In the first half of the XIX century. In the first half of the nineteenth century

The culture of Russia in the first half of the 19th century is a significant stage in the development of the spiritual and moral values ​​of Russian society. It is amazing what scale the creative process has assumed, all the depth of its content and richness of forms. For half a century, the cultural community has risen to a new level: multifaceted, polyphonic, unique.

Prerequisites for the emergence and cultural development of the "golden age"

The development of Russian culture in the first half of the 19th century was due to a high degree of national interests. Humanitarian education, begun under Catherine II, gave impetus to the development of education, the opening of many educational institutions and the expansion of opportunities for obtaining new knowledge.

The borders of the state were expanded, on the territory of which about 165 different peoples lived with their own customs and mentality. New navigators and discoverers continued the traditions of their predecessors.

The Russian-French war of 1812 influenced the formation of patriotic thought, moral values ​​of the Russian people. In the first half of the 19th century, Russia attracted interest by the national self-consciousness that had become stronger in society.

However, the current political situation within the country did not give complete freedom to implement all ideas in art. The uprising of the Decembrists and the activities of secret societies forced the Russian emperors to prevent the penetration of advanced ideas into any cultural spheres.

The science

The improvement of public education was reflected in the culture of Russia in the first half of the 19th century. Briefly, it can be called dual. On the one hand, new educational institutions were opened, on the other hand, strict censorship measures were introduced, for example, philosophy lessons were canceled. In addition, universities and gymnasiums were constantly under the strict supervision of the Ministry of Public Education.

Despite this, Russian culture in the first half of the 19th century is characterized by a big breakthrough in the development of science.

Biology and medicine

The material on the animal and plant world that had accumulated by the beginning of the 19th century required rethinking and developing new theories. This was done by Russian naturalists K.M. Baer, ​​I.A. Dvigubsky, I.E. Dyadkovsky.

The richest collections of plants and animals from different parts of the world were collected. And in 1812, the opening of the Botanical Garden in the Crimea took place.

N.I. made his tangible contribution to the development of medicine. Pirogov. Thanks to his selfless work, the world learned what military field surgery is.

Geology and astronomy

With the beginning of the century, geology also waited in the wings. Its development covered all Russian lands.

A significant achievement was the compilation of the first geological map of Russia in 1840. This was done by the research scientist N.I. Koksharov.

Astronomy required careful and scrupulous calculations and observations. It took a long time. The process was greatly facilitated when the Pulkovo Observatory was established in 1839.

Mathematics and physics

Worldwide discoveries have been made in mathematics. So, N.I. Lobachevsky became famous for his "non-Euclidean geometry". P.L. Chebyshev substantiated the law big numbers, and M.V. Ostrogradsky studied analytical and celestial mechanics.

The first half of the 19th century can be called a golden time for physics, because the first electromagnetic telegraph was created (P.L. Schilling), the result of an experiment on electric lighting was obtained (V.V. Petrov), an electric motor was invented (E.Kh. Lenz).

Architecture

The artistic culture of Russia in the first half of the 19th century attracted considerable public interest. The most important feature its development was a rapid change of styles, as well as their combination.

Classicism reigned in architecture until the 1840s. The Empire style can be recognized in many buildings of the two capitals, as well as in many regional centers that were previously provincial cities.

This period is characterized by the building architectural ensembles. For example, or the Senate in St. Petersburg.

The culture of Russia in the first half of the 19th century gave rise to bright representatives of this style. Architecture was expressed in the works of A.D. Zakharova, K.I. Rossi, D.I. Gilardi, O.I. Beauvais.

The Empire style replaced the Russian-Byzantine style, in which the Cathedral of Christ the Savior and the Armory were built (architect K.A. Ton).

Painting

This period in painting is characterized by an interest in the personality of an ordinary person. Artists are moving away from traditional biblical and mythological styles.

Among other outstanding sculptors of that time were I.I. Terebenev (" Poltava battle"), IN AND. Demut-Malinovsky, B.I. Orlovsky (the figure of an angel on the Alexander Column), etc.

Music

The culture of Russia in the first half of the 19th century experienced a huge influence of the heroic past. The music was influenced by folk melodies as well as national themes. These currents are reflected in the opera "Ivan Susanin" by K.A. Kavos, works by A.A. Alyabyeva, A.E. Varlamov.

M.I. Glinka occupied a central place among composers. He approved new traditions and discovered genres never seen before. The opera A Life for the Tsar fully reflects the essence of the musician's entire work.

Russian culture in the first half of the 19th century gave rise to another brilliant composer who introduced the genre of psychological drama into music. This is A.S. Dargomyzhsky and his great opera "Mermaid".

Theatre

The Russian theater opened up space for the imagination, practically abandoning ceremonial performances in the style of classicism. Now romantic motifs, tragic plots of plays prevailed there.

One of the most famous representatives of the theatrical environment was P.S. Mochalov, who played the roles of Hamlet and Ferdinand (according to Shakespeare).

The reformer of Russian acting art M.S. Shchepkin was a native of serfs. He gave completely new ideas, thanks to which his roles were admired, and the Maly Theater of Moscow became the most popular place among the audience.

The realistic style in the theater was generated by the works of A.S. Pushkin, A.S. Griboyedov.

Literature

The most important public problems reflected the culture of Russia in the first half of the 19th century. Literature strengthened referring to the historical past of the country. An example of this is N.M. Karamzin.

Romanticism in literature was represented by such prominent figures as V.A. Zhukovsky, A.I. Odoevsky, early A.S. Pushkin. The late stage of Pushkin's work is realism. "Boris Godunov", "The Captain's Daughter", "The Bronze Horseman" are inscribed in this direction. In addition, M.Yu. Lermontov created "The Hero of Our Time", which is an outstanding example realism literature.

Critical realism became the basis of N.V. Gogol ("Overcoat", "Inspector").

Among other representatives of literature who influenced its formation, one can name A.N. Ostrovsky with his unusually realistic plays, I.S. Turgenev, who paid his attention to the theme of the serf village and nature, as well as D.V. Grigorovich.

Literature has made a significant contribution to the cultural development of Russia. The first half of the 19th century is characterized by the formation of modern literary language instead of the ponderous and ornate language of the 18th century. The work of writers and poets of this period became a landmark and influenced the further formation of not only Russian, but also world culture.

Having absorbed and rethought the works of Russian and European civilizations, the culture of Russia in the first half of the 19th century created a solid foundation for the favorable development of science and art in the future.

In the first half of the 19th century

(2 hours)

2.1 Russian Empire in the first half of the 19th century Alexander I: from reforms to reaction. First quarter of the 19th century - the reign of Emperor Alexander I, who ascended the throne as a result of a palace coup on March 11, 1801. A favorite of Catherine II, Alexander received an excellent education under the guidance of the Swiss republican F.S. Laharpe, who inspired the young pupil with the high ideals of the philosophy of the Enlightenment (freedom, equality, legality, dignity of the individual). However, in real life, the heir observed something else - the flourishing of serfdom and the corruption of high dignitaries, court intrigues, hostility between grandmother and father. The result was the duality of Alexander's views and policies.

Historical sketch:

The opinions of contemporaries about Alexander I were extremely contradictory. Napoleon, who was ambivalent about Alexander, noted: “Alexander is smart, pleasant, educated, but he cannot be trusted; he is insincere." A.S. Pushkin, noting the "beginning of the days of Alexander", called the emperor "the ruler is weak and crafty." P. A. Vyazemsky, a friend of the poet and a well-known journalist, wrote about him: “... the sphinx, unsolved to the grave, is still arguing about it again.”

Having ascended the throne, Alexander declared that he would rule "according to the laws and the heart", but the need for a new course was clear to the king and his inner circle. The main tasks were seen as the limitation of autocracy, the abolition of serfdom and the comprehensive development of education, designed to prepare the people for the perception of political freedoms. The need to limit the autocracy was determined both by memories of the despotism and arbitrariness of Paul, and by the spread of the ideas of the Great French Revolution, which began to influence Russian society.

In the first years of his reign around Alexander there was The secret committee- a circle of liberal-minded young aristocrats (Count P.A. Stroganov, Count V.P. Kochubey, N.N. Novosiltsev, Prince A. Czartorysky). It was decided to begin the preparation of reforms with the improvement of the administration. The reform of 1802 replaced the obsolete colleges with new central bodies - ministries based on strict unity of command (the minister reported directly to the emperor and received orders from him on the most important issues). Eight ministries were formed: military, maritime, internal affairs, foreign affairs, justice, finance, commerce and public education. The Committee of Ministers was established. The Senate was restored in the rights of the highest administrative-judicial institution.

In the peasant question, the government sought not to infringe on the interests of the landowners, but at the same time to alleviate the lot of the peasants, primarily serfs. The decree of 1801 allowed not only nobles, but also merchants, petty bourgeois, state and appanage peasants to buy land. In 1803, a decree was issued on "free cultivators", which gave the landowners the right to release peasants with land for a ransom. However, the landowners held fast to free peasant labor, they were afraid to go bankrupt during the transition to civilian relations. People from captivity and those taken by recruitment received freedom. Successful business went in the western lands of the empire (the Baltic states), which were distinguished by a higher level of development of commodity-money relations. Here serfdom was abolished in 1804-1819 - the peasants received freedom, but without land.

The new regulation on educational institutions of 1803 introduced an all-estate system of four levels (parochial school - county school - gymnasium - university). It was assumed that any native of the free estates, having started his studies from the lowest level, would be able to reach the university. New universities were opened in St. Petersburg, Kazan, Kharkov, Vilna (now Vilnius, Lithuania) and Dorpat (now Tartu, Estonia). The charter of 1804 granted the universities significant autonomy (the right to choose a rector and professors, to independently decide their own affairs). In the same year, a very liberal censorship charter was issued. By such measures, the Winter Palace tried to win over the sympathy of the enlightened part of society.

In 1808-1812. the preparation of projects for the reorganization of the state management system, which was concentrated in the Ministry of Internal Affairs and was under the leadership of M.M. Speransky.

Speransky Mikhail Mikhailovich (1772-1839)– statesman, the closest associate of Alexander I. Developed a plan for the constitutional transformation of the state system of Russia (“Introduction to the Code of State Laws”, 1809). Prepared the transformation of ministries (1811) and the establishment of the Council of State (1810). Exiled at the insistence of conservative dignitaries and the upper nobility. During the reign of Nicholas I, he led the codification of legislation, in fact he headed the II department of the Imperial Chancellery. Prepared the publication of the Code of Laws and the Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire.

By 1809, Speransky prepared a draft reform called "Introduction to the Code of State Laws." Speransky's project proceeded from the need to "clothe" the monarchy with a constitution, to abolish serfdom, gradually and in stages. Speransky proposed to introduce representative government in Russia based on the separation of powers. The tops of society were to elect deputies to local dumas and State Duma which had legislative functions. Ministries in the center and local governments were the executive power. Courts independent of the administration were to be subordinate to the Senate. The emperor was the center of all authorities, under which the State Council was established to coordinate the management system. The project also provided for social changes: the entire population of the country was divided into three estates (the nobility, the “middle class” and the “working people”), which were endowed with various general civil and political rights.

The implementation of Speransky's project began with the opening of the State Council (1810) and the reorganization of ministries (1811). In an effort to attract a new generation of enlightened and competent officials to the service, Speransky insisted on the publication in 1809 of a decree according to which promotion depended on having a university diploma. In response to Speransky's project, N. M. Karamzin submitted to the tsar a note "On Ancient and New Russia", in which he argued that any violation of the autocratic nature of tsarist power would lead Russia to confusion, that the prosperity of Russia would not be brought by administrative reforms, but by the selection of worthy people for leadership positions. Under pressure from the conservative environment, Alexander was forced in March 1812 to remove Speransky from business and send him into exile. Nevertheless, Alexander did not immediately part with the idea of ​​\u200b\u200breforms. After the end of the Napoleonic wars, at his insistence, Central Poland (the Kingdom of Poland) was included in the Russian Empire, in which a constitutional device was introduced: the parliament (Sejm) was endowed with legislative power. The executive power was handed over to the emperor, who was represented in the Kingdom by the viceroy. A few years earlier, in 1809, after being incorporated into the Empire, Finland was also granted a constitution.

Opening the meeting of the Polish Sejm in 1818, Alexander announced his intention to grant a constitutional order to all of Russia. N. N. Novosiltsev led the work on the preparation of a new reform. According to his project, called the "State Charter of the Russian Empire", Russia was supposed to introduce basic civil liberties (speech, conscience, movement, etc.), bicameral representation and broad regional autonomy. New projects for the abolition of serfdom were also developed. But the king did not dare to accept them.

In 1816 military settlements were created. This undertaking, designed to reduce the cost of the army, turned out to be one of the most reactionary measures of Alexander's reign, the worst form of serfdom. Military settlements were created in St. Petersburg, Novgorod, Mogilev, Kharkov provinces. The settlers (soldiers stationed in the villages and state peasants, transferred to the rank of military personnel) were supposed to be engaged in both agriculture and military service. A. Arakcheev became the head of the military settlements. The introduction of military settlements caused stubborn resistance, which was ruthlessly suppressed by armed force.

In 1820, the Guards Semyonovsky Regiment revolted in St. Petersburg, outraged by the cruel treatment of the commanders. Under the influence of uprisings in Russia and new revolutions in the West, Alexander I is increasingly turning to the path of reaction. In 1821, St. Petersburg and Kazan universities were destroyed, the best professors were fired or put on trial.

From the beginning of the 1820s, news reached Alexander about secret anti-government societies of officers, conspiracies, and plans for regicide. Seeing the actual collapse of his policy, Alexander increasingly moved away from state affairs, transferring them to Arakcheev (since 1822 he was the only speaker to the tsar on all issues). The unexpected death of Alexander in Taganrog gave rise to a legend about a secret renunciation of power and leaving "to the people" under the name of the elder Fyodor Kuzmich, but no documentary evidence of this legend was found.

By the beginning of the XIX century. new trends in the socio-political development of Russia have necessitated fundamental changes in the spheres of the peasant question, government controlled, dissemination of education. However, after the completion of the Napoleonic wars, the reforms were curtailed and the transition to reaction took place. The reason for the failure of the reforms was the weakness of internal prerequisites for the abolition of serfdom, the resistance of conservative circles. The refusal of the government to carry out reforms had a negative impact on the further development of the country and became one of the most important prerequisites for the emergence of a revolutionary movement (Decembrists) in the country.

2.2 Defeated Napoleon and the beginning of the Caucasian wars. Finished by the end of the XVIII century. access to natural borders (the Black Sea and the foothills of the Caucasus), Russia met with strong opponents - the Ottoman Empire and Persia. Traditional for Russian foreign policy was the slogan of protecting the Christians of the Balkans and Transcaucasia from the oppression of the Muslim powers. Following Eastern Georgia (Kartli - Kakheti) (1801), by 1804, the Georgian principalities of Guria, Imeretia, Megrelia became part of Russia. Iran refused to recognize the accession of Georgia to Russia and opened hostilities in the Transcaucasus. As a result of the Russian-Iranian war of 1804-1813, victorious for Russia, the Gulistan peace was concluded (Dagestan and Northern Azerbaijan became part of Russia). In 1806, the Russian-Turkish war began, the reason for which was the removal by the Sultan from power of the rulers of Moldavia and Wallachia. According to the Bucharest Peace Treaty of 1812, Bessarabia and a section of the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus with the city of Sukhum became part of Russia, the autonomy of Moldavia, Wallachia and Serbia was confirmed, and Russia's right to patronage the Balkan Christians.

The core of international contradictions in the first quarter of the XIX century. was the confrontation between Napoleonic France and the European powers, primarily England, France's rival in colonial and commercial affairs. Alexander I concluded peace treaties with both England and France, but the unstable balance could not last long. In 1805, Russia, together with England, Austria and Sweden, became part of the 3rd anti-Napoleonic coalition, which disintegrated after the defeat of the Allied armies in November 1805 near Austerlitz.

In 1806, an anti-Napoleonic coalition was formed (England, Prussia, Russia). Almost immediately after entering the war, Prussia was defeated by Napoleonic troops, and Berlin was taken. Under Friedland ( East Prussia) the Russian army suffered a heavy defeat. In 1807, the Treaty of Tilsit was signed between Russia and France. Russia and France delimited spheres of influence. Napoleon recognized Russia's right to Bessarabia, Russia got the opportunity to enter the war with Sweden for Finland and secure its northwestern borders (according to the Friedrichsgam peace of 1809). At the request of Napoleon, Russia was forced to participate in the continental blockade of England, which undermined the Russian economy.

Despite assurances of peacefulness, the parties understood the temporary nature of the truce. The threat to Russia was the Duchy of Warsaw created by Napoleon, which became a springboard for French troops. Since 1811, the parties began to prepare for a new war. The causes of the war were: the clash of Napoleon's claims to world domination with the desire of Alexander I to lead European politics, the conflict between France and Russia due to non-compliance with the continental blockade, the Polish question, the German problem (Napoleon annexed the Duchy of Oldenburg to France, which belonged to Alexander's uncle).

On June 12 (24), about 450 thousand Napoleon's soldiers (French, Polish, German, Spanish, Portuguese troops), crossing the Neman River, invaded Russia. The Russian army numbered more than 220 thousand people. Napoleon's plan was to defeat the Russian armies one by one, without going deep into Russian territory. In an effort to avoid defeat, the armies of Barclay de Tolly and Bagration (covering St. Petersburg and Moscow directions) began to retreat inland. After the outbreak of hostilities, a guerrilla war unfolded, the population left along with the retreating troops. The war took on the character of a Patriotic war, that is, a nationwide war based on the broad participation of the civilian population in the hostilities.

The Russian armies managed to break away from the enemy and unite on August 2 (14) near Smolensk. The question of unity of command arose, and at the insistence of his closest advisers, Alexander I appointed M. I. Kutuzov, who was popular in the army and among the people, as commander-in-chief. In an effort to raise the morale of the troops, recognizing the impossibility of surrendering Moscow without a fight, Kutuzov decides to give a general battle to Napoleon near the village. Borodino near Mozhaisk. Kutuzov's tasks were to stop the advance of the enemy, to undermine him military power and, if successful, go on the counteroffensive. Napoleon, on the other hand, hoped to destroy the Russian army and dictate the terms of peace from Moscow. The battle took place on August 26 (September 7). Both sides suffered colossal losses, but for the Napoleonic army, the consequences of the battle were more severe. The halo of invincibility of the great commander was undermined. At the same time, the Russian army did not have the strength for the second general battle, it was decided to leave Moscow. On September 2 (14), Napoleon entered the city devastated by fire and depopulated. Leaving Moscow along the Ryazan road, the Russian army, having carried out a march maneuver, crossed to the Kaluga road and camped near the village of Tarutino. This made it possible to cover the southern direction to Ukraine and to the Tula arms factories. On October 7 (19), Napoleon withdrew his army from Moscow, and after a fierce battle near Maloyaroslavets, the French emperor gave the order to retreat along the devastated Smolensk road.

The growing partisan movement involved both spontaneous peasant detachments and army units. battle groups. Hussar Lieutenant Colonel D.V. Davydov, soldier Yermolai Chetvertakov, peasants Gerasim Kurin, Vasilisa Kozhina and others were especially famous among the partisan commanders. no more than 30 thousand French soldiers crossed.

However, Napoleon retained the backbone of the army, kept all of Europe in subjection and prepared to resume the war. Russia transferred hostilities to Europe, calling on its peoples to rise up against Napoleonic rule. An alliance was formed between Russia, Prussia and Austria. Napoleon, meanwhile, managed to inflict a series of serious defeats on the allies. However, in October 1813, the allied forces delivered a decisive blow to Napoleon near Leipzig (“Battle of the Nations”). Soon France capitulated. Patriotic war of 1812 and foreign campaigns of 1813-1814. became the largest milestone in the history of Russia, they sharply increased its international significance, provided it with a leading role in European affairs. The war contributed to the colossal growth of national self-consciousness.

The results of the Napoleonic wars were summed up at the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815). Napoleon was deprived of the throne, exiled to the island of Elba, and then, after an attempt to return to power ("one hundred days") - to St. Helena in Atlantic Ocean. France was returning to pre-revolutionary borders. On the thrones of France, Spain, Italian states, the old royal dynasties. Russia included the Duchy of Warsaw in its composition, granting it a constitutional structure. Alexander I invited the monarchs of Austria and Prussia to conclude a Holy Alliance - an agreement on Christian friendship and love, which was supposed to bind the rulers of Europe with each other and with their subjects. Russia's participation in the Holy Alliance, its active role in organizing counter-revolutionary interventions caused a sharp protest in liberal circles. Russian society contributed to the resumption of the opposition movement in Russia.

In connection with the inclusion of Transcaucasia into Russia, the question arose of subordinating the North Caucasus. By the beginning of the century, about 100 nationalities lived in the North Caucasus, the population numbered approximately 1.5 million people. The way of life of the highlanders intertwined tribal, slaveholding and feudal relations. Some regions of the Caucasus (Ossetia, Kabarda) voluntarily accepted Russian citizenship, others (Adygea, Cherkessia, Chechnya) resisted the Russian troops. Since 1817, under the leadership of General A.P. Yermolov, the advance of Russian troops in the North Caucasus began. This caused a movement of murids, fighters for the faith, among the mountaineers-Muslims. Under the leadership of the spiritual leader (imam), the murids waged a holy war against the "infidels" (Christians) - ghazavat, which lasted until 1864.

2.3 Decembrist movement. At the beginning of the century, the social movement gradually split into two currents: government and opposition. At the origins of the first of them was a remarkable historian, writer, publicist N. M. Karamzin. He considered the only acceptable way evolutionary development under the state structure, which is characteristic of every nation. In his opinion, the monarchical form of government most fully corresponded to the level of morality and enlightenment of the Russian people, at the same time, the country should be governed on the basis of firm and clear laws. Karamzin outlined his views in a note "On ancient and new Russia in its political and civil relations."

The 1810s-1820s were marked by the birth and development of the revolutionary movement of the Decembrists in Russia. Unlike the countries of Western, Central and Southern Europe, which went through a period of bourgeois revolutions, the revolutionary movement in Russia at the beginning of the 19th century. was represented almost exclusively by the nobility. This was explained by the peculiarities of the country's social structure: the weakness and lack of independence of the bourgeoisie, which had barely begun to emerge in the 18th century, and the leading social role of the nobility.

The participants of the Decembrist societies were young noblemen, officers who realized the negative impact of autocracy and serfdom on the development of the country, who dreamed of putting an end to Russia's lagging behind the advanced countries of Europe. A huge incentive was the foreign campaigns of 1813-1814, during which the officers became closely acquainted with the way of Europe and felt the contrast with the order that prevailed in Russia. The ideology of the Decembrists was based both on the concepts of the French philosophers of the Enlightenment (Rousseau, Diderot, Voltaire), and on the ideas of Russian freethinkers (N. I. Novikova, A. N. Radishcheva). One of the main sources of Decembrism was the Patriotic War against Napoleonic France. The active participation in the war of the people, their heroism came into sharp conflict with the serfdom and class system that prevailed in Russia. Finally, revolutionary uprisings in European countries (the revolutions of the early 1820s in Spain and the states of Italy) served as an example for the Decembrists.

The first political organization was founded in 1816 in St. Petersburg " Salvation Union, the founders of which were A.N. Muravyov, N.M. Muravyov, brothers M.I. and S.I. Muravyov-Apostles, S. P. Trubetskoy, P. I. Pestel. A small and closed (up to 30 people) society was of a conspiratorial nature and did not have a well-thought-out tactic. At the time of the change of reign, it was supposed to “pull out” the constitution from the new king, refusing to take an oath to him, thoughts of regicide were nurtured. The search for a different tactic led to the creation in 1818 new (up to 200 people) organizations - "Union of Prosperity". The main task of the "Union" was declared to be the impact on public opinion, assistance to the government in carrying out reforms. Books and literary almanacs were published, schools for the people were established, propaganda was carried out in the salons against serfdom and cruel orders in the army.

The government's turn to reaction, differences among the Decembrists led to the elimination of 1821 of the "Union of Welfare" and the emergence Northern and Southern Societies. The northern society with its center in St. Petersburg was headed by N. M. Muravyov, S. P. Trubetskoy, and K. F. Ryleev. In Ukraine, at the points of deployment of army formations, the Southern Society arose, the leader of which was P.I. Pestel.

Pestel Pavel Ivanovich(1793-1826) - one of the leaders of the Decembrist movement, a member of the Union of Salvation and the Union of Welfare, leader of the Southern Society. The son of the Siberian governor-general, colonel, commander of the Vyatka infantry regiment, hero of Borodin and Leipzig. Everyone who knew Pestel admired his mind and willpower, although they feared his colossal ambition, finding in him, even outwardly, a resemblance to Napoleon. Author of Russkaya Pravda (a radical version of the Decembrists' program). A supporter of the republican structure, strict state centralization, partial confiscation of landowners' lands. Executed after the suppression of the Decembrist uprising.

Both societies considered themselves as a single whole, there were constant contacts between them. The main program documents of Decembrism were drawn up - the "Constitution" N.M. Muravyov and Russkaya Pravda by Pestel.

Muravyov Nikita Mikhailovich(1796-1843) - one of the leaders of the Decembrist movement, a member of the Union of Salvation and the Union of Welfare, leader of the Northern Society. He had a fortune of a million, was excellently educated, spoke 7 languages, and a brilliant military or scientific career opened up before him. However, N. Muravyov gave up everything for the sake of fighting for the transformation of Russia. Author of the "Constitution" (a moderate version of the Decembrists' program). Supporter of the constitutional monarchy, federalism, landless liberation of the peasants.

Both programs assumed the elimination of autocracy and serfdom, the abolition of class restrictions, the introduction of personal immunity and basic civil liberties (speech, conscience, movement, etc.). Both documents were inspired by the ideals of the philosophy of the Enlightenment and the slogans of the European revolutions (“freedom, equality, fraternity”), but the emphasis in them was placed differently. According to the "Constitution", Russia became a constitutional monarchy with a bicameral parliament (People's Council), but the right to participate in elections was limited by a high property qualification. A federal structure was assumed: Russia was divided into 14 regions - "powers" with broad autonomy. To carry out the planned transformations, according to Muravyov, the Constituent Assembly elected by the society should have been. Serfdom was abolished, but the peasants were released with an insignificant allotment of 2 acres.

According to the project of P.I. Pestel, all Russian citizens endowed voting rights regardless of property status. Russia was declared a republic with a unicameral People's Council, the executive power was entrusted to the Sovereign Duma - a council of five people. All land in the state was divided into two parts: private and public, and each citizen could demand an allotment from the public fund. To create a public fund, partial confiscation of landed estates was allowed. Defending the principle of equality, Pestel at the same time demanded the restriction of a number of public freedoms: he strongly opposed political unions independent of the government, and was an enemy of federalism. According to his project, "all the various tribes that make up the Russian state are recognized as Russian and, adding up their various names, constitute one Russian people." To carry out the transformations outlined by Pestel, a military dictatorship established for 10 years was supposed to.

The signal for the Decembrists to act was the unexpected death of Alexander I in Taganrog and the two-week interregnum that followed. Alexander died childless, and the throne, according to the law, was to pass to his brother Konstantin, the governor of the Kingdom of Poland. The troops and dignitaries swore allegiance to Constantine, but he refused the throne. A new oath was appointed to Nicholas, the next in seniority to the son of Paul. The Decembrists decided to take advantage of the good moment and declare their demands. It was planned on the morning of the day of the oath (December 14) to withdraw troops to the Senate Square, prevent the oath to Nicholas and force the Senate to publish the "Manifesto to the Russian people", which contained the main slogans of the Decembrists. The Decembrist officers brought to the square the Moscow Life Guards Regiment, the Guards Naval Crew and some other units, elected "dictator" (leader) of the uprising S.P. Trubetskoy did not appear on the square. Nicholas, not confident in his abilities, sent parliamentarians to the rebels, but the Decembrist P.G. Kakhovsky mortally wounded one of the envoys of the hero of the war of 1812, the St. Petersburg Governor-General M.A. Miloradovich. The rebels were scattered by volleys of buckshot. On December 29, the Chernigov regiment led by members of the Southern Society S.I. Muravyov-Apostol and M.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin (Pestel had already been arrested by this time), but the command managed to isolate the regiment and suppress the uprising. After the defeat of the Decembrists, an investigation and trial were organized, as a result of which 131 people were sentenced to various punishments. Five of them - P.I. Pestel, K.F. Ryleev, S.I. Muraviev-Apostol, M.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin, P.G. Kakhovsky - were executed.

The reasons for the defeat of the Decembrists were an extremely narrow social base, the lack of support from broad public circles, and the contradictions between the participants in the movement. Nevertheless, the Decembrist movement is of unquestionable importance in the history of Russia as one of the first attempts by representatives of society to change the social and political system of the country.

2.2 Reign of Nicholas I. Nicholas I came to the throne in 1825 and ruled Russia for thirty years. His time is the apogee of autocracy in Russia. The new tsar happened to rule in an era of revolutionary upheavals in the West, the reign of his predecessor Alexander I, abundant in liberal undertakings, ended with the Decembrist uprising. To ensure the welfare of the country, according to Nicholas, the strict fulfillment of all their duties, the regulation of all public life, and all-encompassing control from above should have been.

Hoping for the effectiveness of measures taken "from above", Nikolai established on December 6, 1826 a secret Committee, designed to prepare the transformation of state administration. In the same year, the transformation of the Tsar's Own Chancellery into the most important body of state administration began. The 1st department of the office was in charge of the papers received in the name of the king, and carried out his personal orders and instructions. In the second department, work was concentrated on the codification (streamlining) of laws. This work was supervised by M. M. Speransky. The Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire (1828-1830) was prepared and published, which included all Russian legislation, starting with the Council Code of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, and the Code of Laws of the Russian Empire (1833), which contained the current legal norms. According to Speransky, the "Assembly" and the "Code of Laws" were to become the basis for the creation of a new Code. The third department was given the affairs of the highest secret police (for this it was given a corps of gendarmes), political investigation and, in fact, supervision of all spheres of society. Section III was supposed to eliminate abuses in the management system. At the head of the department stood Count A. Kh. Benckendorff, close to Nicholas. Section IV dealt with educational and charitable institutions. In Section V, preparations were made for the reform of the state village, and in 1837 this section was transformed into the Ministry of State Property. Section VI worked temporarily and was in charge of the affairs of the Transcaucasian territories annexed to Russia. These transformations in the management system led to a narrowing of the powers and rights of the Senate and the State Council. The over-centralization of management resulted in the fact that the highest authorities were overwhelmed with papers and lost control over the state of affairs on the ground. Petty regulation led to red tape and abuse. “Russia is not ruled by me, it is ruled by head clerks,” Nikolai admitted in a moment of frankness.

During his reign, nine secret committees on the peasant question worked and about 100 decrees were issued. General direction policy on this issue consisted in the desire to somewhat weaken the dependence of the peasants on the landowners and to strengthen government guardianship over the life of the village. In 1933, a ban was introduced on the sale of peasants without land and with the division of the family, on the compensation of frequent debts by peasants. In 1837–1841 the state village was reformed P.D. Kiseleva. State peasants became legally free landowners, peasant self-government was introduced, the apparatus for managing the state village was streamlined, headed by the Ministry of State Property, and the allotments of the peasants were increased. Similar transformations took place in the specific village, but the position of the landlord peasants did not improve. In 1842, a decree on obligated peasants was adopted, which allowed landowners to release peasants into freedom, transferring land to them not for ownership (as provided for by the law on “free cultivators” of 1803), but for use. By decree of 1847, serfs, when selling a landowner's estate for debts, could redeem themselves and be included in the category of state peasants. In 1847, inventory rules were introduced, i.e., regulation by the state of the size of peasant allotments and duties that could not be changed by the landowner (Belarus and Right-Bank Ukraine). The government took this measure in an effort to undermine the influence of the local (mostly Polish) nobility, which was in opposition to Russia.

Kiselev Pavel Dmitrievich(1788-1872) - statesman, one of the associates of Nicholas I. Supporter of the abolition of serfdom. He prepared the reform of the state village and the decree on obligated peasants (1842). Headed the Ministry of State Property.

In an attempt to reduce the influx of representatives of the lower classes into the ranks of the nobility, the authorities in 1845 raised the ranks that gave (according to the Table of Ranks) the right to hereditary nobility. By the decree “On the procedure for acquiring the nobility”, hereditary nobility was given from the 5th civil rank, personal nobility - from the 9th rank. For the bourgeoisie and in order to limit the influx of non-nobles into the nobility, a new estate category of honorary citizens (hereditary and personal) was introduced, which provided a number of privileges (freedom from the poll tax, recruitment duty and corporal punishment).

Control over the minds and souls of subjects was the most important direction of the policy of the Nikolaev government. The Minister of Public Education, Count S.S. Uvarov. The main guideline for the spiritual development of Russia, according to Uvarov, was to be the triad "Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality" (the theory of official nationality). Emphasizing the sacred character of the autocracy, this formula connected it both with the national character of Russia (opposite in spirit to the Western European way of life) and with the aspirations of the bulk of the people.

Uvarov Sergey Semenovich(1786-1855) - statesman, one of the associates of Nicholas I. Minister of Public Education. He prepared the adoption of the censorship and school charters (1828), the university charter (1835). He developed and tried to introduce the theory of official nationality (“Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality”) into the ideological life of the country. Dismissed with the beginning of the government reaction.

To control public sentiment in 1826, a new censorship charter was introduced, nicknamed "cast iron" by contemporaries. In 1828, a reform of secondary and lower educational institutions was carried out: one-class parish schools - for peasants, three-class county schools - for the townspeople and merchants, seven-class gymnasiums that prepared for entering the university - for children of nobles and officials. The new university charter of 1835 limited the autonomy of the universities, and introduced strict police supervision of the mentality and behavior of students.

The last stage of Nicholas's reign was the "Gloomy Seven Years" of 1848-1855. - was, in fact, the agony of the system of Nicholas I. The main part of the problems facing the country (the abolition of serfdom, the improvement of the management system, the further development of education) was not resolved. Nevertheless, many of the measures taken under Nicholas formed the basis of the reforms of Alexander II in the 1860s and 1870s.

Socio-political thought and movement in the 30-50s of the XIX century. The reaction to the failure of the reforms of Alexander I and the defeat of the Decembrists was the growth of conservative tendencies in Russian society. It was on them that the Minister of Public Education, Count S.S., relied. Uvarov, putting forward his theory of official nationality. The mouthpieces of government ideology were the popular journalists F.V. Bulgarin and N. I. Grech, who published the newspaper "Northern Bee". The ideological substantiation of the government concept of the professor of Moscow University M.P. Pogodin and S.P. Shevyrev. They sharply contrasted Russia with the "decaying West": the West is shaken by revolutions, while calm reigns in Russia. This was connected, in their opinion, with the beneficial influence of the autocracy and the power of the landowner over the peasants, who ensured social peace in Russia.

A sharp reaction to government ideology was the speech P.Ya. Chaadaev. In 1836, he published his "Philosophical Letter" in the Telescope magazine, in which he expressed thoughts contrary to the official ones. “Lonely in the world,” he wrote. Chaadaev, “we gave nothing to the world ... we did not contribute to the progress of the human mind, and we distorted everything that we got from this progress.” The reason for this, Chaadaev believed, was the separation of Russia from the rest of Europe and, in particular, the Orthodox worldview. The relative stability of the Russian way of life was, in his eyes, evidence of the inertia and passivity of social forces. For his speech, Chaadaev, by order of the tsar, was declared insane and placed under house arrest. Chaadaev's speech touched on the problem that occupied the best minds of Russia and contributed to the formation of new ideological trends.

Chaadaev Petr Yakovlevich(1794–1856) – public figure, publicist. A brilliant hussar officer in the past, a participant in the Patriotic War of 1812, a friend of Pushkin and the Decembrists, put forward the thesis about the fundamental difference in the development paths of Russia and Western Europe, the superiority of Western civilization (“Philosophical Letter”, 1836). Chaadaev's speech contributed to a clearer formulation of the ideological positions of the Westernizers and Slavophiles.

In the late 1820s and early 1830s, the police defeated a number of secret circles at Moscow University (the Kritsky brothers, N.P. Sungurov, A.I. Herzen and N.P. Ogarev), who were trying to continue the traditions of the Decembrists. The centers of ideological life in the 1830s and 1840s were secular salons, university departments, and editorial offices of magazines.

By the end of the 1830s, movements of Westerners and Slavophiles had developed in Russian society. Westerners (historians T.N. Granovsky and S.M. Solovyov, lawyers K.D. Kavelin and B.N. Chicherin, writers V.G. Belinsky, V.P. Botkin, P.V. Annenkov) proceeded from the idea of ​​unity historical development humanity, and, consequently, about the unity of the historical paths of Russia and Western Europe.

Granovsky Timofey Nikolaevich (1813-1855)- historian and public figure, head of the Westerners movement, professor at Moscow University. He considered inevitable the establishment in Russia of Western European principles (freedom of the individual, the development of private initiative and entrepreneurship, the introduction of civil liberties and a parliamentary monarchy). A supporter of gradual reforms while relying on strong state power.

Kavelin Konstantin Dmitrievich(1818-1885) - historian and lawyer, professor at Moscow University, representative of the moderate (liberal) wing of the Westerners. He took part in the preparation of the abolition of serfdom. A supporter of gradual reforms while relying on strong state power.

Over time, Westerners believed, Western European orders should be established in Russia: political freedoms, a parliamentary structure, an economy based on the principle of free competition. The peaceful implementation of these principles in Russian life called upon to exercise state power, thereby preventing a repetition of Western European revolutions in Russia.

Other views were held Slavophiles (A.S. Khomyakov, brothers I.V. and P.V. Kireevsky, brothers K.S. and I.S. Aksakov, Yu.F. Samarin, Prince V.A. Cherkassky). They believed that every nation has its own destiny, and Russia is developing along a path different from that of Western Europe. This, however, did not make the Slavophiles supporters of the government ideology. They were resolute opponents of serfdom, criticized the despotism and bureaucracy with which the autocracy of Nicholas I was associated. The power of the tsar should remain unlimited, the Slavophils believed, but the people should at the same time receive freedom of conscience, the right to freely express their opinion in the press and at Zemsky Sobors. Such a combination, according to the Slavophils, corresponded to the original Russian principles: the Russian people never claimed to participate in political life, providing this area to the state, and the state did not interfere in the spiritual life of the people and listened to their opinion. The basis of Russian life, according to the Slavophiles, was the communal principle and the principle of consent (in contrast to the Western European orders based on formal legality and confrontation between individualistic principles). Deeply close to the Russian national character was, according to the Slavophiles, the Orthodox faith, which puts the general above the particular, calling for spiritual perfection, and not for the transformation of the external world. The harmonious way of Russian life was, according to the Slavophiles, destroyed by the reforms of Peter I.

Table 9 - Ideological differences between Westerners and Slavophiles

A.I. Herzen compared the Slavophiles and the Westernizers to the two-faced Janus or the two-headed eagle: they looked in different directions, but they had one heart beating in their chest. Indeed, the Westerners and Slavophiles were brought together by the defense of individual rights, public freedom, protest against despotism and bureaucracy, and serfdom. Common to Westernizers and Slavophiles was a resolute rejection of the revolution. Similarities between Slavophilism and Westernism allow us to consider them as varieties of the liberal movement. In the process of evolution of social thought, the direction represented by the names of V.G. Belinsky, A. I. Herzen, N.P. Ogaryov.

Herzen Alexander Ivanovich(1812-1870) - a representative of the radical wing of the Westerners. In the early 1830s, one of the leaders of the student circle at Moscow University was sent into exile. Since 1847 in exile. One of the leaders of the Free Russian Printing House in London. He played a decisive role in the development of the doctrine of "Russian socialism" (Russia will come to socialism earlier than the West, relying on the peasant community).

Occupying radical positions in the Western camp, they gradually came to a denial of the way of contemporary Europe: while providing citizens with formal political rights and freedoms, this way of life did not save thousands of people from poverty. Belinsky, Herzen and their like-minded people saw salvation in socialism - a just, in their opinion, social system, in which private property and the exploitation of man by man should be eliminated.

A major event in public life was Belinsky's letter to N.V. Gogol (1847), which sharply denounced the path of spiritual improvement proposed by the writer within the framework of the existing system. Inspired by the ideas of Western European thinkers (A. Saint-Simon and C. Fourier), Russian supporters of socialism gradually moved towards the development of their own theory. The foundations of such a theory were first outlined in the works of Herzen, who emigrated to the West in 1847 and launched a struggle against the Russian government. According to Herzen, the first to come to socialism is not Western Europe, too deeply mired in the bourgeois element, but Russia, to which bourgeois relations are still alien. The peasant community will become the backbone of socialism in Russia. In historical literature, the doctrine founded by Herzen was called "Russian" or "peasant socialism."

Socialist ideas were actively discussed at meetings of the circle of M. V. Butashevich-Petrashevsky in St. Petersburg, which consisted of writers, students, high school students, journalists, and petty officials.

Petrashevsky (Butashevich-Petrashevsky) Mikhail Vasilyevich(1821-1866) - public figure, leader of the Petrashevsky circle in St. Petersburg (united representatives of the Raznochinsk intelligentsia who were interested in the socio-political life of Western Europe). A supporter of Western European socialist teachings (Fourier and others). After the defeat of the mug by the police (1848), he was sent to hard labor.

Most of the Petrashevites advocated a republican system, the complete liberation of the peasants with land without redemption, some put forward the slogan of a peasant uprising. The police crushed the Petrashevists' society and persecuted their followers. The "gloomy seven years" came - a time of unrestrained reaction, which from 1855 was replaced by a new upsurge in the social movement.

Thus, in the 1830s and 1840s, the main directions of Russian social thought were formed: protective, revolutionary socialist and liberal (the latter is represented by the currents of Westerners and Slavophiles). During the discussions, the problems of Russia's identity, its relations with Western Europe, peaceful and violent (revolutionary) ways of transformation were deeply comprehended.

Foreign policy of Russia in the second quarter of the XIX century. Russian foreign policy still faced serious problems in the southern and western (European) directions. Turkey and Iran did not leave hopes for revenge. Unfolded in 1826-1828. the war with Iran culminated in the signing of the Turkmenchay peace, according to which Eastern Armenia (the Erivan and Nakhichevan khanates) went to Russia. War with Turkey 1828-1829 ended with the Peace of Adrianople, which transferred to Russia a significant part of the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus (from Anapa to Poti). As a result of the wars of the 1820s, the accession of Transcaucasia to Russia was basically completed. The war that began in 1817 continued in the North Caucasus. In 1834, Shamil was proclaimed imam, who created a strong theocratic state on the territory of Dagestan and Chechnya. In the 1830-1840s, Shamil managed to inflict a number of heavy defeats on the Russian troops. In 1859, Shamil's troops were finally defeated, and he himself was taken prisoner. In 1864, the last center of resistance of the highlanders-Circassians in the western part of the North Caucasus was liquidated. The accession of the Caucasus and Transcaucasia to Russia is one of the most dramatic and controversial pages of history. The inclusion of the region into Russia led to the elimination of civil strife and the slave trade, the cessation of mountaineer raids on the plains, contributed to the spread of advanced European culture in the Caucasus and Transcaucasia (foundation of schools, theaters, libraries, publication of literature, construction railways, factories and factories). However, the accession was carried out by armed, violent means, accompanied by heavy losses for both the Russian army and the highlanders. A knot of contradictions was tied in the North Caucasus and Transcaucasia, which became the most acute international and interethnic problem for decades.

The revolutions of 1830 in France and Belgium, the revolutionary wave of 1848 in a number of European countries caused Nicholas I to think about a military campaign to the West, but Russia's allies (Austria and Prussia), not interested in further strengthening Russia's influence in Europe, disrupted the organization "crusade". In 1849, Russian troops, at the call of the Austrian emperor, suppressed the uprising in Hungary. AT 1830 the uprising began in Poland. The leaders of the uprising - the Polish nobles - demanded the independence of Poland, formed the Provisional Revolutionary Government. At the beginning 1831 The uprising was suppressed by Russian troops, after which the constitution of 1815 and the Sejm were abolished, military administration was introduced in Poland.

By the end of the 1840s, the center of Russian foreign policy was increasingly shifting to the Balkans due to the aggravation eastern question.

Eastern question- the question of the fate of the Black Sea straits (Bosporus and Dardanelles), the fate of the Christian peoples of the Balkan Peninsula under Turkish rule, as well as the rivalry of the great powers in the Balkan Peninsula and the Middle East. Exacerbated at the end of the XVIII century. due to the weakening of the Ottoman Empire.

The strengthening of Russia's position aroused dissatisfaction with the Western powers, which had their own interests in the Balkans. The contradictions between Russia, on the one hand, Turkey and the European powers, on the other, began to grow uncontrollably, culminating in the Crimean War of 1853-1856. Causes of the war: Russia's desire for control over the Black Sea straits and increased influence in the Balkans; division of influence in the region between Russia, England and France. The reason for the start of the war was the dispute between Russia and France regarding control over the Holy places in Jerusalem (Russia in this dispute supported Orthodox clergy, France - Catholic). In 1853, Turkey, relying on the support of England and France, rejected Russia's ultimatum regarding the Holy Places. Russian troops entered Moldavia and Wallachia; The Sultan declared war on Russia.

Table 10 - Crimean War 1853-1856

According to the Treaty of Paris in 1856, the neutralization of the Black Sea was proclaimed, Russia and Turkey were forbidden to have a navy, arsenals and fortresses here. Russia was deprived of the southern part of Bessarabia with the mouth of the Danube, the right to patronize Serbia, Moldavia and Wallachia. The Crimean War was the result of the entire reign of Nicholas. The fundamental socio-economic problems were not resolved, and Russia turned out to be virtually defenseless in the face of Western states: since it did not have a railway network to transfer troops to the theater of operations, there was no developed modern industry to supply the army with rifled guns, the fleet - steam-propelled ships. Centralization and regulation fettered the initiative of military leaders and administrators. Shaken by the collapse of his policy, Nicholas I died at the height of the Crimean War in February 1855.

A special stage in the development of European society - the formation of an industrial civilization, the basis of which is technical progress, is the 19th century. At the beginning of the 19th century, a new phenomenon in the economy European countries become not individual discoveries and experiments, but the industrial development of new machines, the widespread introduction of new technologies. During this period, J. Stephenson invented a railway locomotive, and R. Fulton patented the world's first steamboat. In order to exchange experience from the middle of the XIX century. world industrial exhibitions began. On May 1, 1851, the first international industrial exhibition was organized in London.

The development of new technologies created favorable conditions for the industrial revolution that laid the foundation for the industrial economy. However, industrial revolutions in Western European countries did not occur simultaneously. England was the first to embark on the path of industrialization, where the prerequisites for an industrial revolution were formed earlier than other countries. These include:

significant accumulation of capital by entrepreneurs;

creation of a free labor market at the expense of peasants and ruined artisans;

the bourgeois revolution, which removed the obstacles to the development of new economic relations;

competition with other states.

During the industrial revolution, the state paid great attention to the development of science and technology. Qualified specialists were trained at Oxford, Cambridge and other universities. According to the law of 1802, entrepreneurs had to open factory schools, where for four years young people were trained on the job.

The Industrial Revolution, which lasted in England from the 60s of the 18th century until the 30s of the 19th century, turned the country into an industrial power. However, the orientation of the most important branches of production mainly to the colonial market had a negative impact on its economic development in the future. The industrial revolution that began in France at the end of the 18th century occurred more slowly than in England, due to the predominance of small peasant farming. Only in the 30-40s of the XIX century. in the main branches of industry, the transition to machine technology assumed wide scope. The initial stage of industrialization ends in France in the 70s. XIX century.

At the beginning of the 19th century, Germany was one of the most backward countries in Europe economically. The reasons for the lag were: the preservation of large landed estates, the guild system and the political fragmentation of the country.

Until the middle of the 19th century, Germany remained an agrarian country; the abolition of serfdom took place here much later than in the developed Western European countries. Unlike France, the abolition of serfdom in Germany was carried out gradually "from above", i.e. through government reforms. So release Agriculture from feudal remnants was of a protracted and contradictory nature. Similar situation took place in Russia in the 1860s.

At the beginning of the 19th century, the US economy was developing rapidly. By the middle of the 19th century, this country ranked 4th in the world in terms of total industrial production. In iron smelting, the United States took 3rd place after England and France. The industrial revolution began in the country in the 20-30s of the XIX century, covering the textile industry, food, metallurgy, engineering and transport. Farming developed in the north of the country, while the south remained a region of plantation agriculture based on the labor of slaves. After civil war(1861-1865) an economic recovery begins in the USA, caused by the abolition of slavery, the elimination of serf remnants, the presence of huge amount free land, a variety of natural resources.

Under the conditions of the industrial revolution, the population is growing rapidly, especially in urban areas. If in 1700 the world population was 610 million people, then in 1800 - 905 million people, and in 1900 - 1630 million people.

During this period, the social structure of the population is changing. The importance in the economic and political life of European countries of entrepreneurs who owned factories and factories and the working class is growing. In most countries of Western Europe, the formation of nations has been completed. The changes also affected the state structure of many European countries, where absolute monarchies were replaced by constitutional monarchies or republics.

Achievements in the field of science and technology have had a huge impact on the development of culture and education. In fiction at the beginning of the 19th century, romanticism dominated, which was based on a conflict with reality (W. Scott, J. Byron, W. Hugo, etc.).

In the 19th century, theories of the reorganization of society of the utopian socialists A. Saint-Simon, C. Fourier, and R. Owen appeared and were developed. In the middle of the 19th century, the teaching of Marxism, addressed to the class consciousness of people, was spreading.

Thus, the changes that took place in the economic, political, spiritual life of European states were reflected in culture and art.

Note that the 19th century occupies a special place not only in world history, but also in the history of Russia, since during this period the prerequisites were created for the abolition of serfdom, the industrial revolution and the transition to industrialization.

In terms of population, Russia is one of the largest states Europe (in 1800, 36 million people lived in the country, and in 1825 -52 million people).

The progress that began in the economy was associated with the development of new forms of economy and was characterized by the decline of sessional manufactory, the emergence of new industries, and the growth of urban population. However, the formation of new market relations in the country's economy had its own characteristics. The labor force was mainly represented by serfs. Only in a few industries, such as the cotton industry, did freelance labor predominate. In 1825, civilian workers accounted for about a third of all workers employed in industry, and even among them the majority were quitrent serfs released to work.

At the beginning of the 19th century, there were significant changes in agriculture. Grain makes up 20-25% of the value of Russian exports. The internal trade in bread is also expanding. In this regard, especially in the southern and southwestern provinces, the landowners begin to take away land from the peasants and strengthen the corvée.

Thus, in Russia, in contrast to the Western European countries, the growth of trade strengthened the feudal forms of management.

The country's financial system was also imperfect. Almost all taxes to the state budget came from the poll tax and excises - indirect taxes on wine, salt, tobacco and some other consumer goods.

A significant lag in terms of economic development of Russia from the countries of Western Europe required transformations in the economic, social life and state structure of the country.

Reorganization state structure country began during the reign of Alexander I. Representatives of the progressive-minded part of the nobility (P.A. Stroganov, V.P. Kochubey, N.N. Novosiltsev and
A. Czartoryski) created an Unofficial Committee, at whose meetings issues related to the further development of Russia were resolved. The main task of the committee was to prepare management reforms.

In September 1802, instead of the outdated Petrine collegiums, 8 ministries were formed, a committee of ministers was created. The reorganization also affected the Senate, which was the highest judicial instance. The Senate was divided into 9 departments and the ministers were obliged to submit annual reports to it.

One of the best representatives of the Russian reformers of the early 19th century was M.M. Speransky. In 1803, he compiled a “Note on the structure of judicial and government institutions”, and in 1809 he prepared the “Introduction to the Code of State Laws”. In these documents, M.M. Speransky pointed out that in Russia there are all conditions for a gradual transition to a constitutional monarchy. He proposed to introduce an elective system of representative bodies in the country.
Negative M.M. Speransky related to the serfdom of the peasants, considering, however, the abolition of serfdom was not a priority.

At the end of 1809 M.M. Speransky, appointed to the post of Secretary of State, begins reforms. In order to settle disputes between the emperor and government agencies, the State Council was created, and examinations were introduced for officials of certain classes. In the summer of 1811, instead of the abolished Ministry of Commerce, the Ministry of Police was formed.

Simultaneously with the reform of the state apparatus M.M. Speransky carries out financial reform. At the beginning of 1818, the country was in an extremely distressed financial condition:
125 million rubles income, 230 million rubles. expenses and 100 million rubles. debt. Wellness Plan financial condition countries included the following activities:

To withdraw from circulation all bonds and to form capital for their redemption;

Reduce the costs of all government departments;

Create a new monetary system;

Double all taxes, introduce a new progressive income tax, which was to be levied on the income of landowners from their lands.

As a result of the implementation of part of the financial reform project, by the end of 1810, the expenditure side of the budget was reduced by 20 million rubles.
And in 1811, the budget deficit was reduced to 6 million rubles, and revenues rose to 300 million rubles.

In 1812, due to a number of internal and external circumstances, M.M. Speransky was interrupted. Reforms in the early 19th century affected social relations. In February 1803, a decree “on free cultivators” was published, according to which landowners could free their peasants by entire villages or families, without fail with land by mutual agreement. This contributed to the formation of a new layer of peasants in the country - "free cultivators". However, only a small part of the peasants (less than 50 thousand people) were able to enter the category of free people due to the high size of the ransom. For example, 5 thousand serfs of the landowner Petrovo-Solovovo had to pay him 12.5 million rubles in 19 years.

In the course of the reform of the education system in Russia, four types of educational institutions are being established: rural parish, county schools, gymnasiums, universities. The university charter of 1804 granted broad autonomy to the councils of professors who elected rectors and deans of faculties.

As a result of the reform, the country was divided into
6 educational districts headed by trustees. The local university carried out the actual management of public education in each district. In total in 1805 in Russia there were 6 universities, 42 gymnasiums
(excluding gymnasiums in Lithuania, Poland and the Baltic region) and 45 district schools.

In 1811, the first lyceum was opened, designed to train well-educated officials convinced of the need to reform Russia, the director of which was the famous democrat V. F. Malinovsky.

Transformations in the sphere of education created favorable conditions for the development of culture, science, and the growth of public consciousness.

Libraries, museums are opened, the journals "Bulletin of Europe", "Journal of Russian Literature", etc. are published. Russian literature is developing (N.M. Karamzin, V.A. Zhukovsky, I.A. Krylov, etc.).

In 1820, a scientific expedition led by M.P. Lazarev and F.F. Bellingshausen discovered a new continent - Antarctica. Russian scientists explored the islands of the Pacific Ocean, Alaska, etc.

In 1818, the first 8 volumes of N. M. Karamzin's "History of the Russian State" were published, which aroused great interest in the country.

Thus, the situation that developed in Russia at the beginning of the 19th century contributed to the emergence of constitutional sentiments among the advanced part of the intelligentsia, the formation of secret free-thinking societies. However, the transformations carried out in the country were met with hostility by most of the nobility.

After the end of the war with Napoleon in 1815, work continued for some time in Russia on reform projects in the sphere of the administration system and the peasant question. However, after 1820, Alexander I finally abandoned liberal ideas, and a period of government reaction began in the country.

Of particular indignation in society is the introduction of military settlements by General A.A. Arakcheev. The life of state-owned peasants on the territory of military settlements was under constant supervision of the authorities, they were subject to strict military discipline and at the same time had to be engaged in peasant labor.

The government's rejection of liberal policy contributed to the differentiation of the nobility in Russia, the emergence of the Decembrist movement.

In 1816, the first secret society of the future Decembrists, the Union of Salvation, was formed in St. Petersburg among guard officers, two years later it was transformed into the Union of Welfare. Disagreements within the union led to its dissolution and the formation in 1821-1822 of the Northern and Southern societies of the Decembrists. The program of the Southern Society was "Russian Truth", compiled by P.I. Pestel, and the Northern Society "Constitution" N. Muravyov. The armed uprising of the Decembrists in 1825 ended in defeat, which slowed down the pace of evolution of the state system along the Western European path of development.

A new rise in the social movement in Russia falls on the second half of the 1930s. XIX century. During this period, the liberal movement develops, including two directions - Westernism and Slavophilism.

Westerners (T.N. Granovsky, P.V. Annenkov, V.P. Botkin and others) believed that in order to overcome socio-economic backwardness, Russia had the only way of development - the Western European one. Slavophiles (A.S. Khomyakov, Yu.V. Samarin, K.S. and I.S. Aksakovs, I.V. and
P. V. Kireevsky and others) believed that Russia should develop in its own special way, taking into account national experience, traditions, customs, and culture. The problem of finding ways for the development of Russia contributed to the formation of a revolutionary-democratic trend in public thought (V. G. Belinsky, A. I. Herzen, M. V. Butashevich-Petrashevsky, and others).

With the coming to power of Nicholas I in 1825, the bureaucratization of all aspects of the state and public life of Russia began. The state apparatus acquired enormous size and influence. The role of the Council of State and the Senate is declining, while the importance of the monarchy and military departments is increasing.

The class principle is being strengthened in the education system. Each class is given an appropriate level of education. The charter of 1835 limited the autonomy of universities, students were placed under strict supervision of special inspectors

In the early 30s. XIX century Minister of Public Education Count S.S. Uvarov ideologically substantiates the government policy in the theory of "official nationality", which included the unity of Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality.

Despite the strengthening of conservative tendencies, the government of Nicholas I understood the need for a peasant reform. Count P.D. Kiselev developed a draft reform. He planned first to carry out transformations in relation to the state peasants, who accounted for 40% of all peasants, and then to the landowners. In 1837-1841. reform of the state village was carried out. The allotments of the state peasants increased significantly, the per capita dues began to gradually turn into a land and trade tax.

As a result of the reform, the volost and rural administration began to be built on the basis of peasant self-government. The village assembly elected those authorized to the volost assembly, and the volost assembly elected the volost head and two of his deputies. Ministry of State Property, headed by P.D. Kiselev sought to satisfy the economic and domestic needs of the peasants: they opened shops, savings banks, schools, hospitals.

In 1839, Minister of Finance E.F. Kankrin spent monetary reform, as a result of which the main monetary unit Russia becomes a silver ruble (350 paper rubles were equal to 100 silver), which meant the devaluation of banknotes. Banknotes were gradually withdrawn from circulation and replaced by credit notes. However, unfavorable economic and foreign policy conditions led to a constant fall in the exchange rate of the ruble and the abolition of the free conversion of credit money into silver. This contributed to the beginning of the financial crisis and the growth of the budget deficit, which reached in the mid-1950s. XIX century 50%.

The refusal of the government of Nicholas I to solve the most important socio-economic and political problems led to a deepening of stagnation in the life of the country. The future minister of the government of Alexander II wrote about Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century: "Glitter from above, rot from below." His assessment was confirmed by Russia's unsuccessful foreign policy in last years reign of Nicholas I. Thus, structural reforms were necessary for the further development of the country.

test questions

1. What is the industrial revolution? What are its features in the countries of Western Europe?

2. Highlight the features of Russia's economic development in the first half of the 19th century?

3. Why the government of Alexander I refuses in the 20s. XIX century from the course of reforms?

4. What are the new directions in social movement Russia appear in the second half of the 30s. 19th century?

5. What are the common features and characteristics of the country's socio-economic development in the first and second quarters of the 19th century?

Literature

Budanova V.P. History of world civilizations. M., 2005.

History of Russia: textbook / otv. ed. Ya. A. Perekhov. Ed. 3. M., 2009.

Samykin P.S., Samykin S.I. and others. History for bachelors: textbook. Rostov n / D., 2011.

Nightingale V. Russian history: a new reading. M., 2005.

Shevelev V.N. Everything could be different: alternatives in the history of Russia. - Rostov n / D., 2009.

Russia in the first half of the 19th century was one of the greatest powers in the world. However, during this period in its history, it is not difficult to notice a combination of contradictory phenomena and trends, which, as a result, led to the intensification of the revolutionary struggle and violent upheavals at the beginning of the twentieth century.
The conditionally described period can be limited to the reign of two emperors: Alexander I (1801-1825) and Nicholas I (1825-1855). If the second of them openly and consistently was an adherent of cane discipline (for which he was nicknamed Nikolai Palkin in the army), then the first made attempts to play liberal. Examples of the “democratic” innovations of this tsar are the abolition of corporal punishment for nobles and merchants, the permission for Russians to travel abroad without special permission, the creation of an “Indispensable Council” to “supervise the observance of the rule of law” and the adoption of a decree on free cultivators (1803). But next to all this, there was a regime of total surveillance and barracks rules, which was associated with the name of General Arakcheev. But Arakcheev acted with the full approval of the king!
The Russian economy in the first half of the 19th century showed a significant step forward. The first signs of the industrial revolution appeared (including the railway). The number of industrial enterprises and workers on them grew (more than three times in 50 years). Highways appeared in the central part of the country. But at the same time, a backward serf system was preserved, and this despite the fact that the peasants made up about 80% of the population. In the first half of the 19th century, even in industry, it was mainly serfs who were “assigned” to enterprises that worked. Of course, in this case it was impossible to speak of the emergence of a stratum of skilled, conscious workers. The development of agriculture also slowed down, which could no longer rely on the involuntary labor of serfs. Russia was lagging behind its Western neighbors economically.
The territory of the empire continued to grow, Russia moved into the Caucasus, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan were annexed, significant territories in Central Asia, Bessarabia, Amur region. However, the national lands were not at all calm, in order to keep them in the empire, significant efforts were required. In 1830-1831, a powerful uprising broke out in Poland (it also seized Ukrainian and Belarusian lands). For more than 20 years (1834-1859) the highlanders of the Caucasus, led by Imam Shamil, fought against the Russian presence. Even contemporaries called it "war", not "rebellion".
Russian military policy in the first half of the 19th century knew many successes. The wars with Napoleonic France ended in victory (despite sensitive setbacks in the period from 1801 to 1811). Two campaigns against Turkey and a war with Iran (1826-1828) were successfully carried out. But the Crimean War against France and England (1853-1856) brought a rather shameful defeat. The Black Sea military fleet was lost, Russia lost many foreign policy acquisitions acquired earlier. The legendary defense of Sevastopol and the success of military operations in the Caucasus showed that the Russian soldier is still good. But the provision of the army is outdated, and therefore Russia has yielded to technically more advanced countries. In foreign policy Russian tsarism introduced a fear of any dissent, which turned Russia into the "gendarme of Europe." It was the desire to destroy even a hint of a revolutionary idea that gave rise to the Union of the Three Emperors, which took shape in 1814-1815. Russia was the initiator of this agreement.
At the same time, many Russians did not share this point of view at all. The first half of the century was the era of the birth of Russian revolutionism. The most striking event was, of course, the Decembrist uprising in 1825. The ideas of the Great French Revolution and the utopian socialists spread throughout the country. In the same period, Alexander Herzen began his activity, becoming the first Russian revolutionary publisher.
The first half of the 19th century should be considered a period of rapid rise in Russian culture. Suffice it to say that this was the era of Pushkin, Lermontov, Gogol, Glinka, Bryullov. For the first time, Karamzin made an attempt to systematize information on Russian history on a scientific basis. New universities were opened, including such significant ones as Kharkov (1805) and Kyiv (1834). And at the same time, more than three-quarters of the country's population were people completely or almost illiterate. Theological doctrine was imposed on education, and Nicholas I even believed that people did not need to know anything beyond what they needed for service.
As we can see, the first half of the 19th century singled out and deepened all the main contradictions of Russian life. The crisis of the old state system became obvious, and questions arose about who and how will change this system.

Domestic history: lecture notes Kulagina Galina Mikhailovna

Topic 10. Russia in the first half of the 19th century. Reign of Alexander I