Monetary reform of Catherine 2 table. Transformations of Catherine II in the field of budget

REFORMS OF CATHERINE II. THE RISE OF PAUL I

Provincial reform of 1775 Measures were taken to strengthen the nobility in the center and locally. For the first time, a document appeared in Russian legislation that determined the activities of local government bodies and the court. This system of local bodies lasted until the Great Reform of the 60s of the 19th century. The administrative division of the country introduced by Catherine II was preserved until 1917.

On November 7, 1775, the "Institution for the administration of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire" was adopted. The country was divided into provinces, in each of which 300-400 thousand male souls were supposed to live. By the end of Catherine's reign in Russia, there were 50 provinces. The governors were at the head of the provinces, reporting directly to the empress, and their power was significantly expanded. The capitals and several other provinces were subordinate to governors-general.

Under the governor, a provincial government was created, the provincial prosecutor was subordinate to him. Finance in the province was handled by the Treasury, headed by the vice-governor. The provincial land surveyor was engaged in land management. Schools, hospitals, almshouses were in charge of the Order of public charity (to look after - to look after, patronize, take care of). For the first time, state institutions with social functions were created.

The provinces were divided into counties with 20-30 thousand male souls in each. Since the cities - the centers of counties - were clearly not enough, Catherine II renamed many large rural settlements into cities, making them administrative centers. The main authority of the county was the Nizhny Zemstvo Court, headed by a police captain, elected by the local nobility. A county treasurer and a county surveyor were appointed to the counties, following the model of the provinces.

Bodies of power and administration of provinces, counties and cities in the second half. 18th century

Using the theory of separation of powers, and improving the management system, Catherine II separated the judiciary from the executive. All estates, except for the serfs (for them, the landowner was the owner and judge), had to take part in local government. Each estate received its own court. The landowner was judged by the Upper Zemstvo Court in the provinces and the district court in the counties. State peasants were judged by the Upper massacre in the province and the Lower massacre in the district, the townspeople - by the city magistrate in the district and the provincial magistrate in the province. All of these courts were elected, with the exception of the lower courts, which were appointed by the governor. The Senate became the highest judicial body in the country, and in the provinces - the chambers of the criminal and civil courts, whose members were appointed by the state. New for Russia was the Constituent Court, designed to stop strife and reconcile those who quarrel. He was unassailable. The separation of powers was not complete, since the governor could interfere in the affairs of the court.

The city was singled out as a separate administrative unit. It was headed by the mayor, endowed with all rights and powers. Strict police control was introduced in the cities. The city was divided into parts (districts), which were under the supervision of a private bailiff, and the parts, in turn, were divided into quarters, which were controlled by a quarterly warden.

After the provincial reform, all collegiums ceased to function, with the exception of the Foreign Collegium, the Military Collegium and the Admiralty Collegium. The functions of the collegiums were transferred to the provincial bodies. In 1775, the Zaporozhian Sich was liquidated, and most of the Cossacks were resettled in the Kuban.

The existing system of administration of the country's territory in the new conditions solved the problem of strengthening the power of the nobility in the field, its goal was to prevent new popular uprisings. The fear of the rebels was so great that Catherine II ordered the Yaik River to be renamed the Urals, and the Yaik Cossacks - the Urals. More than doubled the number of local officials.

Letters granted to the nobility and cities. April 21, 1785, on the birthday of Catherine II, at the same time, letters of commendation were issued to the nobility and cities. It is known that Catherine II also prepared a draft letter of grant to the state (state) peasants, but it was not published due to fears of noble discontent.

By issuing two charters, Catherine II regulated the legislation on the rights and obligations of the estates. In accordance with the "Diploma on the rights, liberties and advantages of the noble Russian nobility," it was exempted from compulsory service, personal taxes, and corporal punishment. The estates were declared the full property of the landowners, who, in addition, had the right to start their own factories and factories. The nobles could only sue their peers and without a noble court could not be deprived of noble honor, life and estate. The nobles of the province and county constituted the provincial and county corporations of the nobility, respectively, and elected their leaders, as well as officials of local government. Provincial and district noble assemblies had the right to make representations to the government about their needs. The charter granted to the nobility consolidated and legally formalized the power of the nobility in Russia. The ruling class was given the name "noble".

"The letter of rights and benefits to the cities of the Russian Empire" determined the rights and obligations of the urban population, the system of governance in cities. All townspeople were recorded in the City philistine book and made up the "city society". It was declared that "philistines or real city dwellers are those who have a house or other structure, or a place, or land in that city."

The urban population was divided into six categories. The first of these included the nobles and clergy who lived in the city; the second included merchants, divided into three guilds; in the third - guild artisans; the fourth category consisted of foreigners permanently living in the city; the fifth - eminent citizens, who included in their composition persons with higher education and capitalists. The sixth - the townspeople, who lived by crafts or work. Residents of the city every three years elected a self-government body - the General City Duma, the mayor and judges. The General City Duma elected an executive body - a six-member Duma, which included one representative from each category of the urban population. The city duma decided matters on improvement, public education, compliance with trade rules, etc. only with the knowledge of the mayor, appointed by the government.

The letter of grant placed all six categories of the urban population under the control of the state. The real power in the city was in the hands of the mayor, the council of the deanery and the governor.

A.N. Radishchev. The Peasant War, the ideas of Russian and French enlighteners, the French Revolution and the War of Independence in North America(1775-1783), which led to the formation of the United States, the emergence of Russian anti-serfdom thought in the person of N.I. Novikov, leading deputies of the Legislative Commission influenced the formation of the views of Alexander Nikolayevich Radishchev (1749-1802). In "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow", in the ode "Liberty", in "A Conversation that there is a son of the Fatherland" A.N. Radishchev called for the "complete abolition of slavery" and the transfer of land to the peasants. He believed that "autocracy is the most repugnant state of human nature," and insisted on its revolutionary overthrow. A real patriot, a true son of the Fatherland A.N. Radishchev called the one who fights for the interests of the people, "for freedom - a priceless gift, the source of all great deeds." For the first time in Russia, a call was made for the revolutionary overthrow of the autocracy and serfdom.

“A rebel is worse than Pugachev,” Ekaterina P. assessed the first Russian revolutionary. On her orders, the circulation of the book Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow was confiscated, and its author was arrested and sentenced to death, replaced by a ten-year imprisonment in the Ilim prison in Siberia.

The reign of Paul I(1796-1801) some historians call "unenlightened absolutism", others - "military-police dictatorship", others - consider Paul "Russian Hamlet", others - "romantic emperor". However, even those historians who find positive traits in Paul's reign admit that he equated autocracy with personal despotism.

Paul I came to the throne after the death of his mother at the age of 42. Catherine II, having given her son Gatchina near St. Petersburg, removed him from the court. In Gatchina, Pavel introduced strict rules based on iron discipline and asceticism, opposing them to the luxury and wealth of the St. Petersburg court. Having become emperor, he tried to strengthen the regime by strengthening discipline and power in order to exclude all manifestations of liberalism and freethinking in Russia. characteristic features Paul were sharpness, imbalance and irascibility. He believed that everything in the country should be subject to the orders established by the tsar, he put diligence and accuracy in the first place, did not tolerate objections, sometimes reaching tyranny.

In 1797, Paul issued the "Institution on the Imperial Family", which canceled Peter's decree on succession to the throne. From now on, the throne was supposed to pass strictly along the male line from father to son, and in the absence of sons to the eldest of the brothers. For the maintenance of the imperial house, an department of "destinies" was formed, which managed the lands that belonged to the imperial family and the peasants who lived on them. The order of service of the nobles was tightened, the effect of the Charter to the nobility was limited. Prussian orders were planted in the army.

In 1797, the Manifesto on the three-day corvee was published. He forbade landlords to use peasants for field work on Sundays, recommending (but not obliging) to limit corvée to three days a week.

Paul I took the Order of Malta under his protection, and when Napoleon captured Malta in 1798, he declared war on France in alliance with England and Austria. When England occupied Malta, having won it from the French, a break in relations with England and an alliance with France followed. By agreement with Napoleon, Paul sent 40 regiments of Don Cossacks to conquer India in order to annoy the British (the regiments were withdrawn after his death).

Paul's further stay in power was fraught with a loss of political stability for the country. The foreign policy of the emperor did not meet the interests of Russia either. On March 12, 1801, with the participation of the heir to the throne of the future Emperor Alexander I, the last in the history of Russia was committed palace coup. Paul I was killed in the Mikhailovsky Castle in St. Petersburg.

FOREIGN POLICY OF RUSSIA IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE 18TH CENTURY.

Tasks of foreign policy. The most important task of foreign policy facing Russia in the second half of the 18th century was the struggle for access to the southern seas - the Black and Azov. From the third quarter of the XVIII century. in the foreign policy of Russia, a significant place was occupied by the issue of liberation from foreign domination of the lands of Ukraine and Belarus and the unification of all the Eastern Slavs in one state. The Great French Revolution, which began in 1789, largely determined the direction of the foreign policy actions of the Russian autocracy at the end of the 18th century, including the struggle against revolutionary France. On the southeastern borders of Russia, the situation was relatively stable.

Russian-Turkish war 1768-1774 The Russian government was prompted to take active steps in the south by the interests of the country's security, and the needs of the nobility, who sought to obtain the richest southern lands, and the developing industry and trade, which dictated the need for access to the Black Sea coast.

Turkey, instigated by France and England, in the autumn of 1768 declared war on Russia. Military operations began in 1769 and were conducted on the territory of Moldavia and Wallachia, as well as on the Azov coast, where, after the capture of Azov and Taganrog, Russia began building a fleet. In 1770, the Russian army under the command of the talented commander P.A. Rumyantseva won brilliant victories at the Larga and Cahul rivers (tributaries of the Prut River) and went to the Danube. In the same year, the Russian fleet under the command of A.G. Orlov and admirals G.A. Sviridov and I.S. Greiga, having left St. Petersburg, entered the Mediterranean Sea through Gibraltar and completely destroyed the Turkish squadron in the Chesme Bay off the coast of Asia Minor. The Turkish fleet was blocked in the Black Sea.

In 1771, Russian troops under the command of Prince V.M. Dolgorukov captured the Crimea, which meant the end of the war. However, Turkey, relying on the support of France and Austria and using the internal difficulties of Russia, where the Peasant War was going on, disrupted the negotiations. Then in 1774 the Russian army crossed the Danube. Troops under the command of A.V. Suvorov defeated the army of the Grand Vizier near the village of Kozludzha, opening the main forces led by P.A. Rumyantsev way to Istanbul. Turkey was forced to ask for peace.

It was concluded in the Bulgarian village of Kyuchuk-Kaynardzhi in 1774. Under the terms of the Kyuchuk-Kaynardzhi peace, Russia received access to the Black Sea, the Black Sea steppes - Novorossia, the right to have its own fleet on the Black Sea and the right to pass through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles. Azov and Kerch, as well as Kuban and Kabarda passed to Russia. The Crimean Khanate became independent from Turkey. Turkey paid an indemnity of 4 million rubles. The Russian government also won the right to act as a defender of the legitimate rights of the Christian peoples of the Ottoman Empire.

As a result of the successful end of the Russian-Turkish war, the peoples of the Balkan Peninsula launched a national liberation struggle against Turkish yoke. The autonomy of Moldavia and Wallachia, accepted by Russia under its protection, was restored. The development of Novorossia (southern Ukraine) began. The cities of Bkaterinoslav (1776, now Dnepropetrovsk), Kherson (1778) arose there.

For brilliant victories in the Russian-Turkish war, Catherine II generously awarded her commanders with orders and nominal weapons. In addition, A.G. Orlov became known as Chesmensky, V.M. Dolgorukov - Krymsky, P.A. Rumyantsev - Zadunaisky. A.V. Suvorov received a golden sword with diamonds.

Russian-Turkish war 1787-1791 Turkey did not want to come to terms with the assertion of Russia in the Black Sea. In response to Turkey's attempt to return Crimea under its rule, Russian troops occupied the Crimean peninsula, which became part of Russia. Sevastopol was founded as a support base for the fleet (1783). G.A. Potemkin for success in annexing the Crimea (the old name of Taurida) received a prefix to his title "prince of Tauride."

In 1783 in Georgievsk ( North Caucasus) an agreement was concluded between the Georgian king Erekle II and Russia on a protectorate. The Treaty of Georgievsky was signed, according to which Russia took Eastern Georgia under its protection.

In the spring of 1787, Catherine II, accompanied by the court, the Polish king and European ambassadors, made a trip to Novorossia and the Crimea. In Kherson they were joined by the Austrian Emperor Joseph II. The trip was aimed at getting acquainted with the wealth of Novorossia and the successes of G.A. Potemkin, who headed the department of the south of Russia, for its development. In addition, the guests had to make sure that Russia had a firm foot on the Black Sea. These results were achieved, although the expression "Potemkin villages", meaning excessive show-off, came into use after Catherine's trip.

In the summer of 1787, Turkey demanded the return of the Crimea and opened hostilities. A.V. Suvorov defeated the enemy in the battle of Knieburn (near Ochakov, 1787), Fokshany and on the Rymnik River (1789). For this victory, Suvorov received the title of count and the prefix to it - "Rymnik". In December 1788, after a long siege, G.A. Potemkin stormed the "key to the Black Sea" - Ochakovo, a Turkish fortress on the Dnieper estuary.

Of particular importance was the capture of Ishmael (1790) - the citadel of Turkish rule on the Danube. After careful preparation, A.V. Suvorov appointed the time of the assault. Wanting to avoid bloodshed, he sent a letter to the commandant of the fortress demanding surrender: "24 hours - freedom, the first shot - already captivity, assault - death." The Turkish pasha refused: "The Danube will soon stop in its course, the sky will fall to the ground, than Ishmael will surrender." After a 10-hour assault, Ishmael was taken. In the battle for Ishmael, the student of A.V. Suvorov - the future commander M.I. Kutuzov.

Along with the ground forces, the fleet, commanded by Admiral F.F. Ushakov. After a series of brilliant victories in the Kerch Strait and at the Gadzhibey fort, the Black Sea became free for the Russian fleet. In the battle at Cape Kaliakria (near the Bulgarian city of Varna) in 1791, the Turkish fleet was destroyed. Turkey turned to Russia with a proposal to make peace.

In 1791 peace was signed in the city of Iasi. According to the Yassy peace treaty, Turkey recognized Crimea as a possession of Russia. The Dniester River became the border between the two countries. The territory between the rivers Bug and Dniester became part of Russia. Turkey recognized the Russian patronage of Georgia, established by the Treaty of St. George in 1783.

As a result of the Russian-Turkish wars, the economic development of the steppe south of Russia accelerated. Russia's ties with the countries of the Mediterranean were expanding. The Crimean Khanate, a constant hotbed of aggression against Ukrainian and Russian lands, was liquidated. Nikolaev (1789), Odessa (1795), Ekaterinodar (1793, now Krasnodar) and others were founded in the south of Russia.

Russo-Swedish War 1788-1790 At the end of the 80s of the eighteenth century. Russia had to simultaneously conduct military operations on two fronts. In 1788, Sweden decided to return the lands lost back in northern war. Military operations took place near St. Petersburg, when the main armies fought in the south against Turkey. The offensive on land did not produce results, and soon the Swedish king and his troops left Russia. Moreover, Russian troops occupied a significant part of Swedish Finland. Battles at sea went on with varying success. In 1790, the Treaty of Verel was signed in a Finnish village on the Kymmene River, which retained the former borders.

Education USA and Russia. One of the significant international events of the third quarter of the eighteenth century. was the struggle of the North American colonies for independence from England - bourgeois revolution leading to the creation of the United States of America.

Disagreements between England and Russia had a favorable effect on the course of the American Revolution. In 1780, the Russian government adopted a "Declaration of Armed Neutrality", supported by most European countries. The ships of neutral countries had the right of armed protection if they were attacked by the belligerent fleet. This caused England to abandon attempts to organize a naval blockade of the American coast and objectively contributed to the victory of the American Revolution.

Partitions of Poland. In the last third of the XVIII century. one of the central issues in the field international relations in Europe was the Polish question. The Commonwealth was going through a severe crisis, the cause of which lay in the self-serving, anti-national policy of the Polish magnates, who brought the country to collapse. The cruel feudal oppression and the policy of national oppression of the peoples that were part of the Commonwealth became a brake on the further development of the country. Peasant farms were brought to ruin.

The central government in Poland was weak. The Polish king was elected at the Sejm, where separate groups of nobility were at enmity with each other. Often, these groups, regardless of national tasks, sought help abroad. The principle of "liberum veto" (the right of free prohibition) was in effect, according to which all decisions of the Sejm had to be taken unanimously (even one vote "against" frustrated the adoption of the law).

The plight of Poland was taken advantage of by its neighbors: the monarchs of Prussia, Austria and Russia. Russia acted under the pretext of liberating the Ukrainian and Belarusian lands, which experienced the most cruel oppression from the Polish feudal lords.

The reason for intervention in the affairs of Poland, where the dominant religion was Catholicism, was the question of the situation of non-Catholic Christians. The Russian government agreed with the Polish king on the equalization of the rights of the Catholic and Orthodox population. The most reactionary part of the Polish gentry, instigated by the Vatican, opposed this decision. The government of Catherine II sent troops to Poland to suppress the uprising of the gentry group. At the same time, Prussia and Austria occupied part of the Polish lands. The Prussian King Frederick II initiated the partition of Poland. Catherine II, unlike him, considered it expedient to preserve a united Poland, but under Russian influence.

In 1772, the first partition of Poland took place. Austria sent its troops to Western Ukraine (Galicia), Prussia - to Pomorye. Russia received eastern part Belarus to Minsk and part of the Latvian lands that were previously part of Livonia. The progressive part of the Polish nobility and the emerging bourgeoisie made an attempt to save the Polish state. In accordance with the constitution of 1791, the election of the king and the right of "liberum veto" were abolished. The army was strengthened, the third estate was admitted to the Sejm, freedom of religion was introduced.

The new Polish constitution was adopted when France was in the flames of revolution. Fearing the spread of the "revolutionary contagion", and also feeling the decline of their influence in the country, the Polish magnates turned to Catherine II for help. Russian troops, followed by the Prussians, entered Poland. The old order has been restored.

In 1793, the second partition of Poland took place. Central Belarus with Minsk went to Russia, Right-Bank Ukraine. Prussia received Gdansk, part of the land along the rivers Varga and Vistula.

In 1794, Polish patriots led by Tadeusz Kosciuszko, striving to preserve the sovereignty of Poland, raised an uprising. Catherine II suppressed it by sending troops under the command of A.V. Suvorov. This predetermined the third partition of Poland. In 1795, Prussia received Central Poland with Warsaw, Austria received Southern Poland with Lublin and Krakow. Lithuania, Courland, Volyn and Western Belarus went to Russia.

Factors leading to the formation of nation-states. Features of the formation of the Russian state.

The reign of Ivan III and Basil III. Accession to Moscow of Nizhny Novgorod, Yaroslavl, Rostov, Novgorod the Great, Vyatka land. The overthrow of the Horde yoke. Joining the unified state of Tver, Pskov, Smolensk, Ryazan.

Political system. Strengthening the power of the Moscow Grand Dukes. Sudebnik 1497. Changes in the structure of feudal land ownership. Boyar, church and local land tenure.

The beginning of the formation of central and local authorities. Reducing the number of allotments. Boyar Duma. Localism. Church and royal power. The growth of the international prestige of the Russian state.

Economic recovery and the rise of Russian culture after the Kulikovo victory. Moscow is the center of the emerging culture of the Great Russian people. Reflection in the literature of political trends. Chronicle. "The Legend of the Princes of Vladimir". Historical stories. "Zadonshchina". "The Tale of Mamaev's Massacre". Life Literature. "Walking" Afanasy Nikitin. Construction of the Moscow Kremlin. Theophanes the Greek. Andrei Rublev.

Table - State administrative and socio-economic reforms of Catherine II

To a lesser extent, the changes affected agriculture, the development of which was mainly of an extensive nature, i.e. It was mainly due to the development of new territories, while agricultural machinery, farming methods and, consequently, labor productivity remained practically unchanged. True, at this time the first enthusiasts of scientific agriculture also appeared, to which the government contributed in every possible way. In 1765, the Free Economic Society was created to disseminate scientific knowledge in the field of management and, above all, in agronomy. The "Proceedings" published by the society were no less popular with the reading public than the works of the French enlighteners. All this, however, did not lead to serious shifts in agriculture, and could not lead, as long as the basis of agricultural production was serf pipes.

In general, despite all the difficulties and shortcomings, Russian economy second half of the 18th century. developed quite successfully. Government decrees aimed at stimulating production and trade on the principles of free enterprise, as it were, opened the last floodgates, making it possible to fully use the potential of the feudal serf state. However, this potential could only be enough for a short time, since serfdom stood in the way of the normal development of the country as an insurmountable obstacle. What was the attitude of the empress towards serfdom and what happened in this area during her reign?

In her memoirs, Catherine spoke on this very clearly:

“The predisposition to despotism is instilled from a very early age in children who see the cruelty with which their parents treat their servants, because there is no house in which there would not be iron collars, chains and various other instruments for torture at the slightest offense of those whom nature has placed in this unfortunate class, which cannot break its chains without crime. You hardly dare say that they are people like us, and even when I say it myself, I run the risk of being thrown at me with stones; why did I not suffer from such a reckless and cruel society, when certain questions related to this subject began to be discussed in the commission for drawing up a new Code, and when the ignorant nobles, whose number was immeasurably greater than I could ever imagine, because it is too high evaluated those who surrounded me every day, began to guess that these questions could lead to some improvement in the present situation of the farmers.

In another document, written by the hand of the Empress, we read:

“The great engine of agriculture is freedom and property. When each peasant is sure that something that belongs to him does not belong to another, he will improve it. State taxes are not difficult for him, in view of the fact that they are very moderate, if the state does not need an increase in income at all, farmers can settle down as they like, as long as they have freedom and property.

Catherine was not far from the truth when she said that she could be stoned at the slightest attempt to raise the issue of abolishing serfdom. In protecting their main privilege, which formed the basis of their economic well-being, the nobility, which by this time had become a serious political force, was ready to go to the end, and the empress could easily lose the throne. However, one should not think that the views of Catherine II were unequivocally feudal in nature and are comparable in this respect with the views, for example, of the revolutionary democrats of the 19th century. The denial of serfdom by the empress as an inhumane phenomenon, contrary to the basic principles of the Enlightenment and harmful from an economic point of view, was combined with the idea, on the one hand, of the spiritual underdevelopment of the people and the need to educate them, and on the other hand, of the rather benign in general relations between the peasants and their owners. Such a view was characteristic not only of the empress, but also of many enlightened people of that time. So, for example, E.R. Dashkova, in a conversation with Denis Diderot, explained to him that the people remind her of a blind man who lives on top of a rock and does not know about it. Suddenly seeing the light, he will become deeply unhappy:

“Enlightenment leads to freedom, but freedom without enlightenment would only give rise to anarchy and disorder. When lower classes my compatriots will be enlightened, then they will be worthy of freedom, since then they will only be able to use it without prejudice to their fellow citizens and without destroying the order and relations inevitable in any form of government.

So, Catherine could not openly fight the feudal lords, although she had certain plans for changing the position of the peasantry. Meanwhile, the very phenomenon of serfdom, like any other phenomenon of social and political life, could not, of course, remain unchanged, but it changed in the direction of intensifying the exploitation of the peasants and worsening their situation.

It is clear, however, that Catherine could not complete the implementation of her program for the creation of estates in Russia, bypassing the most numerous estate - the peasants. Documents testify that a draft letter of commendation was also prepared for the peasants, but it was not approved. The letter was not addressed to all peasants, but only to the state, who were called in it "free villagers" and endowed with rights similar to those of townspeople. According to the draft charter, a new system of government was to appear in the villages - a village foreman, a headman and a “management chamber”, similar in function to the provincial noble assembly and city society. Like other estates, the peasants were divided into six categories, the first two being exempt from corporal punishment.

Considering all three letters, the modern American historian David Griffiths concluded that together they form a "constitution in the pre-revolutionary sense of the word", meaning that originally, before the French Revolution of 1789, the word "constitution" meant in general a way devices, organization of something. A holistic examination of letters, from the point of view of D. Griffiths, “discovers a holistic political program, reflecting the clear and interconnected ideas of the empress about the form social structure. These are not liberal or conservative views, neither pro- nor anti-noble. These are notions of a well-regulated society by a class structure, characteristic of the beginning of the New Age.

However, as already mentioned, the third charter was never published. The reasons for this are clear: the resistance of the nobility, which Catherine was unable to overcome. Under these conditions, the empress realized her goal to the extent that it was generally possible without fear of causing serious social upheavals, and from this point of view, her reforms must be recognized as successful. It was from Catherine's time, according to historians, that we can talk about the emergence of full-fledged estates in Russia. But the Empress herself continued to work on legislation even after 1785 and, as the surviving archival documents testify, she did not abandon the idea of ​​creating a class system in full. So, she intended to establish a special body with the functions supreme court, consisting of elected representatives of the three estates: nobles, burghers and peasants. Her developments in the field of family, property, and criminal law have also been preserved. A new reform of the Senate was scheduled for 1797. Among the projects, one can also find reflections on ways to eliminate serfdom. So, in one of the notes we read:

"Here convenient way: put that as soon as someone sells land from now on, all serfs will be declared free from the moment of purchase by its new owner, and for a hundred years all or at least most of the land changes owners, and now the people are free.

As you can see, Catherine did not hope for an early liberation of the peasants, and in general she considered the “abrupt coup” to be harmful. According to other sources, she was preparing a decree that declared free all the children of serfs born after 1785, however, all these were just projects. Real reforms seemed not only in the sphere of internal administration, estate organization and economy. Among the most important is the reform of education.

Being a diligent student of the Enlightenment philosophers, Catherine understood that the success of any social transformations depends on the level of enlightenment of the people, on their ability to perceive the new.

At the beginning, it was mentioned that the example of the empress, who was fond of reading and writing, had beneficial effect and the development of Russian culture. It was that short period during which there was a kind of union between the state and culture, when culture was in dire need of state support.

Catherine's great merit is the rise cultural life in the country. She was poorly versed in the fine arts, but during her reign the impressive basis of the collections of today's Hermitage arose: her art agents traveled around the impoverished courts of European rulers and powerful persons, buying masterpieces and entire collections for northern Semiramis, as the French enlighteners called Catherine. The Empress, to put it mildly, did not really feel musical harmony, but under her rule, the opera troupe of Italians received a permanent “registration” in St. Petersburg, and Paisiello’s opera The Barber of Seville was first performed in the Hermitage concert hall in 1782, in the sixty-sixth year, Catherine, when she happened to see and hear the singing of greeting cants, folk melodies and dances, drew attention to the education of the national musical shift. And this was expressed in concrete support for Russian musicians through the directorate of the imperial theaters.

The era of Catherine II is the heyday of Russian architecture. At that time, the architects R.P. Nikitin, Yu.M. Felten, J.B. Wallen - Delamotte, I.E. Starov, V.I. Bazhenov.

Special merit belongs to the Empress in the development of Russian journalism, which flourished in the 60-70s of the 18th century. In 1769, the empress founded the satirical magazine Vsyakaya Vsyachina, the official editor of which was her state secretary G.V. Kozitsky. This publication was necessary for Catherine to be able to express her point of view on socially significant problems. In the journal, she published several articles in which she explained in an allegorical manner the reasons for the failure of the Legislative Commission.

Catherine 2, like most monarchs who ruled for at least some considerable time, sought to carry out reforms. Moreover, she got Russia in a difficult situation: the army and navy were weakened, a large external debt, corruption, the collapse of the judicial system, etc., etc. Next, we will briefly describe the essence of the transformations carried out during the reign of Empress Catherine 2.

Provincial reform:

"Institution for the administration of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire" was adopted on November 7, 1775. Instead of the former administrative division into provinces, provinces and counties, territories began to be divided into provinces and counties. The number of provinces increased from twenty-three to fifty. They, in turn, were divided into 10-12 counties. The troops of two or three provinces were commanded by the governor-general, otherwise called the governor. At the head of each province was a governor appointed by the Senate and reporting directly to the empress. The vice-governor was in charge of finances, the Treasury Chamber was subordinate to him. Supreme official county was the police captain. The centers of counties were cities, but since there were not enough of them, 216 large rural settlements received the status of a city.

Judicial reform:

Each class had its own court. The nobles were judged by the zemstvo court, the townspeople - by magistrates, and the peasants - by reprisals. Conscientious courts were also established from representatives of all three estates, which performed the function of a conciliatory instance. All these courts were elected. The higher courts were the judicial chambers, whose members were appointed. And the highest judicial body of the Russian Empire was the Senate.

Secularization reform:

It was held in 1764. All monastic lands, as well as the peasants who lived on them, were transferred to the jurisdiction of a specially established College of Economy. The state took over the maintenance of monasticism, but from that moment on it received the right to determine the number of monasteries and monks necessary for the empire.

Senate Reform:

On December 15, 1763, Catherine II issued a manifesto “On the Establishment of Departments in the Senate, Justice, Votchinnaya and Revision Collegiums, and on Separation According to These Cases.” The role of the Senate was narrowed, and the powers of its head, the Prosecutor General, on the contrary, were expanded. The Senate became the highest court. It was divided into six departments: the first (headed by the Prosecutor General himself) was in charge of state and political affairs in St. Petersburg, the second - judicial in St. Petersburg, the third - transport, medicine, science, education, art, the fourth - military land and naval affairs, the fifth - state and political in Moscow and the sixth - the Moscow Judicial Department. The heads of all departments, except for the first, were chief prosecutors subordinate to the prosecutor general.

City Reform:

The reform of Russian cities was regulated by the "Charter on the Rights and Benefits of the Cities of the Russian Empire", which was issued by Catherine II in 1785. New elective institutions were introduced. At the same time, the number of voters increased. Residents of cities were divided into six categories according to various property, class characteristics, as well as merit to society and the state, namely: real city dwellers - those who owned real estate within the city; merchants of three guilds; guild artisans; foreign and out-of-town guests; eminent citizens - architects, painters, composers, scientists, as well as wealthy merchants and bankers; townspeople - those who were engaged in needlework and handicrafts in the city. Each category had its own rights, duties and privileges.

Police reform:

In 1782, Empress Catherine II introduced the "Charter of the Deanery or Policeman". According to it, the deanery council became the body of the city police department. It consisted of bailiffs, a mayor and a police chief, as well as townspeople determined through elections. The court for public violations: drunkenness, insults, gambling, etc., as well as for unauthorized building and bribes, was carried out by the police authorities themselves, and in other cases a preliminary investigation was carried out, after which the case was transferred to court. The punishments applied by the police were arrest, censure, imprisonment in a workhouse, a fine, and in addition - the prohibition of certain activities.

Education reform

The creation of public schools in the cities marked the beginning state system general education schools in Russia. They were of two types: the main schools in the provincial towns and small ones in the county ones. These educational establishments at the expense of the treasury, and people of all classes could study in them. The school reform was carried out in 1782, and earlier in 1764 a school was opened at the Academy of Arts, as well as the Society of Two Hundred Noble Maidens, then (in 1772) a commercial school.

Monetary reform

In the reign of Catherine II, the State Bank and the Loan Office were formed. And also, for the first time in Russia, paper money (banknotes) was put into circulation.

Senate reform

Reasons and goals:

• Catherine wanted to concentrate legislative power in her hands
• Allocation of specific departments of the Senate for specific tasks

By a personal decree of Catherine II, the Senate was divided into six departments and lost the legislative function, which was transferred personally to the empress and her proxies - state advisers. Five of the six departments were headed by chief prosecutors, the first was the prosecutor general, who personally reported on important matters royal person.

Separation of functions of departments:

• the first is the control of political and state affairs in the capital
• the second is a court in the capital
• the third - oversaw everything related to education, art, medicine, science and transport
• fourth - was responsible for naval and military land decisions
• fifth - control of political and state affairs in Moscow
• sixth - court in Moscow

Thus, the empress monopolized the legislative power and paved the way for subsequent transformations. The highest administrative and judicial functions were still carried out by the Senate.

Provincial reform

Reasons and goals:

• Increasing tax efficiency
• Preventing uprisings
• Introduction of electiveness of a part of administrative and judicial bodies, separation of their functions

Provincial reform of Catherine II - 1775

As a result of the signing by Catherine II of the document "Institutions for the management of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire", the principle of administrative-territorial division of the provinces was changed. According to the new law, the provinces were divided on the basis of the population living and capable of paying taxes - taxable souls. In addition, a hierarchical system of institutions was built, between which the functions of administration and the court were divided.

Administrative part

General Government-consisted of several provinces
Province- contained 10-12 counties, totaled 350-400 thousand taxable souls.
county- association of volosts ( countryside), 10-20 thousand tax souls.
City is the administrative center of the county.

Governor General- led all the troops and governors stationed in the provinces assigned to him.
Governor- ruled the province with the help of the provincial government and all lower institutions.
mayor- the chief official and chief of police in the city, which became a separate administrative unit.
Police Captain- presided over the lower zemstvo court and controlled the police in the county.

Treasury Chamber- Responsible for collecting taxes and distributing funds between institutions.
Order of public charity- Supervised all social facilities. Hospitals, schools, orphanages, art institutes were subordinated to this structure.

Judicial part

Senate- the highest judicial body, divided into civil and criminal chambers.
Upper Zemsky Court- the main judicial institution of the province, mainly dealt with the affairs of the nobility, considered complex cases of lower instances.
Lower Zemsky Court- supervised the implementation of laws within the county, dealt with the affairs of the nobles.
Top violence- judged the peasants in the province, appeals from the lower massacres.
bottom violence- sorted out the affairs of peasants in the county
provincial magistrate- Considered appeals from city magistrates, judged the townspeople.
City magistrate- dealt with the litigation of the townspeople

conscientious court- was all-class, served to reconcile those who were suing for minor and not socially dangerous cases.

The changes suggested that, depending on who was being tried, those representatives were part of the assessors - Zemsky courts were elected by the noble estate, reprisals - by peasants, magistrates - by petty bourgeois (townspeople). However, in fact, the higher nobility always intervened in the course of affairs of interest to them.

As a result of transformations total number the bureaucracy has increased significantly, as well as the cost of it. Compared to spending on the army, twice as much was allocated for the salaries of officials. The growth in the number of bureaucrats of all types and ranks, combined with favoritism, numerous military spending and the backwardness of the economy, led to a systematic shortage of money in the budget, which could not be eliminated until the death of Catherine II.

Judicial reform

Police reform

The date: April 8, 1782
After the "Charter of the Deanery, or Policeman" was signed, inside the cities a new structure- The Office of the Deanery, with its functions and positions.

Reasons and goals:

• The need to strengthen the vertical of power
• Determination of the functions and hierarchy of police authorities in cities
• Formation of the basics of police law

Police reform 1782

Functions of the Deanery Council:

• Maintaining order and law within cities
• Supervision of non-governmental organizations
• Investigation and search activities
• Execution of decisions of the court and other institutions

The city was divided into parts (200-700 households) and quarters (50-100 households), which were to be monitored by private bailiffs and quarterly guards. The elected position was only the quarter lieutenant, who was elected for three years from among the inhabitants of the quarter.

The head of the Council was the mayor, the police chief (in the city centers of the provinces) or the chief police chief (in the capitals).

In addition to detective work and performing direct police functions, the councils supervised public service personnel - food delivery, ensuring the safety of roads, etc.

urban reform

Economic reforms

Monetary reform

The signing of the manifesto "on the establishment of Moscow and St. Petersburg banks" created a precedent for the use of paper banknotes in the territory of the Russian Empire.

Reasons and goals:

• Inconvenience of transportation large sums copper money domestically
• The need to stimulate the economy
• Striving to meet Western standards

Banknote example

Banks established in Moscow and St. Petersburg received 500 thousand rubles of capital each and were obliged to issue to the bearer of banknotes the corresponding amount in copper equivalent.

In 1786, these banks were merged into a single structure - the State Assignment Bank, with the definition of its additional functions:

• Export of copper from the Russian Empire
• Import of gold and silver bars and coins.
• Creation of a mint in St. Petersburg and organization of minting coins.
• Accounting for promissory notes (receipts on the obligation to pay a certain amount)

50 rubles 1785

Enterprise Freedom Manifesto

Under the “manifesto on freedom of enterprise”, it is customary to understand the publication of a document allowing the opening of any small handicraft production to all citizens of the Russian Empire - “Manifesto on the highest favors bestowed on various estates on the occasion of the conclusion of peace with the Ottoman Port”. The Peasant War of 1773-1775, which frightened all the nobles, made it clear that without any concessions to the most numerous class, new unrest is quite possible.

The reasons:

• The need to stimulate the economy and develop small businesses
• Peasant dissatisfaction with exploitative policies

Key points of the document:

• More than 30 different fees for crafts (fur extraction, poultry, fish) and processing industries (oil mills, fat mills, etc.) have been cancelled.
• It is allowed for any citizen to open "all sorts of camps and needlework" without any additional permits.
• Exemption from the poll tax for merchants with a capital of more than 500 rubles. Instead, an annual fee of 1% from capital was introduced.

Customs reforms

Adjustment of customs tariffs was carried out frequently - in 1766, 1767, 1776, 1782, 1786 and 1796. customs duties were changed, providing revenues to the treasury from the importation of foreign goods, prohibiting the transportation of certain types of raw materials or easing the tax burden for certain categories of products. The foreign economy was actively developing, the volume of previously undelivered industrial and production products imported into the Russian Empire was growing.

Import of goods

The key element of the customs policy was the signing on September 27, 1782 of the document "On the Establishment of a Special Customs Border Chain and Guards to Avert the Secret Transportation of Goods"

According to the innovations:

Positions were introduced border guards and customs officers, for each of the border western provinces - they were listed in the service of the Treasury. According to the instructions, they were ordered to stay in places “convenient for the importation of goods” and prevent smuggling. If it was impossible to stop the smugglers on their own, the border guards had to immediately arrive at the nearest settlement to receive help.

Social reforms

Estate reforms

The date: 1785

The reasons:

• The Empress relied on the nobles and wished to increase their loyalty.
• Strengthening the vertical of power
• It was necessary to determine the rights of two classes that are gaining in numbers due to the development of the economy and cities, merchants and philistines (townspeople)

Noble ball

Key points:

• Nobles were exempted from paying taxes and public service
• The noble class received an inalienable right to own serfs, property, land and its subsoil
• Noble assemblies and family books were established to confirm the origin
• Merchants received access to administrative positions (general city and six-member duma) and were exempted from the poll tax.
• Merchants of the 1st and 2nd guilds were exempted from corporal punishment.
• A new estate stood out and received the rights - the townspeople
• Serfs finally turned into slaves

Educational (school) reform

It is impossible to single out a specific document or date, which is key in the policy of enlightened absolutism of Catherine II. She consistently issued decrees and opened institutions aimed at increasing the level of knowledge and the accessibility of obtaining it. Mainly, educational services were provided to the nobility and townspeople, but homeless children and orphans also did not go unnoticed.

The main figures were I. I. Betskoy and F. I. Yankovich.

In Moscow and St. Petersburg, "educational homes" were opened - it was necessary to solve the problem of homeless and abandoned children.

Institute of Noble Maidens

In 1764 a school for young men was founded at the Academy of Arts, and in 1765 a similar school was founded at the Academy of Sciences.

The Commercial School, opened in 1779, was called upon to train qualified personnel in the field of trade.

Formed in 1782, the “Commission for the Establishment of Public Schools” by 1786 developed a “charter for the public schools of the Russian Empire”. This document approved the class-lesson teaching system and provided for the opening of two types of general educational institutions in the cities: small public schools and main public schools.

Small schools prepared applicants for two years - basic reading, writing, rules of conduct and related knowledge.

The main schools provided broader subject training - for five years, in addition to basic skills, languages, history, exact and natural sciences, and architecture were taught here. Over time, it was from the main school that the teacher's seminary separated - a center for the training of future teachers.

The training was based on a benevolent attitude towards students, physical punishment was strictly prohibited.

The peasantry remained outside the educational reform - project rural schools and compulsory primary education, regardless of gender and class, was supposed by Catherine II, but was never implemented.

Secularization of the Church

The reign of Catherine II for the Orthodox Church was not the best period. However, all conditions were made for other confessions. The Empress believed that all religious movements that did not oppose her power had the right to exist.

The reasons:

• Excessive autonomy of the church
• The need to increase tax revenues and land use efficiency

Churchmen

As a result of the signing of the decree to the Senate on the division of spiritual estates, all lands belonging to the clergy and peasants came under the control of the state. A special body, the Collegium of Economy, began to collect a poll tax from the peasants and transfer part of the amount received to the maintenance of monasteries. The so-called "states" of monasteries were established, the number of which was limited. Most of the monasteries were abolished, their inhabitants were distributed among the remaining churches and parishes. The era of "church feudalism" ended

As a result:

• The clergy lost about 2 million monastic peasants
• Most of the land (about 9 million hectares) of monasteries and churches was transferred to the state
• 567 out of 954 monasteries are closed.
• Eliminated the autonomy of the clergy

Outcomes, Significance and Results of Domestic Reforms
Catherine 2 the Great

The reforms of Catherine II were aimed at creating a state of the European type, i.e. to the logical conclusion of Peter's reforms, which was carried out by the methods of enlightened absolutism based on the ideas of the humanization of justice. Under Catherine II, the legal registration of the class structure of society was completed; an attempt was made to involve the public in the reforms and transfer some of the managerial functions “to the localities”.

The policy towards the serfs was somewhat contradictory, because, on the one hand, there was an increase in the power of the landowners, and on the other, measures were taken that somewhat limited the oppression of serfs. In the economic sphere, state monopolies were liquidated, freedom of trade and industrial activity was proclaimed, secularization of church lands was carried out, paper money was put into circulation, the State Assignment Bank was established, and measures were taken to introduce state control over expenditures.

At the same time, it is worth considering the negative results - the flourishing of favoritism and bribery, the increased debt, the depreciation of the currency and the dominance of foreigners in the scientific and cultural spheres.

Introduction…………………………………………………………………..……..3

1. short biography Catherine II………………………………………4

2. The beginning of the reign………………………………………………………6

3. Reforms of Catherine II……………………………………………….…….7

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………..17

References………………………………………………………….........19

Introduction

Among the autocrats of the Russian Empire there are many strong, strong-willed personalities, whose political and legislative activities had a huge impact on the growth of not only Russia as a whole, but also individual social strata, the life and culture of society. The gradual modernization of life in Russia, the main impetus of which was given by the European policy of Peter I, was continued by other monarchs, whose era played an equally important role in the formation of a powerful Russian Empire. The Russian Empress Catherine II was an imperious legislator; in her government, she strove for reforms and made an invaluable contribution to the development and strengthening of Russia. The era of her reign is distinguished by historians as a separate stage in the development of the empire, since it was Catherine II who carried out a course of reforms in the socio-political life of Russia, aimed at modernizing it and strengthening state power in the country. This legislative activity of the empress corresponded to the spirit of the time, new European trends and ideas that the Enlightenment brought with it in the 18th century. The policy of enlightened absolutism of Catherine II, as the main reflection of the principles of the Enlightenment in Russia, is interesting not only for its innovations, but also for the combination of Western trends with the originality of Russia.

1. Brief biography of Catherine II

Catherine was born in 1729 in the German seaside town of Stettin. Born Sophia Frederick Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst, she came from a poor German princely family.

Ekaterina Alekseevna was a rather complex and, of course, an outstanding personality. On the one hand, she is a pleasant and loving woman, on the other, she is a major statesman.

In 1745, Catherine II adopted the Orthodox faith and was married to the heir Russian throne, the future Peter III. Once in Russia as a fifteen-year-old girl, she quickly mastered the Russian language and customs. But with all her abilities, the Grand Duchess had a hard time adapting: there were attacks from the Empress (Elizaveta Petrovna) and neglect from her husband (Pyotr Fedorovich). Her pride suffered. Then Catherine turned to literature. Possessing remarkable abilities, will and diligence, she acquired extensive knowledge. She read a lot of books: French enlighteners, ancient authors, special works on history and philosophy, works by Russian writers. As a result, Catherine learned the ideas of the enlighteners about the public good as the highest goal of a statesman, about the need to educate and educate citizens, about the primacy of laws in society.

In 1754, Catherine had a son (Pavel Petrovich), the future heir to the Russian throne. But the child was taken from his mother to the apartments of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna.

In December 1761, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna died. Peter III came to the throne.

Catherine II was distinguished by her great capacity for work, willpower, determination, courage, cunning, hypocrisy, unlimited ambition and vanity, in general, all the features that characterize a strong woman. She could suppress her emotions in favor of developed rationalism. She had a special talent to win general sympathy.

Catherine slowly but surely advanced to the Russian throne, and, as a result, took away power from her husband. Soon after the accession of Peter III, unpopular among the tribal nobility, relying on the guards regiments, she overthrew him.

From the first days of her reign, Catherine wanted to be popular among the broadest masses of the people, she defiantly visited pilgrims, went to worship at holy places.

In the first years of her reign, Catherine II was intensely looking for ways to establish herself on the throne, while showing extreme caution. Deciding the fate of the favorites and favorites of the previous reign, she showed generosity and condescension, being careful not to cut from the shoulder. As a result, many really talented and useful people for the state remained in their former positions. Catherine loved and knew how to appreciate the merits of people. She knew that her praise and rewards would make people work even harder.

2. The beginning of the reign

At the beginning of her reign, Catherine had not yet mastered her new role and either continued to implement the policy outlined in the previous time, or completed it. Separate innovations of the empress were of a private nature and did not give grounds to classify Catherine's reign as an outstanding phenomenon in Russian history.

Catherine, not without reason, pointed out the rather difficult circumstances under which she began to reign. Finances were depleted. The army did not receive a salary for three months. Trade was in decline, for many of its branches were given over to a monopoly. There was no correct system in the state economy. The War Department was plunged into debt; the marine was barely holding on, being in utter neglect. The clergy were dissatisfied with the taking away of his lands. Justice was sold at a bargain, and the laws were governed only in cases where they favored the strong person.

Immediately after the accession of Catherine, a vigorous activity in the state body was noticeable. At the same time, in all respects, the personal participation of the Empress in resolving various issues was shown.

From the moment of accession to the throne and before the coronation, Catherine participated in 15 meetings of the Senate, and not without success. In 1963, the Senate was reformed: it was divided into six departments with strictly defined functions and, under the leadership of the Prosecutor General, appointed by the monarch, became the body of control over the activities of the state apparatus and the highest judicial authority. The Senate lost its main function- legislative initiative, it actually passed to the empress. The death of Ivan Antonovich freed Catherine from fear for the future of her throne. Now her ambition could be satisfied by the realization of her own plans. It has accumulated a certain management experience, there were plans to implement innovations.

3. Catherine's reforms II

"Instruction" and the Commission 1767 - 1768

In January 1765, Catherine began work directly on a legislative project.

In July 1767, more than 500 locally elected deputies gathered in Moscow to form a "Commission on drafting a new code", which worked for seven years. On June 30, the Commission began its work, the "Order" was officially promulgated, and all deputies received the texts of the Code of Legal Principles.

The official text of the "Order of the Commission on the drafting of a new code" consisted of 20 thematic chapters and 526 articles. Most of the text was apparently borrowed. However, in the end, Catherine came out with an independent creation in terms of design and political principles. The postulates of laws developed by her were aimed at strengthening the unlimited power of the monarch, legality based on "reasonable indulgence", guaranteeing civil rights in the form of privileges to estates, and general reforming of the legal system in the spirit of these principles.

The first five chapters recorded the most important principles of power state government in Russia as indisputable, "fundamental" principles of the life of society in general. One of the very first articles of the "Order" proclaimed Russia a European power. This provision had an important political implication: following Montesquieu's criteria, all the patterns of European statehood are inherent in Russia, despite its special vastness. The main of these regularities is "The sovereign in Russia is autocratic; for no other, as soon as the power united in his person, can act similarly to the space of such a great state." And "any other government would not only be harmful to Russia, but also ruinous in the end." However, the new, legal, monarchy has a new goal: to direct all actions of people towards obtaining the greatest good from all, to promote the prosperity of society, to guarantee the rights of citizens-subjects. The sovereign cannot and should not rule everywhere himself, although it was he who relied on the legal source of all power in the state. This shows that the "Order" fully preserved the absolutism of the monarchy.

Chapters 9 and 10 established the principles of legislation in the field of criminal law. Correctly constructed criminal law was proclaimed the most important guarantee of civil "liberties". "Nakaz" categorically forbade any cruel in form of punishment, reduced the possible cases of the death penalty. The court is also an institution not so much a punitive one as a body for the protection of society and the citizen. And since the court operates in a real estate society, then in it the guarantees of judicial justice should consist in the participation of elected representatives from the estates in the consideration of cases.

Chapters 11-18 were devoted to legislation in the social and legal sphere and civil law. Society is divided into three estates, based on the natural and historical differences in occupations. The more honorable place of the nobles guaranteed them special privileges in the service, in property. But it is also important for the peasantry to "establish something useful." The law should protect everyone, but civil rights are granted according to class.

The last, 19th and 20th chapters of the "Nakaz" established some rules in certain issues of legislation. Freedom of religion was declared, courts not provided for by law were prohibited.

Despite the complete failure of the Commission, it still had important consequences for the subsequent activities of Catherine II. In this plan big role played an assembly of deputies in 1767-1768. The deputies brought a lot of mandates, their speeches were left in the archives of the Commission, thus the opinions of both the estates and the persons individually elected by them on subjects that were of interest to the empress were expressed. Huge factual material was collected, reflecting the picture of the views, moods and interests of the then society. In addition, Catherine managed to make the Russians think about state liberty, political rights, religious tolerance, and the equality of all subjects in the face of the law. The Commission has shown exactly what needs to be corrected and to what these principles need to be applied. After the dissolution of the Commission of the Code, Catherine II began her own development of a series of legislative acts that constituted the reform of "enlightened absolutism", the basis for which were the principles and rules of the previously issued "Instruction". Especially importance reform of local self-government.

Provincial reform

The provincial institutions of Empress Catherine II constituted a whole epoch in the history of local government in Russia. In 1775, an extensive legislative document "Institution for the management of provinces" was published. In accordance with this document, a new administrative-territorial division came into force, major changes were made to local government. This system lasted almost a century.

All newly formed provinces and districts received a uniform structure based on a strict separation of administrative, financial and judicial affairs. At the head of the province was a governor appointed by the government with his deputy - the vice-governor. Sometimes two or three provinces were united under the control of the governor - the governor general. The country was divided into 50 provinces; the provinces were abolished, each province was divided into 10-12 counties. This division was based on the principle of taxable population. For provinces and counties, a certain number of inhabitants was established: 300-400 thousand and 20-30 thousand people, respectively.

With the change of the boundaries of the former administrative territories new county and provincial centers arose. The local government system was reorganized. The weakness of the past local government was manifested in its inability to on your own suppress anti-government protests. This was convincingly proved by the events of the Moscow "plague riot" of 1771 (a wide demonstration caused by the strictness of quarantine), and especially the Pugachev uprising. Now at the disposal of the central government were numerous administrative institutions, any armed uprising would have met with a quick and cruel rebuff.

Catherine II developed her own regulations on the provinces, seeking, first of all, to increase the strength of the administration, to delimit departments and to involve zemstvo elements in management. In each provincial city, the following were established: provincial boards headed by the governor (it had an administrative character, represented government authority and was the auditor of the entire administration), criminal and civil chambers (the highest court bodies in the province), the treasury chamber (financial administration), the upper zemstvo court (court for noble litigation and for trial of nobles), provincial magistrate (judicial seat for persons of the urban class in claims and litigation against them), upper reprisal (court seat for fellow believers and state peasants), order of public charity for the construction of schools, almshouses, etc. All these institutions were collegiate in nature and were considered estates, but in reality all power belonged to the governor.

In each county town there were: the lower zemstvo court (in charge of the affairs of the county police and administration, consisted of a police officer and assessors), the county court (for nobles, subordinate to the Upper Zemstvo Court), city magistrate (judicial seat for citizens, subordinate to the provincial magistrate), lower reprisal (a court for state peasants, obeyed the upper reprisal).

Judicial reform

For the first time in Russia, a court appeared, separated from the executive branch, although dependent on it. The activities of the new bodies acquired the features of self-government, as it was attended by locals. The new courts were elective. Separately, courts were elected for the nobility, the urban population and for those peasants who were not serfs.

As a result of the regional reform, police-noble supervision of the population was strengthened, and the number of officials was increased. 216 new cities appeared due to the abolition of the autonomy of the outskirts (in 1775 the Zaporozhian Sich was destroyed, the Cossack self-government on the Don was abolished, the autonomy of Estonia and Livonia was liquidated).

These were the main measures taken by Catherine II regarding the administration of the state. As a result, the empress strengthened the composition of the administration, correctly distributed the departments among the governing bodies, and gave the zemstvos broad participation in new institutions. But the disadvantage of the local institution in 1775 was the old system in the central administration, the duty of leadership and general supervision. With the exception of two institutions (a court of conscience and an order of public charity), all the rest were bodies of any one class. Self-government received a strictly estate character: it was not an innovation for the townspeople, but it was a major reform for the nobility.

"Charter to the nobility"

In 1785, Catherine II promulgated the Letter of Complaint to the nobility and in it confirmed all his rights received from the former sovereigns, endowing them with new ones.

Under Catherine II, the nobleman became a member of the provincial noble corporation, which was privileged and held local self-government in its hands. The charter of 1785 established that a nobleman cannot, except by court order, lose his rank, transfers it to his wife and children. He was freed from taxes and corporal punishment, owned as inalienable property everything that was in his estate, was finally freed from the previously obligatory public service, but could not take part in elections for noble positions if he did not have an officer rank. Deprivation of noble dignity could be carried out only by decision of the Senate with the highest approval. The estates of convicted nobles were not subject to confiscation. The nobility was henceforth referred to as "noble".

Peasant reforms

It forbade free people and freed peasants to re-enter serfdom. By her order, for the newly established cities, the government redeemed the serfs and turned them into townspeople. The children of serfs, taken into state care in educational homes, became free. Catherine was preparing a decree according to which the children of serfs born after 1785 were considered free. She also dreamed of implementing another project - it would lead to the gradual liberation of the peasants during the transfer of estates from one hand to another. But this project was not published, as the empress was afraid of noble discontent.

"Charter to cities"

Simultaneously with the Charter to the nobility, a Charter was issued for the rights and benefits of the cities of the Russian Empire. Like the nobility, the city society was considered as a legal entity enjoying corporate rights, the main of which was the right of self-government. Its primary body was the city assembly, which elected the city head and representatives of judicial institutions. The general city duma, which met every three years, became the administrative body of estate self-government. It included the mayor and the so-called vowels (deputies) from six categories of the urban population ("real city dwellers", that is, owners of real estate within the city); merchants of three guilds; guild artisans; Russian and foreign specialists; "eminent citizens" - a large group of people who served in the elections, businessmen, intelligentsia, townspeople. In the interval between meetings of the city duma, its functions were transferred to the executive body - the six-vowel duma, which included one vowel from each category of the population. Compared with the self-government of the nobility, elected city bodies had much fewer rights and were subjected to petty state-bureaucratic tutelage.

Comparison of all three documents (Charter to the nobility, Letter to the cities and unpublished Letter to state peasants) suggests that the Empress did not so much seek to support this or that class, but rather cared about strengthening the state, the basis of which, in her opinion, were the strong estates of Western Europe. type. It was under Catherine II that a civil society began to take shape, based on the strengthening of the estates.

An important role in the formation of civil society in the Russian Empire was played by other works on legislation and law, developed by Catherine II in 1770-1780. Catherine II was engaged in other projects: on the reorganization of prisons, on changing the search order. From the Code grew a small decree of 1781 to change the responsibility for various types of theft. At the same time, Catherine drew up an extensive statute of the deanery, promulgated in 1782. The Charter determined the principles of reforming the police institutions in the country, the new tasks of police institutions - not only to search for criminals and maintain order, but also to regulate social life in general in cities. The charter also included the Criminal Code (since the right was introduced into the powers not only to prosecute, but also to determine the punishment for minor crimes).

Development of trade and industry

Of the individual events of the enlightened government of Catherine II, the patronage of the Empress to Russian trade is also distinguished, as evidenced by the Charter of Letters to the Cities of 1785. Catherine's attitude to Russian trade and industry was affected by the empress's dependence on Western European ideas. Since Peter I in Russia, a system of the old government control was established over trade and industry, and the activity of the commercial and industrial class was constrained by regulation. Catherine II removed these restrictions, destroyed the control bodies - the Berg-Manufactory-collegium. It contributed to the development of industry and trade. Under her, banknotes, or paper money, were first issued, which greatly helped trade. Wishing to better arrange a loan, Catherine II established a state-owned loan bank with large capital.

In November 1775, for the development of trade and industry, a Manifesto was issued on the freedom to establish industrial enterprises ("mills"), and freedom of entrepreneurship was declared. Merchants who owned capital over 500 rubles were exempted from the poll tax and paid a tax of one percent on capital; a representative of the merchant class could be freed from recruitment duty by paying 360 rubles. Also in 1775, the empress adopted a preferential customs tariff for the Black Sea ports and abolished industrial and trade monopolies. The development of southern Russia made it possible to trade in grain on the Black Sea; new cities were laid in Russia, a naval base was built in Sevastopol. These events, held by Catherine in economic policy Russia, contributed to the expansion of exports and the improvement of various industries.

Extension public education

Important results of the activity of the government of "enlightened absolutism" include the measures taken by Catherine II regarding public education. Catherine II in her "Instruction" was the first to speak about the educational significance of education and then began to take care of the establishment of various educational institutions.

In accordance with the "General Institution for the Education of Both Sexes of Youth", a school was opened at the Academy of Arts (1764), a Society of Two Hundred Noble Maidens (1764) with departments for petty-bourgeois girls, a commercial school (1772)

In 1782, a Commission for the Establishment of Schools was formed to carry out a larger-scale school reform. These schools were all-class and were maintained at the expense of the state.

The main merit of Catherine II in the field of educational reforms can be considered the first experience in creating a system of general primary education in Russia, not limited by class barriers (with the exception of serfs). The significance of this reform is very high, because it was about creating an all-Russian system of educational schools.

Organization of medical care for the population

It is also noteworthy that under Catherine II, the organization of medical care for the population was entrusted to the authorities. Concerns about people's health and hygiene caused an attempt under the empress to properly organize medical care throughout the country. The medical commission, established in 1763, and the orders of public charity were to observe the medical unit in the empire and train medical workers. Each city was obliged to have a hospital and a pharmacy, where the patients were offered not those medicines that were cheaper, but those prescribed by the doctor. The city was also to establish shelters for the terminally ill and the insane. Since there were not enough doctors, they were discharged from abroad and Russian doctors and surgeons were trained. At the same time, pharmacies and factories for surgical instruments were founded. In 1783, Catherine II organized a medical service to monitor the health of the population. She established hospitals and psychiatric hospitals.

The development of Russian science

Russian science is making a big step forward. In 1783, a special Russian Academy was founded to study language and literature. The Academy of Sciences, which existed since the times of Peter the Great, conducted five geographical expeditions in 1768-1774, which made a valuable contribution to the study of the geography of the country. The Academy of Sciences began publishing Russian chronicles, twenty-five volumes of ancient Russian documents were published. In 1765, the Free Economic Society appeared, designed to popularize advanced agronomic knowledge and promote landlord rationalization. Numerous articles on the organization and management of agriculture were published in the works of the Free Economic Society. The number of Russian scientists at the Academy of Sciences has increased significantly, among them are the outstanding naturalists I. I. Lepekhin, N. Ya. Ozeretskovsky, the astronomer S. Ya. Rumovsky, the mineralogist V. M. Severgin, and others. The activities of prominent historians M. M. Shcherbatov and I. N. Boltin belonged to the second half of the 18th century; Sources on Russian history were actively published (by N. I. Novikov, the Academy of Sciences). Publishing output is increasing tremendously. Over the entire 18th century, 9,500 books were published in Russia, of which about 85% were in the reign of Catherine II. On January 15, the Empress signed a decree allowing the establishment of "free" printing houses.

Positive changes have also taken place in the organization of research work. In 1783, Princess E. R. Dashkova was appointed director of the Russian Academy of Sciences, who showed remarkable abilities in the administrative field. During the twelve years of her tenure in this post, the academic economy and academic educational institutions were put in order, the work of public courses in the main branches of science was established, and the publishing activity of the Academy was intensified.

Conclusion

Catherine II was a subtle psychologist and an excellent connoisseur of people, she skillfully selected her assistants, not being afraid of bright and talented people. That is why Catherine's time was marked by the appearance of a whole galaxy of outstanding statesmen, generals, writers, artists, and musicians. In dealing with subjects, Catherine was, as a rule, restrained, patient, tactful. She was an excellent conversationalist, able to listen carefully to everyone. By her own admission, she did not have a creative mind, but she was good at capturing any sensible thought and using it for her own purposes.

During the entire reign of Catherine, there were practically no noisy resignations, none of the nobles was disgraced, exiled, let alone executed. Therefore, there was an idea of ​​Catherine's reign as the "golden age" of the Russian nobility. At the same time, Catherine was very vain and valued her power more than anything in the world. For the sake of her preservation, she is ready to make any compromises to the detriment of her beliefs.

Under Catherine II, the territory of the country, the population (by 75%), and income (more than four times) increased significantly. Victories on land and sea glorified Russian weapons and military art. Equally impressive are the successes in the economy and culture. But it is impossible not to see with all this the difficult situation of the working strata of the population. Not without reason, during the reign of Catherine II, the most powerful popular uprising in the history of feudal Russia took place, led by E. I. Pugachev.

In her policy, Catherine II relied on the Russian nobility. No wonder the Russian nobles, both during her lifetime and after her death, spoke and wrote about the golden age of Catherine the Great, mother empress, wise ruler.

It is difficult to unambiguously assess the results of the reign of Catherine II. Many of her undertakings, outwardly effective, conceived on a large scale, led to modest results or gave unexpected and often erroneous results.

It can also be said that Catherine simply implemented the changes dictated by the time, continued the policy outlined in previous reigns.

Or to recognize in it a paramount historical figure who took the second, after Peter I, step along the path of Europeanization of the country, and the first - along the path of reforming it in the liberal-enlightenment spirit.

Bibliography

1. Encyclopedia for children "Avanta +". Russian history. Volume 5, part two. Moscow: Avanta+, 1997 .

2. "Order" of Empress Catherine II. S. - Petersburg, 1907.

3. History of Russia. A. Ishimova. M.: Olma-Press, 2000.