Loglan, were created with research purpose. And languages ​​like Na'vi, Klingon, and Sindarin were designed to be spoken by characters in books and movies.

What is the difference from natural languages?

Unlike natural languages, developed throughout the history of mankind, eventually separated from any parent language and died, artificial languages ​​are created by people in a relatively short time. They can be created based on the elements and structure of existing natural languages, or "constructed" entirely. The authors of artificial languages ​​disagree on which of the strategies best meets the goals - neutrality, ease of learning, ease of use. However, many believe that the creation of artificial languages ​​is meaningless, since they will never spread enough to serve as a universal language. Even the Esperanto language is now known to a few, and English is most often used for international negotiations. The study of artificial languages ​​is hampered by many factors: there are no native speakers, the structure can change periodically, and as a result of disagreements between theorists, an artificial language can be divided into two variants - for example, Lojban was separated from Loglan, and Ido from Esperanto. Nevertheless, supporters of artificial languages ​​still believe that in the conditions of modern globalization, a language is needed that could be used by everyone, but at the same time not associated with any particular country or culture, and continue linguistic research and experiments.

STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

"FINANCIAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL ACADEMY"

Department "IO-01"

in the discipline "Russian language and culture of speech"

Artificial languages ​​and their classification

Teacher: Sirova T.O.

Completed by: Mikhailova A.S.

Korolev, 2013

There are the following types of artificial languages:

Programming languages ​​and computer languages- languages ​​for automatic processing of information with the help of a computer.

Information languages- languages ​​used in various information processing systems.

Formalized languages ​​of science- languages ​​intended for symbolic recording of scientific facts and theories of mathematics, logic, chemistry and other sciences.

Languages ​​of non-existent peoples, created for fiction or entertainment purposes, for example: the Elvish language invented by J. Tolkien, the Klingon language invented by Mark Okrand for a fantasy series "Star Trek", Na "vi language, created for the film" Avatar.

International auxiliary languages- languages ​​created from elements of natural languages ​​and offered as an auxiliary means of interethnic communication.

The idea of ​​creating a new language of international communication originated in the 17th-18th centuries as a result of the gradual decrease in the international role of Latin. Initially, these were mainly projects of a rational language, freed from the logical errors of living languages ​​and based on a logical classification of concepts. Later, projects appear based on the model and materials of living languages. The first such project was universalglot, published in 1868 in Paris by Jean Pirro. Pirro's project, which anticipated many details of later projects, went unnoticed by the public.

The next international language project was Volapuk, created in 1880 by the German linguist I. Schleyer. He caused a very big resonance in society.

The most famous artificial language is Esperanto (L. Zamenhof, 1887) is the only artificial language that has become widespread and has united quite a few supporters of the international language around itself.

Of the artificial languages, the most famous are:

Basic English

• Interlingua

  Latin blue flexione

• Occidental

  Simli language

  Solresol

  Esperanto

• Klingon language

  Elvish languages

There are also languages ​​that were specifically designed to communicate with extraterrestrial intelligence. For example - lincos.

According to the purpose of creation, artificial languages ​​can be divided into the following groups:

philosophical and logical languages- languages ​​that have a clear logical structure of word formation and syntax: Lojban, Tokipona, Ithkuil, Ilaksh.

Auxiliary languages- designed for practical communication: Esperanto, Interlingua, Slovio, Slovian.

Artistic or aesthetic languages- created for creative and aesthetic pleasure: Quenya.

Also, the language is created to set up an experiment, for example, to test the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (that the language spoken by a person limits consciousness, drives it into certain limits).

According to their structure, artificial language projects can be divided into the following groups:

A priori languages- based on logical or empirical classifications of concepts: loglan, lojban, ro, solresol, ifkuil, ilaksh.

A posteriori languages- languages ​​built mainly on the basis of international vocabulary: interlingua, occidental

mixed languages- words and word formation are partly borrowed from non-artificial languages, partly created on the basis of artificially invented words and word-formation elements: Volapuk, Ido, Esperanto, Neo.

The number of speakers of artificial languages ​​can only be given approximately, due to the fact that there is no systematic record of speakers.

According to the degree of practical use, artificial languages ​​are divided into projects that have become widespread: Ido, Interlingua, Esperanto. Such languages, like national languages, are called "socialized", among artificial ones they are united under the term planned languages. An intermediate position is occupied by such artificial language projects that have a certain number of supporters, for example, Loglan (and its descendant Lojban), Slovio and others. Most artificial languages ​​have a single speaker - the author of the language (for this reason, it is more correct to call them "linguo projects" rather than languages).

Constructed languages

: for or against

suit́ natural languagé to- a sign system created specifically for use in areas where the use of natural language is less effective or impossible. Constructed languages ​​differ in their specialization and purpose, as well as in the degree of similarity with natural languages.

There are the following types of artificial languages:

Programming languages ​​and computer languages ​​- languages ​​for automatic processing of information using a computer.

Information languages ​​are languages ​​used in various information processing systems.

Formalized languages ​​of science are languages ​​intended for symbolic recording of scientific facts and theories of mathematics, logic, chemistry and other sciences.

Languages ​​of non-existent peoples created for fiction or entertainment purposes. The most famous are: the Elvish language, invented by J. Tolkien, and the Klingon language, invented by Mark Okrand for the fantasy series "Star Trek" (see Fictional Languages).

International auxiliary languages ​​are languages ​​created from elements of natural languages ​​and offered as an auxiliary means of interethnic communication.

According to the purpose of creation, artificial languages ​​can be divided into the following groups:

Philosophical and logical languages ​​are languages ​​that have a clear logical structure of word formation and syntax: Lojban, Tokipona, Ithkuil, Ilaksh.

Auxiliary languages ​​- designed for practical communication: Esperanto, Interlingua, Slovio, Slavonic.

artificial language natural specialization

Artistic or aesthetic languages ​​- created for creative and aesthetic pleasure: Quenya.

Also, the language is created to set up an experiment, for example, to test the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (that the language spoken by a person limits consciousness, drives it into certain limits).

According to their structure, artificial language projects can be divided into the following groups:

A priori languages ​​- based on logical or empirical classifications of concepts: loglan, lojban, ro, solresol, ifkuil, ilaksh.

A posteriori languages ​​- languages ​​built mainly on the basis of international vocabulary: interlingua, occidental

Mixed languages ​​- words and word formation are partially borrowed from non-artificial languages, partially created on the basis of artificially invented words and word-formation elements: Volapuk, Ido, Esperanto, Neo.

Of the artificial languages, the most famous:

basic english

interlingua

latin-blue-flexione

occidental

Simlian

solresol

Esperanto

The most famous artificial language was Esperanto (L. Zamenhof, 1887) - the only artificial language that has become widespread and has united quite a few supporters of the international language around itself. Esperanto is based on international words borrowed from Latin and Greek, and 16 grammatical rules that have no exceptions. In this language, there is no grammatical gender, it has only two cases - nominative and accusative, and the meanings of the rest are conveyed using prepositions. The alphabet is built on the basis of Latin. All this makes Esperanto such a simple language that an untrained person can become fluent enough in a few months of regular practice. It takes at least a few years to learn any of the natural languages ​​at the same level. Currently, Esperanto is actively used, according to various estimates, from several tens of thousands to several million people. At the same time, it is believed that for ~ 500-1000 people this language is native, that is, studied from the moment of birth. Esperanto has descendant languages ​​that lack some of the shortcomings of Esperanto. The most famous among these languages ​​are Esperantido and Novial. However, none of them will be as widespread as Esperanto.

For or against artificial languages?

The study of an artificial language has one big drawback - the almost impossibility of its application in life. This is true. An article entitled "Artificial Languages" published in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia states that: "The idea of ​​an artificial language common to all mankind is in itself utopian and impracticable. Artificial languages ​​are only imperfect surrogates of living languages; their projects are cosmopolitan in nature and therefore vicious in principle." It was written in the early 50s. But even in the mid-60s, the same skepticism was characteristic of some scientists.

The author of the book "Principles of Language Modeling" P.N. Denisov expressed his disbelief in the possibility of implementing the idea of ​​a universal language in the following way: “As for the possibility of declaring the transition of mankind to a single language created at least according to the type of the Esperanto language, such a possibility is a utopia. the inseparable connection of language with thought and society and many other purely linguistic circumstances do not allow such a reform to be carried out without disorganizing society.

The author of the book "Sounds and Signs" A.M. Kondratov believes that all existing native languages ​​can never be replaced by "any artificially invented "general" language". He still admits the idea of ​​an auxiliary language: "We can only talk about an intermediary language, which is used only when talking with foreigners - and only"

Such statements seem to stem from the fact that none of the individual projects for a universal, or worldwide international, language has become a living language. But what turned out to be impossible in some historical conditions for individual idealists and groups of the same idealists cut off from the proletariat, from the masses of the people, may turn out to be quite possible in other historical conditions for scientific collectives and the masses of the people who have mastered the scientific theory of language creation - with support of revolutionary parties and governments. The ability of a person to multilingualism - this phenomenon of linguistic compatibility - and the absolute primacy of the synchrony of the language (for the consciousness of those who use it), which determines the absence of the influence of the origin of the language on its functioning, open before all the peoples and peoples of the Earth the way in which the problem of their linguistic community. This will give a real opportunity to the most perfect project of the language of the new humanity and its new civilization to turn on all the continents and islands of the globe into a living, controlled developing language. And there is no doubt that it will not only be alive, but also the most tenacious of languages. The needs that brought them to life are manifold. It is also important that in these languages ​​the ambiguity of terms, which is characteristic of natural languages ​​and unacceptable in science, has been overcome. Artificial languages ​​allow expressing certain concepts in an extremely concise form, perform the functions of a kind of scientific shorthand, economical presentation and expression of voluminous mental material. Finally, artificial languages ​​are one of the means of internationalizing science, since artificial languages ​​are unified, international.

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