Research work on the topic of amazing places in the UK. Traditions, UK culture and language

Gutova Victoria Alekseevna

Project Manager:

Titova Anna Mikhailovna

Institution:

MBOU "Gymnasium No. 72 named after academician V.P. Glushko", Krasnodar

In this research work in English and MHC I will try to identify common features in the culinary arts of Russia and Great Britain. I plan to trace and display common features in the culinary arts of both countries, study the technology of making English pudding and cook it.

Also, the work will explore the history of the development of Russian-English relations.

Introduction
1. The history of the development of relations between Russia and Great Britain.
2. Features of English and Russian cuisine. Common features
3. Practical part. How to make English pudding.
Conclusion Bibliographic list
Application

Introduction

Today, many Russian schools are in close cooperation with schools in the countries of the studied languages. Students correspond with students from other countries. Close cultural interaction forms the importance of students' knowledge of the culture of another country.

According to R. Henvey, cross-cultural literacy- comprehension of the characteristics of culture and the people - its bearer at the level of consciousness, the differences between one's own and foreign cultures: readiness to understand them in the presence of tolerance; manifestation of respect and tolerance for different habits, tastes, views, norms of life.

The relevance of the work lies in the fact that cross-cultural competence is formed in the process of realizing the need to learn a foreign language, in the study of culture, traditions, holidays, national cuisine, the mentality of another country, in the process of self-knowledge and research teaching methods.

As you know, the history of relations between England and Russia has more than four centuries, however, the most solid foundations for the cultural dialogue between the two countries were laid in the Age of Enlightenment, or more precisely, during the reign of Peter I and Catherine II.

England and Russia had their own reasons for developing relations with each other. The most important reason was profitable trade, or rather, a trading partner in the person of Russia. As for Russia, she also had certain reasons for rapprochement with England. Our country needed a reliable partner and partnership, especially with the West.

Object of study - Relations between Russia and Great Britain.

Subject of study - common cultural traditions in the culinary arts of Russia and Great Britain.

Purpose of the study – to identify common features in the culinary arts of Russia and Great Britain.

Hypothesis - Borrowings of English traditions have an impact on the cultural life of Russia.

Tasks:

• explore the history of the development of Russian-English relations;
• trace and display common features in the culinary arts of both countries;
• to study and describe the technology of making English pudding;
• to implement a project in the preparation of one of the recipes for an English dessert.

Research methods – study of literature and Internet sources; studying the recipes of dishes from Great Britain and Russia; experiment.

Research novelty consists in confirming the existence of the relationship between two cultures on the example of studying the cuisine of two peoples, as well as using a cross-cultural component in the study.

Municipal educational institution

Secondary school with in-depth study

individual items No. 49 of Belgorod

Toponymic map of England

Research work

Completed by a student

10 g class MOU secondary school No. 49

Belgorod

Kadygrov Maxim Igorevich

Scientific adviser -

MOU secondary school №49

Belgorod, 2011

England is one of the countries that make up the UK. We know from history that this fertile country with endless agricultural land, despite its unpredictable climate, has always been a very attractive place for thousands of people. The Romans, Saxons, Vikings and Normans conquered England and, of course, influenced its culture, architecture, and way of life.

Rudyard Kipling, the famous English writer, said: "Saxons, Normans, Danes - that's all of us."

Nowadays England is a rich, beautiful and mysterious country with big beautiful cities. And every city has its own name, its own history. And what can the names of cities tell us? How has language changed over the centuries? Who influenced the formation of modern English? Can we look into the history of England by learning more about the emergence and change in the names that people gave to their places of settlement? As E. M. Pospelov said in his book “To the tourist about geographical names”, scientists have long paid attention to the durability of names, many of which live for millennia. Peoples die out, languages ​​disappear, and the names continue to live, although they do not remain unchanged: over time, their sound, spelling, and sometimes semantic meaning change. And new generations use the names, often without knowing either the language in which they were once given, or their meaning.

Nowadays, geographical names are the subject of study of a special science - toponymy.

As Wikipedia says, “British place names are rich, complex and difficult. Moreover, it is completely inaccurate and does not always lend itself to the logic of experience. Many British names have been changed over the years as they were conquered by various groups of people who speak English. different languages with similar sounding words but different meanings. In some cases, the names of cities are taken from extinct languages ​​and do not have an exact known value. There are so many combinations of two separate languages ​​from different periods of existence.”

We decided to try to find out who was involved in the process of creating the names of cities in England, who made a great contribution to the development of this amazing country and the formation of its language. After all school program, both in history and in English, does not imply a detailed coverage of this topic.

We assume that the toponymic data of England can help in studying the process of formation of the English language.

The purpose of our work – creation of a historical toponymic map of England

Tasks : 1) consider toponymy as the object of our study;

2) study materials on toponymy in journals and

special literature;

3) compare the history of the emergence of names with historical ones

4) create a historical toponymic map of England.

Turning to the literature on the history of England, we learned that the first Celts appeared in the British Isles around 700 BC. uh

In 43-45 AD. e. The Romans took over England. Since then, Britain, as the Romans called this land, began to take shape as a territorial and political unit. The Romanization of Britain began. And the cities became the centers of Romanization in the first place. Christopher Daniel writes that before the Romans there were no cities as such in Britain.

In 410, Britain officially separated from the Roman Empire. After the Romans left, England was taken over by the Anglo-Saxons. As Christopher Daniel writes, “The invaders who came from across the sea brought with them not only new ideas and traditions, but also their own languages. Founding new settlements or occupying old ones, they gave them their own names. Until now, a significant number of ancient Anglo-Saxon names can be found on the map of the country - in whole or as an integral part. ”During this period, the name England appeared -“ the land of the Angles.

In 793, the Vikings began to attack England. The Scandinavian invasion waxed and waned, but in 865 they conquered East Anglia

In 1066, the Normans invaded England. William the Conqueror was crowned in Westminster Abbey.

“The ancestors of the Normans were the Vikings, who settled in Western Europe. By the beginning of the conquest of England, they lived in a new place for a little more than a century, however, managed to adopt the French language, which soon became the language of the royal court and nobles in Britain. In courts, French in a modified form was in use until the 16th century. Anglo-Saxon dialects formed the basis of the folk language, absorbing the features of Korn, Danish and classical Latin. From this hybrid, Middle English was subsequently formed. (Robin Eagles 2008)

“For the first time in history, a situation arose in which the Germanic in origin Anglo-Saxon language of Northern Europe was forced to coexist with a Romance language from Southern Europe, which was Norman French.” (Christopher Daniel 2008:)

For research, we took a list of English cities from the encyclopedia - Wikipedia, and also wrote out cities from the Atlas of the World.

For the study, we took the following cities:

Argleton, Banbury, Bedford, Birmingham, Bolton, Brighton, Bristol, Bradford, Bletchley, Winchester, Wolvergmpton, Worcester, Guildford, Glastonbury, Dudley, Darlington, Dartford, Derby, Doncaster, Dorchester, Dover, Ipswich, York, Cambridge, Canterbury, Colchester, Lymington, Lancaster, Leicester, Liverpool, London, Lowestoft, Luton, Manchester, Maidstone, Newbury, Norwich, Northampton, Nottingham, Oxford, Plymouth, Portsmouth, Preston, Southampton, Salisbury, Tadcaster, Taunton, Watford, Whitby, Folkestone, Chester, Shepperton, Sheffield, Shrewsbury, Aylesbury.

From Christopher Daniel's book "England. History of the country "we learned that the suffixes

-chester testify to Roman origin of English cities.

Anglo-Saxon names are:

"tan" or "tone", denoting any settlement;

"lea"(over time transformed into "li") - a clearing or a clearing;

Word vic (wic), later hiv- fair, market;

Word “ ham'- house, estate, village:

burg- a castle, a fortress

Suffix - ol have brought Francophone Normans.

Suffix - bi characteristic of Scandinavians In the encyclopedia (Wikipedia) we found similar information

‘The Anglo-Saxons contributed elements such as -ing-, -ham-, -ton, -bury, -stead, -ford, and -ley. Scandinavian place names such as - by, thorpe, and toft are commonest in the area covered by the Danelaw, the north and east of England

Chester, - caster, - ceter, or other similar elements, indicate a Roman fort or settlement’.

That is, the Anglo-Saxons brought elements such as - ing, -ham, -ton, -bury, -stead, -ford, and –ley. Scandinavian names such as - by, Thorpe, toft. In the south and west of England, the names of the settlements came more from the Anglo-Saxons and the Celts.

Chester, - caster-ceter, or other similar elements mean Roman settlements.

Thus, we can choose from a list of cities that received names from Romans. These are Winchester, Colchester, Chester, Manchester, Leicester, Lancaster, Dorchester, Doncaster, Worcester, Tadcaster.

Anglo-Saxons gave names to the cities of Southamp tone, Northamp tone, maids tone, Pres tone, Tone tone, Lou tone, Folks tone, Shepper tone, Bolton, Brighton, Wolverhampton, Darlington, Lymington, using the -tone suffix.

Suffix - whether have the cities of Bletchley, Dudley.

Suffix - hiv- Norwich (Norwich), Ipswich.

Cities with suffix – bury Canterbury, Salisbury, Shrewsbury, Glastonbury, Banbury, Newbury, Aylesbury

Suffix – ford have the cities of Bradford, Guildford, Watford, Dartford, Oxford, Bedford.

Cities with the word ‘ ham'–Nottingham, Birmingham ham, Birming ham)

The city of Bristol was named after Normans

The name of the cities of Derby, Whitby with a characteristic suffix - bi came from Scandinavians. The name of the city of Lowestoft also came from the Scandinavians.

Turning to the toponymic dictionary, we found more detailed information about the toponymy of English cities and found confirmation of our choice of cities from the list.

Cities, in the basis of which, judging by the names, participated Celts- these are Winchester, Manchester, Canterbury, Dover, York.

Winchester (Winchester) has the original Celtic name Gwent - "place of trade, market." It is mentioned by Ptolemy, 2nd century, as Ouenta, later as Uenta.

And only after turning into a Roman fortification (lat. Castrum) is Uintancaestir, 730, Wintancaestir, 744 fixed.

Thus, not only the Romans, but also the Celts participated in the creation of the name of the city of Winchester.

Manchester Mentioned in Roman road map like Mamucium. The name is a Latinized form of the alleged original Celtic name with the meaning "breast", which is explained by the location of the village on a rounded hill, shaped like a woman's breast. Later, OE ceaster "city, fortification" (from Latin castrum, "fortification, ford, small fortress") was added to this name: Mameceaster, 923; Mamecestra, 1086 ; Manchester, 1330

And again, as we see, the Celts gave the original name to the city.

Canterbury (Canterbury) Mentioned in 754 as Canwarwburg - "fortified city of the inhabitants of Kent", where Cant (modern Kent) from the Celts. bases "edge, edge", i.e. "seaside (extreme) land", other English. ware "inhabitants, people", burg "castle, fortress, fortified city".

Dover (mentioned in the 4th century as Dubris. It is located at the confluence of the Dover River with the Pas de Calais and was named after the hydronym. The hydronym is based on the Celtic debram, Welsh dwfr (dover) - “water, river”.

York (York). Mentioned by Ptolemy, 2nd century, under the Celtic name Eboracon, which, after being captured by the Romans, acquires the Latin form Eboracum. The Angles, who took possession of the city in the 7th century, turned its name into Eoforwic, that is, they replaced - acum with wic “settlement, village” they understood, and rethought the basis in OE. eofor "boar". The Scandinavians, in accordance with the norms of their language, turned the name into Iorwic, 962, later Iork, from which the English York.

Thus, at the time of its conquest by the Romans, there were already settlements with certain names on the territory of England.

For greater clarity, we decided to mark on the map with different colors the location of cities with different roots, namely:

Blue - Celtic names

Red - Roman names

Green - Anglo-Saxon names

Orange - Scandinavian and Norman names

those who came Romans changed the names of some of these cities in accordance with the norms of the Latin language.

Winchester became Uintancaestir, 730, Wintancaestir, 744 The original name of Manchester was Mamucium. was changed to Mameceaster, 923; Mamecestra, 1086 ; Manchester, 1330

The Celtic name for York, Eboracon, was changed to Eboracum.

Romans

Romans also gave Latin names to the cities of Leicester, Lancaster, London.

Leicester. Mentioned in 957 as Ligeraceaster - “a village on the river Ligera (Ligra, Legra), where ceaster - OE. "city, fortification" (from Latin castrum "fortification, fort, small fortress"). The original hydronym was either the old name of the river Sor, on which the city was located, or the name of its tributary.

That is, here we cannot say that the Celts were the founders of the city. Most likely the beginning of the city was laid by the Romans.

Lancaster (Lancaster) Mentioned in 1086 as Loncastre - "fortification on the river. Lon "(now r. Lun) castrum lat. "fortification, fort, small fortress"

That is, the name given by the Romans has not been changed for centuries.

London (London) - comes from the older Roman Londinium (lat.. londinium).

The map shows that cities such as Winchester, Manchester, York are marked with two colors, since both the Celts and the Romans participated in the formation of their names.

Romans also gave Latin names to the cities of Leicester, Lancaster, London.

Leicester. Mentioned in 957 as Ligeraceaster - “a village on the river Ligera (Ligra, Legra), where ceaster - OE. "city, fortification" (from Latin castrum "fortification, fort, small fortress"). The original hydronym was either the old name of the river Sor, on which the city was located, or the name of its tributary. That is, here we cannot say that the Celts were the founders of the city. Most likely the beginning of the city was laid by the Romans.

On this map you can see the cities marked in green, in the creation of which the Anglo-Saxons participated, the cities with red circles founded by the Romans, as well as the cities marked in blue and red, i.e. the Celtic names changed by the Romans

Scandinavians and Normans also contributed to the toponymy of England.

Bristol. In XII at Bricstow and Bristou; influenced by francophones Normans the ending -ou became -ol and in the document of 1200 Bristol is indicated.

Scandinavians made changes to the names of the cities of Cambridge, Nottingham, Derby

Cambridge (Cambridge) The name Grantabriec with the advent of the Scandinavians, in accordance with the norms of their language, changes into Grantebrige, Cantebrige, Cambrigge and, finally, acquires the modern English form Cambridge - “a bridge over the river Kem. Under the influence of the changed name of the city, the name of the river changed - it officially received the name Kem. Here we can trace the participation of the Romans, Anglo-Saxons, and Scandinavians in the formation and change of the name of this famous city.

Derby (Derby) Originally the village of the Angles (Nothworth) - " northern farm". Since the 10th century, scand. diurby or diuraby - "village where deer" or "farm with deer park" (by "farm, village")

Here is the final version of our study. As you can see on the map, cities mostly have more than one color indicating their location, that is, over the centuries, the names of these cities have been changed by different peoples.

The names of some cities have undergone a lot of changes until they have become what we have today.

Gwent - Ouenta - Uenta-Uintancaesti - Wintancaestir - Winchester

Mamucium - Mameceaster - Mamecestra - Manchestra - Manchester

Eboracon - Eboracum - Eoforwic - Iorwic - Iork - York

Brigcstow - Bricstow - Bristou - Bristoll - Bristol

Grantacasti - Grantabriec - Grantebrige - Cantebrige - Cambrigge - Cambridge

Nothingworth - diurby (diuraby) - Derby

Of the 55 cities we examined, in percentage terms, the influence on the change in the names of cities, and, consequently, on the change in the language, is presumably the following:

Celts -9%

Romans - 29%

Anglo-Saxons - 60%

Normans - 2%

Scandinavians -11%

Thus, we can conclude that indeed a great many people who speak different languages ​​and have different cultures participated in the creation of the names of the cities of England and the formation of the modern English language. On the example of such cities as York, Cambridge, we can see very clearly the process of creating and changing the name of the city. We can say that the toponymy of cities is a reflection of the history of the country and the history of the formation of the language. How complex, confusing, but very interesting is the history of England, how complex and interesting is the toponymy of its cities, the history of their origin, development, name changes over the centuries. And the process of education and development of the English language is also interesting. After conducting research, we can assume that modern English is a mixture of Celtic, Latin, Germanic, French. Despite the fact that the percentage contribution of the Romans is not very large, nevertheless, we can say, guided by information from history, that this nation played a huge and very positive role in the life and development of England.

Christopher Daniel, in his book, tells how the historian Tacitus describes the policy of Romanization of Britain: “... young men from noble families began to teach the liberal sciences, and those to whom the Latin language had recently inspired frank hostility, ardently took up the study of Latin eloquence. (2008:

The Celts did not create cities, only the names of individual settlements have come down to us. This is not surprising. The culture of the Celtic tribes was not yet so developed

After the departure of the Romans, the Anglo-Saxons continued to develop the country, introducing, in turn, a new culture, changes in language and new names for cities. They had much more time for this than the Romans. The Scandinavians, the Normans did not fundamentally influence the names of English cities - they only made not very significant changes in the language that were convenient for them to pronounce.

Bibliography

1. “Great Britain. A guide to regional studies, St. Petersburg, KARO, 2010.

2. Christopher Daniel “England. History of the country» St. Petersburg MIDGARD 2008

3. "Geography in names" Publishing house "Nauka" Moscow, 1982

4. “What do geographical names say: Historical and linguistic notes”, L .: Lenizdat, 1984. - 199 p.

5. Nikonov toponymic dictionary. - M.: Thought, 1966. - 509 p.

6. “Geographical names of the world. Toponymic Dictionary, Moscow, Russian Dictionaries, 1998

7. "Tourist about geographical names", Publishing house "Profizdat", Moscow, 1988

8. Robin Eagles "History of England" M; AST: Astrel, 2008

9. "What is toponymy?" Moscow: Nauka, 1985

10. "Toponymy in the service of geography" Publishing house "Thought", 1979

Municipal budgetary educational institution

"Kez secondary general education No. 1"

Research work

London Attractions

Introduction

Starting to study English in the second grade, we learn that London is the capital of Great Britain, it is a huge and interesting city with beautiful buildings, parks and monuments. What is so interesting in the British capital? Why do thousands of tourists strive to visit this city every day?

After studying the topic "Sights of London" in our English lessons, we wanted to learn more about this beautiful city. Where, if not in the sights, is the past of London, its grandeur and beauty hidden?

Relevance of this study is to familiarize students with the history and culture of the capital of the country of the language being studied. Before the start of the study, a hypothesis: the sights of London are known all over the world, including in our village Kez and our school.

Research topic"London Attractions".

Objective: expand your knowledge of the sights of London.

Tasks:

1. Collect and study material about the sights of London.

2. Analyze information about the sights of London.

3. Find out what symbols of Great Britain the students of our school know and make a top list of London sights.

4. Based on the information received, create a model of the city of London.

To date, there are many works devoted to this topic. However, we decided to study this topic using the example of our school, and this is novelty our research.

The practical significance of our work:

This work can be used in English lessons and in extracurricular activities to familiarize students with the sights of London.

In the course of the study, we used the following methods: search, comparative, analysis, questioning.

London Attractions

Attraction (place of interest/sights) - a place, thing or object that deserves special attention, famous or remarkable for something, for example, being historical heritage, artistic value.

London is the capital of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, as well as England, The largest city on the British islands. The area of ​​the city is 1579 km2. The population is more than 7 million people. In terms of population, the city ranks 14th in the world, 2nd in Europe (after Moscow), and first in the European Union and Great Britain.

London plays a leading role in the political, economic and cultural life of Great Britain. In the city is international Airport Heathrow, one of the largest in the world, a river port on the River Thames, many world-famous attractions: Big Ben, Westminster Abbey, the complex of the Palace of Westminster with a clock tower, St. Paul's Cathedral, the Tower Fortress and others.

1) Big Ben(Big Ben)

Big Ben is the name of the largest of the six bells in the Palace of Westminster in London, often referring to the clock and the Clock Tower in general. It is part of the architectural complex of the Palace of Westminster. The official name is the Clock Tower of the Palace of Westminster, also known as St. Stephen's Tower. "Big Ben" is the building itself and the clock along with the bell.

“BIG” is translated as big, and “BEN” is formed from the name of Benjamin.

Big Ben was built in 1858 by an English architect in the Gothic style. The height of Big Ben is just under 100 meters. The world's largest four-sided chiming clock has a diameter of 7 meters. The sound of bells can be heard every 15 minutes, and Big Ben itself every hour. The sound of Big Ben is unique due to the fact that the bell cracked after 2 years of operation, as a result of which a square cut was made in it to prevent the crack from spreading.

All over London you can see many small towers similar in appearance to Big Ben. You can visit Big Ben. Tourists are allowed to enter.

Big Ben is one of the most recognizable symbols of the UK, often used in souvenirs, advertising, and movies.

2) London Eye

The London Eye is a Ferris wheel on the banks of the Thames, which has become one of the symbols of the city and one of the favorite sights of London. The London Eye reaches 135 meters in height and weighs 2100 tons. 32 cabin capsules move slowly at a speed of 26 cm per second. Each complete circle of the wheel takes 30 minutes. During this time, you can enjoy a wonderful view stretching for 40 km in all directions (visibility depends on weather conditions). Ticket price for the London Eye is £13.

3) Tower Bridge (Tower Bridge)

Tower Bridge is a drawbridge across the River Thames in central London, not far from the Tower Tower. This is one of the most popular attractions in London, which is easily recognized even by those who have never been to the capital of the United Kingdom. Every year, thousands of tourists flock here to discover the splendor of this Gothic structure.

The bridge was built in 1894. The bridge has a total length of 244 meters, in the middle there are two towers, each 65 meters high, between them there is a span of 61 meters, which is a drawable element. This allows ships to pass to the city berths at any time of the day or night. The powerful hydraulic system was originally a water system driven by large steam engines. Today, the system has been completely replaced by oil and is controlled by a computer. Full retraction of the bridge with each wing up to 83 degrees takes less than two minutes.

Inside the towers there are 2 elevators - one for the ascent, one for the descent. Each of them is able to take up to 30 people at a time.

4) Double-decker buses (double decker bus)

Similar buses are used in many countries, but it is the red London double decker that has become the world-famous symbol of the capital of Great Britain.

The first buses appeared on the streets of London in 1829. They were, of course, drawn by horses and were called "omnibuses". To increase their efficiency (to transport as many people as possible along the rather narrow London streets), omnibuses began to offer two classes of service: a comfortable first for wealthier citizens and an open second for ordinary people. This is how the prototypes of modern two-story buildings appeared.

5) Royal Guard (Royal guards) The guardsmen have been guarding the British monarchs for many centuries - ever since the time when they fought shoulder to shoulder with them. Today they protect royal residences and are considered a symbol of the United Kingdom.

Around the clock, infantry guards guard Buckingham Palace, other royal residences, as well as the repository of royal regalia in the Tower. It consists of five infantry regiments and two cavalry. The foot guards wear red uniforms and black caps made from the skin of a grizzly bear. The height of such a hat is 45.7 cm, it weighs about three kilograms, and you need to wear it not only in winter, but also in hot summer.

The changing of the guard at Buckingham Palace takes place from April to July daily at 11:30 am, in other months - every other day. When Queen Elizabeth is at Buckingham Palace, four guards guard its gates; when she is away, only two. Sentinels stand at the post for two hours, then rest for four hours. During the service, the soldiers of the royal guard do not even have the right to enter into dialogue with each other. Because of the warm uniform, and especially the hat, which weighs about three kilograms, the guardsmen often lose consciousness. In such cases, they cannot even help their fellow soldiers, since the duty of soldiers is to stand still.

Only the best soldiers of the British Army can become a Guardsman. Such service is contractual, but the soldiers receive modest money for it - from 800 pounds per month, depending on the length of service.

6) Buckingham Palace

Buckingham Palace, located in Westminster, is considered one of the main attractions of London. This palace is the official residence of the British monarchs and is used for official ceremonies, receptions and banquets. During public holidays, there is always a gathering outside Buckingham Palace. a large number of of people.

Buckingham Palace is one of the most famous buildings in the world; more than 50,000 people visit it every year. Buckingham Palace Garden is considered the largest private garden in London.
During the summer months, Buckingham Palace is visited by thousands of people who take part in royal banquets and receptions. Important royal ceremonies take place here, such as the celebration of the Queen's birthday or the opening of the autumn session of Parliament.
Buckingham Palace is under the protection of the Court Division, which includes the Royal Horse Regiment and the Regiment of Foot Guards. From April to August, one of the most famous ceremonies in London takes place here daily - the changing of the royal guard.
Palace, formally owned royal family, is considered a symbol of the British monarchy.

7) LondonTower(Tower of London)

The Tower of London is one of the main symbols of Great Britain, occupying special place in the history of the English nation.

The Tower, a fortress standing on the north bank of the Thames, is the historical center of London and one of the oldest buildings in England. The fortress was built in 1078. Throughout its history, the Tower of London has been a fortress, a palace, a repository of royal jewels, a mint, a prison, an observatory, a zoo, a place that attracts tourists.

Today, the Tower of London is one of the main attractions of the UK. It hasn't changed much since the past. The symbol of the ominous past of the Tower is the place where the scaffold of Tower Hill used to be. Now there is a small memorial plaque in memory of “ tragic fate and sometimes the martyrdom of those who, in the name of faith, homeland and ideals, risked their lives and accepted death.

Currently, the main buildings of the Tower are a museum and an armory, where the treasures of the British crown are kept; officially continues to be considered one of the royal residences. The Tower also has a number of private apartments, which are mainly inhabited by service personnel and distinguished guests.

Palace guards guard the Tower to this day. Today, their duties also include conducting tours for numerous visitors. On especially solemn occasions, they dress in luxurious costumes from the Tudor dynasty: scarlet camisoles trimmed with gold and crowned with snow-white plaited collars. On ordinary days, they are dressed in dark blue Victorian uniforms with red trim. English guards are often called beefeaters, or meat-eaters. This nickname most likely originated during times of famine, when Londoners were malnourished and the palace guards received regular beef rations. By this, the English crown provided itself with reliable protection.

The palace caretaker of ravens takes care of a flock of ravens. There is a belief that if the birds leave the Tower, misfortune will fall on England, so as a precaution, their wings were clipped.

Keepers of the royal treasury guard the famous jewels british empire. The treasury has been open to visitors since the 17th century. Among the gems that adorn crowns, orbs and sceptres—which are still used by members of the royal family during solemn ceremonies—can be seen the world's largest high-quality faceted diamond, the Cullinan I.

8) Westminster Abbey

The Collegiate Church of St. Peter, Westminster Abbey is practically the most important shrine in England, which is located in the Westminster area of ​​London. The church was built in the Gothic style and is the site of the coronation and burial of British monarchs. Together with St. Margaret's Church, Westminster Abbey is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The interior of the temple contains the tombs of kings, military leaders, writers and others. famous people, a total There are more than three thousand tombstones in the abbey. Almost all English kings, presumably starting from Harold II, then William the Conqueror, were crowned in Westminster Abbey. Many solemn events from the life of the royal family and the state also took place here.

The abbey often hosts concerts of secular and sacred music.

9) BuildingParliament(The houses of Parliament)

Parliament in London is a real landmark of the British capital, its hallmark. This is where the UK government operates. The House of Commons and the House of Lords sit here.

The current British Parliament is located in the famous Palace of Westminster. The building was built on the banks of the Thames in the middle of the XIX century. There are three main towers in the Houses of Parliament: the tallest, but not the most famous - the Victoria Tower, the central tower and, of course, the Elizabeth Tower, world-famous as Big Ben.

The Parliament building itself includes more than 1 100 rooms, several large meeting rooms, more than a hundred stairs, and about five kilometers of corridors.

Nowadays, anyone can visit the Houses of Parliament in London and listen to speeches by members of both chambers.

It is necessary to register in advance by phone or on the official website to attend the meeting, then arrive at the appointed time, go through all the screening procedures and, observing silence, attend the meeting in a specially designated place.

And during the parliamentary recess, when the parliamentarians have a rest, there are guided tours around the Parliament Building.

10) Trafalgar Square

One of the main tourist centers of London and the whole of Great Britain is Trafalgar Square, the main square of London, where most of the official celebrations and holidays of the country are held. It is here that on the eve of the New Year and Christmas holidays, the country's main city tree is set up.

Trafalgar Square was built in 1820. Initially, the square was named after King William IV, but in 1830 it was renamed in honor of the victory of the English fleet in 1805 at the Battle of Cape Trafalgar.

In the UK, many exhibitions and sections in museums are devoted to this event, but it is Trafalgar Square that sings of this victory the most. In this battle, Admiral Horatio Nelson, the commander of the British fleet, died, and the column created and installed in the middle of the square in his honor became its symbol.

Nelson's Column erected in 1842. This is a 44-meter granite monument, on top of which there is a five-meter statue of Admiral Nelson. On four sides, the column is decorated with bronze frescoes cast from melted down Napoleonic cannons.

11) Red phone booth has an interesting mysterious story and is calling card of his city - London, his original attraction.

In 1876, with the invention of the telephone, there was a need for mass communication. The first telephones were located near shops and railway stations. Shops closed early, and train stations were not in every locality. Therefore, such a connection was not popular at first. After all, the first telephone booths did not have the proper convenience and design, but were fenced off only with a curtain. British technologists decided that for convenience, you need to take the telephone outside. And then a new problem arose: each operator had their own design options. The government announced a competition, the winner of which was Scott Giles. All the booths were painted red, and the argument was that red would be more visible in the thick London fog.

Previously, the number of scarlet booths was close to 150,000, and now there are a total of about 13,000 left. But they are a great pride of the British.

Chapter I Conclusions:

The city of London is indeed rich in sights;

Each architectural object has its own rich history;

All buildings are currently in use and are places that are massively visited by tourists.

In order to find out which attraction in London is the most popular, we decided to conduct a survey among students and teachers of our school. The survey involved 46 students and 10 teachers.

We got the following results:

To the first question: “What language do you consider the most popular in the world?” 50 people answered that this is the English language, which indicates its popularity, and hence the popularity of countries and cities that speak English. What if not London with its rich culture and sights, we can call the personification of the English language.

The second question is: “Are you interested in English outside the lessons?” Only 5 participants of the survey gave a positive answer, which may indicate a lack of time for the guys to be interested in the language and the capital of England in general. So, with the help of our project, we will be able to interest them in the beauty of London, and as a result, in the language in which people communicate in this city.

The third question: "What is the symbol of the city of London for you?"

Based on the results of the survey, we have compiled a top list of attractions in the capital of Great Britain.

1 - Big Ben;

2 - London eye;

3 - Tower Bridge;

4 - Double-decker bus;

5 - Royal Guard;

6 - Buckingham Palace;

7 - Tower of London;

8 - Westminster Abbey;

9 - Parliament building;

10 - Trafalgar Square;

11 - Phone booth.

Thus, we were convinced that the sights of London are really known all over the world, not excluding our Kez Secondary School No. 1.

We tried to depict these objects on our layout of the city of London.

Conclusion

The sights of London are vivid images of the past, and therefore the monuments of its culture and history become even more interesting and attractive.

Studying the most popular tourist attractions of the capital of Great Britain, we concluded that London is an amazing city. It combines majestic royal palaces and educational museums, modern infrastructure and traditions of the past. Attractions - most a prime example culture and history of England, through the knowledge of which one can come to an understanding of the way of life of the English themselves and to a perfect command of the English language.

Despite the fact that a large number of guidebooks are published every year, London to this day remains one of the most mysterious and attractive cities in the world. In our work, we explored only some of the huge amount attractions of this beautiful European capital. In addition to the objects considered in this paper, in our opinion, it would be interesting to study other, less well-known, buildings and structures of the city of London.

We hope that the layout of the city we created will be useful for conducting English lessons.

List of used literature

https://london.zagranitsa.com/

Online book by Edward Rutherford "London"

V Scientific and practical conference

" Step into the Future"

History of London.

MOU secondary school №10,

Scientific adviser: Sofyanikova V.A.,

English teacher MOU language School №10

Ust-Kut

2012

CONTENT

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………3

1.Birth of London………………………………………………………………………4

2.Middle Ages………………………………………………………………………………6

3. New time in London……………………………………………………………………………………8

4. Newest time in London………………………………………………………………………………..11

5. Conclusion………………………………………………………………………….13

6. Bibliographic list………………………………………………………………………………….14

7. Appendix ……………………………………………………………………… 15

Introduction

So, we are in the United Kingdom, in England, and more precisely, in London. Everything in London looks new and different. Throughout the city's history, its people, fashions, aspirations and streets have expressed the very essence of city life. London is a city that never sleeps. Millions of tourists come to London every year, and many of them fall in love with the city beforehand.

The study of the history of the state of Great Britain, namely its capital, London, as well as the historical path and development of the city is of considerable interest to secular historical science. Hence, the task of this study is to get acquainted with London from a historical point of view. Some existing stereotypes and ideas about the city have to be destroyed. This is partly the relevance of the present work. We will have to review history from 43 AD to today.

Target:

Explore the history of London from 43 AD to the present day

Tasks:

Find and study material.

Organize the received information.

Follow the historical path from the time of the ancient Britons to the present day.

The object of the study is London, the subject of the study is the history of London.

When performing the work, such methods of work as the study of sources and literature found on the Internet, the library, analysis and systematization of the material found were used. This work is of interest to students and teachers of educational institutions in history lessons. I have divided the whole period of London history into 4: Birth of London, Middle Ages, New time in London, New time in London.

Birth of London.

“The prehistory of London is rooted in antiquity. Judging by the materials of archaeological excavations, it can be assumed that on the site of the present city, long before the conquest of the British Isles by the Romans in 43 AD. e., there were already small settlements. However, archaeologists have not found any traces of a large settlement that could be considered the immediate predecessor of London. Julius Caesar, who left a detailed description of his two campaigns in the British Isles in 55 and 54 BC, does not mention the presence of any significant Celtic fortress in this territory. e." (Attachment 1).

“For the first time, the name Londinium is found in the descriptions of Tacitus in 61, but it is very possible that this is only a Celtic name Llyn-din, modified in a Roman way, which can be translated approximately as “lake fortress” . The place where the city arose was swampy. At high tide, the waters of the Thames covered it entirely, indeed forming a huge lake, above which rose a low clay hill, and several small islands. (Appendix 2).

“It seems most likely that London has its history from the 1st century AD. e. The Romans built Londinium in the image and likeness of their cities, erecting a wall around it, first earthen, and then, in the 4th century, stone, which ran almost along the border of the present City area. Its direction is easy to trace: the memory of the ancient city gates is preserved in the names of the streets and squares of the City, ending in "gate" - Newgate (new gate), Aldgate (old gate) and others. These Roman walls, which have been refurbished for almost a thousand years, were destined to remain the only ones in the history of London. Their traces can still be seen here and there in the City. (Annex 3)

In addition to the walls, the most important monument of the Roman Londi-nium, which retained its significance for the further history of the city, was the bridge over the Thames, which went down in history as London Bridge. Big role the roads laid by the Romans, which connected London with other centers of Roman culture in the British Isles, also played. Their direction can be traced in some current streets. However, it is unlikely that people who shop today on busy Oxford Street, the largest shopping center in the West End, are aware that a Roman road passed here, then turned northwest, in the place where Hyde is now Park stands Marble Arch - Marble Arch. (Annex 4)

A curious reminder of London in Roman times is the so-called "London Stone", built into the wall of the church of St. Swithin on Canon Street in the City. It is assumed that this was a Roman milestone, similar to the "Golden Pillar" that stood in the Roman forum in Rome, from which roads diverge and distances were counted.

For the history of London, the Roman period had great importance. Even then, the combination of good land roads and a large waterway- The Thames - made London the most important trading center not only in Britain, but throughout northern Europe, largely determining the further development of the city. (Appendix 5.6)

Londinium became one of the most important settlements Roman Britain. In the 2nd century, it reached its peak - by the year 100, Londinium became the capital of Britain, replacing Colchester, the population was about 60,000 people. The most important administrative buildings were located in the city.

Around the year 200, Britain was divided into two parts - Upper and Lower. Londinium became the capital of Upper Britannia. Around the same time, the so-called Roman Wall was built - a defensive fortification along the perimeter of the city, the remains of which have been preserved in the center of modern London. At the end of the 4th century, Britain was divided anew, and Londinium became the capital of the province of Maximus Caesarensis. In the 5th century, the Romans left Londinium, and the city was gradually settled by the Britons.

What remained after the departure of the Roman legions from Britain in 410 fell into disrepair during the raids of the tribes from the continent, which began in the middle of the 5th century and continued for several centuries.

And yet, despite the harsh, turbulent military life, crafts and trade gradually developed in London. At the end of the 9th century, its walls were renovated.

Middle Ages.

A new stage in the history of London begins in the 11th century, after the Norman conquest. At this time, the formation of feudal relations was completed in England and individual regions of the country united into a single state, which accelerated the economic development of the country. The curbing of feudal freemen, the severe persecution of robbers created a relative safety of trade routes. Communication with Normandy, which was part of the English kingdom until the 13th century, strengthened not only trade, but also cultural ties with the continent.

The history of the medieval cities of the continent is full of references to the struggle of the townspeople with the feudal knights, on whose lands these cities were built. In England, the practice is different. Cities, which most often arose here in territories subject to the king, usually bought various charters from him for certain liberties. “Wealthy London received especially wide privileges. This began in 1066, when the city opened its gates to William the Conqueror, (Appendix 7) recognizing him as king. As early as the 12th century, Londoners had self-government and appointed a judge and a sheriff both in London and in the county of Middlesex, part of which was occupied by the city. They received the privilege to sue only in London and to trade duty-free throughout England. By the XIV century, the townspeople, and above all the emerging merchant elite, had already become such a significant social force that, willy-nilly, even the royal power itself had to reckon with it. More than once, it happened that it was the voice of the townspeople that decided the question of who should be the king of England.

The walled medieval City of London - the city of London - lives by its own laws and customs, vigilantly watching the preservation of its privileges. Subsequently, behind this oldest part of the city, the name that has survived to this day will be fixed - the City.

In many ways, London was similar to other medieval cities. Center public life and at the same time the best architectural monument was the cathedral, which was intended not only for worship. Important issues of the life of the city were often resolved here, trade deals were concluded. Standing on the spot where the Cathedral of St. Paul, this old St. Paul was crowned in the XIV century with a spire, which was almost 30 meters higher than the current grandiose building (Appendix 8). London had its own town hall - the Guildhall. The building, built in the 15th century, has not survived, but there is every reason to believe that it was quite rich, although its architectural appearance was very different from similar structures in continental Europe. As in any medieval city, one of the central places was given to the market. There were several in London. Cheapside - the wide and noisy thoroughfare of the current City - was the main one (Appendix 9). But Cheapside was not a market place, but rather a wide street. Along it stood the houses of wealthy citizens, and in the center of the street were located springs drinking water- the so-called fountains. The largest and most elegant of them received water through a complex plumbing system that stretched for many kilometers and was built back in the 13th century.

Unlike many medieval metropolitan cities in continental Europe, London did not have a permanent royal residence. Castles and palaces were built outside the walls surrounding the city. Given the strength of London, even William the Conqueror at the end of the 11th century erected a fortress - the Tower on its eastern borders, largely in order to, if necessary, put pressure on the townspeople. The followers of William the Conqueror continued his policy: they sold various privileges to the city, at the same time strengthening the Tower.

"Tower" ("tower"), Tower of London (Eng.Her Majesty's Royal Palace and Fortress, Tower of London) -fortress. The Tower of London is one of the main symbols of Great Britain, which occupies a special place in the history of the English nation.

The Tower, a fortress on the north bank of the Thames, is the historic center of London and one of the oldest buildings in England. As the Duke of Edinburgh wrote in his book dedicated to the 900th anniversary of the Tower, “in its history, the Tower of London has been a fortress, and a palace, and a repository of royal jewels, and an arsenal, and a mint, and a prison, and an observatory, and a zoo, and a place attracting tourists" (Annex 10)

The life of medieval London was closely connected not only with the Tower that grew up next to it. A few kilometers to the west, in the 11th century, construction began on Westminster Abbey and, next to it, the royal palace. On the south bank of the Thames, the suburb of Southwark grew, which by the 13th century was the main junction of the roads connecting London with the continent. Guarding London Bridge "from the outside" has been one of the most important responsibilities of the suburbs for centuries. At the same time, the foundation was laid for the Strand, one of the main streets of modern London, connecting the City and Westminster. In the XIII century, the houses of the English nobility appeared on it. A ring of monasteries grew around the city walls. The medieval City of London gradually became like a "city within a city" (Appendix 11)

Each of the separate parts of the future London had its own development conditions. Each of them had their own architectural ensembles, there were monuments of great historical and artistic significance. Not very many medieval monuments have been preserved, and they in no way define the face of modern London. But some of them, like, for example, Westminster Abbey, entered the golden fund of not only English, but also world architecture, while others still amaze with the originality of the artistic solution and make one admire the skill of their builders.

New time in London.

New time in London.

If the history of medieval London is above all the history of the current City, then the history of 16th-century London is a complex interaction of the commercial City, the government of Westminster, and the East End, which has entered a period of rapid growth of the working class. This is the London of the time of the breakdown of feudal relations and the intensive development of industry, the reformation of the church and the strengthening of royal power, the London of increasingly aggravated social conflicts that will soon lead to the events of the English bourgeois revolution. But at the same time, the 16th century is an era of a brilliant upsurge of English culture, the main center of which is, first of all, the capital of the country.

Church building is now noticeably giving way to secular. Instead of monastic schools, colleges appear, one of which, Gresham College, which still exists today, was a kind of first English university based on secular, and not on church, principles. One of the most remarkable buildings in London of this time is the Royal Exchange in the City, the symbol and center of the expanding commercial initiative of the then England. In 1570, London theaters begin their history. The South Bank of the Thames, in particular the Southwark area, becomes the center of theater London in Shakespeare's time.

Growing out of medieval folk spectacles, the English theater of the 16th century, more than all other arts in this country, was associated with a wide audience. Both before and after the appearance of the first theatrical buildings, wandering actors gave performances in inns, on the streets in front of hotels, of which there were a great many on the outskirts of London. It is interesting that the buildings of the first theaters reproduced the conditions familiar to actors: two or three tiers of wooden galleries surrounded an earthen parterre, in which, as in the courtyard of a hotel, spectators were standing, sitting or even lying around the stage. Not a single theater of this time has survived to this day, and only a small part of the hotel in Southwark - George's Inn - dating back to the end of the 17th century, can give some idea of ​​\u200b\u200bbuildings of this kind in old London (Appendix 12)

A sharp increase in social contrasts was marked for London in the 16th century. New luxurious palaces and parks are springing up in the vicinity of Westminster Abbey. At the same time, to the east of the City, unsettled quarters are growing, in which artisans and workers of the first London docks settle.

“The turning point in the history of the construction of London was 1666. On September 2, a huge fire broke out in the City (Appendix 13), which was extinguished only on the third day. By that time, at least thirteen thousand two hundred houses had been reduced to coal and ash. Almost the entire territory of the City lay in ruins. In the western part of the City, the fire broke through the city walls, causing damage to the Temple quarter, where the legal courtyards were located. Not only wooden residential buildings burned down, but also stone buildings. The medieval Cathedral of St. Paul. “... Stones flew in different directions, melted lead flowed in streams through the streets,” wrote memoirist and scientist John Evelyn in his Diary.

This was the second major disaster to hit London in a short time. A year earlier, a plague epidemic had killed about a hundred thousand inhabitants, naturally causing the greatest damage to the City and its densely populated environs.

Now the "Great Fire", as it has come to be called, has destroyed the inner city - the most vital area for commercial London. In fact, the City had not so much to restore as to build anew. And, moreover, on a site not so small in terms of the scale of that time.

Work began immediately. A building commission was appointed, which included three architects from the Royal Workshops - Hugh May, Roger Pratt and Christopher Wren - and three representatives from the City: architects Mills, Robert Hook and Edward Jarman - "skillful builder" .

“Of all the six, Christopher Wren (1632-1723) was undoubtedly the largest figure: a widely educated person, not only an architect, but also a prominent scientist - physicist, astronomer and mathematician, one of the founders of the Royal Society (English Academy of Sciences), later, in 1680, who became its president. By the time of the fire, he had already erected a number of significant buildings for Oxford and Cambridge (Appendix 14). At the beginning of 1666 he returned from Paris, where he became acquainted with the latest achievements of French architecture and began projects for the long-sought restoration of the old Cathedral of St. Paul. The fire interrupted this work.

Ren was well aware of the wide opportunities that now opened up before him. On the area cleared after the fire, it was possible not only to erect a large number of buildings at once, which would meet modern conditions life of London, but also fundamentally change the old intricate medieval layout. Ren's City Restoration Project, which took into account the latest achievements in the field of urban planning and was distinguished by its clarity and logic of solution, was recognized as the best.

Wren's plan was to replace the labyrinth of streets and lanes of the old City with straight highways radiating from five squares. Cathedral of St. Paul, the Stock Exchange, with the Post Office and the Mint located nearby, and the square near London Bridge, still the only permanent bridge in London, became the main compositional centers of the area. An embankment was planned along the Thames.

The well-known Piazza del Popolo in Rome and the project of the fan system of streets in Paris at the beginning of the 17th century, known from engravings, could serve as an example for such a layout, where the streets went from one center. Moreover, during his trip to France, Wren could also get acquainted with the regular breakdown of the Versailles Park and appreciate the mastery of the arrangement of the park sculptures of Versailles, which closed the prospects of the alleys. In any case, the principle of reasonable clarity, characteristic of classicism, formed the basis of Wren's plan. The prospects of the streets according to his project splendidly ended not only with the cathedral and the stock exchange, but also with churches, the silhouettes of the bell towers of which were supposed to decorate the city. Fifty of the hundred and eight burnt churches had to be restored by the architect. The purely aesthetic principles of Wren's project were in full accordance with the practical needs of London. The plan developed by him emphasized the business nature of the city and its significance as a capital.

However, Wren's plans far exceeded the capabilities of contemporary England. The state did not have sufficient funds for such construction. In addition, private property interests of the owners got in the way of implementing the plans of the architect. land plots. The idea of ​​a radical reconstruction of the City had to be abandoned. Residents were allowed, at their own expense, to build houses on the old foundations, subject to a number of rules adopted by the Parliamentary decree for the restoration of the City of 1667. Building wooden houses was prohibited. They were replaced by brick ones, with white stone trim and windows of the same size, evenly distributed over all floors of the building. A standard height was established for the houses: four stories for the main streets, three for the smaller streets, and two stories for the lanes.

Brick buildings began to appear in London shortly before the fire, but from now on they became a model of residential buildings for other cities in England.

The fire of 1666 not only changed the appearance of London, but also served as an impetus for the growth of its new districts. Wealthy people now prefer to get out of the cramped City, which still retained its now unnecessary walls. The walls were finally destroyed only in 1760.

In the 18th century, the delimitation of the functions of each individual district of the city became more and more distinct. If in the business City during this period new buildings of the Bank and the East India Company are being erected, then the Admiralty is being built in Westminster, and next door, on the Strand, the giant front building of Somerset House is being built, which houses government offices and the Academy of Arts created in 1768 . Aristocratic mansions are grouped mainly around the palaces and parks of Westminster, where a new rich and comfortable residential area of ​​​​the West End is now emerging.

By the middle of the next century, the City, Westminster, and the West End had become only a small part of the encircling, feverishly growing city. It is interesting to cite a few figures. By 1801, the population of London was about a million people. In 1841 it was already approaching two million. At the same time, in 1801, almost half of the entire urban population lived in the City, Westminster and the West End, while by 1841 they were only about twenty-five percent of the total number of inhabitants of London.

In the XIX century, London - the capital of the vast British Empire - is growing in breadth especially intensively, but chaotically. To the south of the Thames, industrial areas appeared, connected with the city center by six bridges. The East End is booming. The overcrowded, cramped quarters of London's poor soon extend beyond the East End, wedging even into the areas of the aristocratic Westminster and the West End.

From the second half of the 19th century, the City, and then the West End, gradually turned into non-residential areas. If in early XIX century there were still one hundred twenty-eight thousand people in the City, in 1951 this figure was reduced to only five thousand.

The wealthiest segments of the population are trying to move to the suburbs, closer to nature, especially since the development of transport made it possible to maintain contact with the urban center.

At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, the architectural appearance of the central regions changed greatly. New offices appear and old ones are rebuilt. The opulent and gaudy eclecticism of the buildings of banks, industrial and commercial companies, hotels and luxury shops displaces the austere classical ensembles of the West End and the old buildings of the City.

Another half century will pass, and after the Second World War the buildings modern forms again they will begin to change their face, this time not only in the old quarters of the County of London, but also in many areas of Greater London that arose at the beginning of the century.

Newest time in London.

London in the 20th - early 21st centuries

First World War temporarily stopped the development of London. The city was hit by air raids for the first time. Between the two world wars, London continued to grow, but more in area than in population (Appendix 15).

The UK has become a haven for

immigrants from Russia in the 20th century. In 1903, the second congress of the banned RSDLP party was held in London, at which it split into Bolsheviks and Mensheviks. Therefore, after the 1917 revolution, such emigrants as Pavel Nikolayevich Milyukov came to London.

“In the 1930s, many residents of the city suffered because of the Great Depression: the unemployment rate rose sharply, the standard of living fell. The inability of the authorities to do anything led to the emergence of many radical parties of both left and right directions. Most of them were based in the working-class East End. The Communists won several seats in the British Parliament, and the British Union of Fascists also enjoyed wide support. The struggle between left and right culminated in the so-called "Battle of Cable Street" - street fighting between political extremists on both flanks and the police.

In the same 30s, many Jews fled to London from Nazi Germany. During the Second World War, the capital of Great Britain was subjected to repeated air bombardments, the heaviest of which occurred in September 1940 and May 1941. Many residents were evacuated from the capital. Subway stations served as bomb shelters. In total, during the war in London, 30,000 civilians became its victims, 50,000 were injured, tens of thousands of houses were destroyed (Appendix 16.17).

Immediately after the war, London for the second time took Olympic Games (1948).

"London Eye", a Ferris wheel, opened by the beginning of the third millennium

In the post-war period, London lost its status as the largest port in the UK, as the equipment of the docks was outdated and the port could not serve large cargo ships. London's water terminals were moved to the nearby towns of Felixstow and Tilbury, and the Docklands area was redeveloped in the 1980s to now house offices and apartment buildings.

In 1952, the Great Smog, an extremely harmful mixture of fog and industrial smoke, descended on London for five days. Soon, the concentration of combustion products in the air became so high that in the following weeks about 4,000 people died from smog in the city, and another 8,000 became victims of the disaster in the next few months. The incident forced the authorities to seriously address this problem, as a result of which a nationwide law "On Clean Air" (1956) was issued, as well as a similar city law (1954)

In the 1960s, thanks to popular musical groups like the Beatles and the Rolling Stones, the city became one of the world's centers of youth subculture (earning the nickname "Swinging London"). In 1966, the England team won the World Cup in the final at Wembley Stadium.

London became a target for terrorists in the 1970s, when the city was first attacked by the Irish Republican Army. These attacks were regularly repeated until the end of the 20th century, after which the Irish group was replaced by Al-Qaeda, which organized a series of explosions in London public transport on July 7, 2005.

From the middle of the century, despite the influx of immigrants from the Commonwealth countries (especially from India, Pakistan and Bangladesh), the city's population began to decline, decreasing from almost 9 to 7 million people in the 1980s, after which it began to slowly grow.

London welcomed the new millennium with the opening of several new buildings, such as the Millennium Dome and the London Eye, the Ferris wheel that has become a new symbol of the city.” (Appendix 18.19).

Conclusion.

London is "a unique treasure in the treasury of world civilization", "the capital of the world", "a miracle city", as Herbert Wells enthusiastically wrote, "the most interesting, most beautiful, most amazing city in the world." The reflection of lights in the twilight surface of the Thames and the ringing of the tower clock, the enchanting steam over a cup of fresh tea and the evergreen carpet of animal lawns are a grandiose oasis of life and its special style. “If you are tired of London, then you are tired of living, because everything you can expect from life is here,” wrote Samuel Johnson in 1777.

In conclusion, I want to say: if you happen to visit London one day, then you will have something to see and enjoy.

Bibliographic list.

Internet resource/www.london.ru

Internet resource/www. Wikipedia. org

Internet resource/

The relevance of the research is the main question, the answer to which you should know even before you start writing your work, because if the topic of your work is not relevant, then its coverage is simply meaningless and no one needs it.

The relevance of the research topic is the degree of its importance in this moment and in a given situation to solve a given problem, question or task. Relevance coverage should not be wordy. There is no need to start characterizing it from afar.

What should and should not be taken into account when disclosing the relevance of the research topic?

There are two main directions of its characteristics.

The first is related to the lack of knowledge of the chosen topic. In this case, the study is relevant precisely because certain aspects of the topic have not been fully studied and the study is aimed at overcoming this gap.

The second direction of the characteristics of relevance is associated with the possibility of solving a specific practical problem based on the data obtained in the study. One of these directions, or both together, usually appear in the characterization of this element. conceptual apparatus scientific research.

EXAMPLES

Example 1 Current state psychological science, associated with the lack of knowledge of a certain mental phenomenon or process.

Currently, in the psychology of speech and psycholinguistics, there are a large number of studies devoted to such aspects of speech as ontogenetic (children's speech), communicative, rhetorical, neurophysiological, the study of speech in the context of various social interactions, computer modeling of individual characteristics speech process. These studies are characterized by great heterogeneity and are based on different assumptions and foundations. Therefore, a holistic description of the speech production system in a single model is of particular relevance, which makes it possible to achieve fundamental compatibility of various areas of research within a single framework of ideas. Such a model was developed at the Institute of Psychology of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

At the same time, it makes it possible to outline the most relevant areas of research and to concentrate scientific research on them.

Example 2 The introduction of the position of a practical psychologist in the education system posed the problem of high-quality training of specialists for solving psychological problems at school for higher education.

One of these tasks is psychological diagnostics, which includes the study of the psychological characteristics of students and their groups in the educational process, as well as determining the causes of learning difficulties and behavior in order to provide psychological assistance. At the same time, errors in diagnostic practice can have the most negative consequences for the child being examined, which increases the requirements for the quality of psychological training of future specialists and brings to the fore the question of finding the best ways to make a psychological diagnosis.

Improving the diagnostic activity of a practical psychologist focuses psychological science on a deep and detailed study of the features of the process of setting a psychological diagnosis in the course of solving psychodiagnostic problems.

Meanwhile, the content of the process of solving psychodiagnostic problems has not yet been the subject of a special study, as it was in technical and medical diagnostics.

Example 3 The urgency of the problem. The relevance of this study is determined primarily by the state of modern ergonomics, which has accumulated a huge amount of factual material about a person as a leading link in the "man-man" system (HCH). This material requires systematization, generalization, comprehension, structuring and presentation of it as a single complex of knowledge about ergatic systems.

Ergonomic anthropology is one of the first areas of research in the field of synthesis of ergonomic knowledge. It reflects one of the aspects of morpho-psychological studies of a complex and systemic nature that have developed at the intersection of anthropology and psychology within the framework of ergonomics.

The possibility of solving a specific practical problem based on the data obtained in the study.

P example 4. Relevance of the topic. The current stage of development of the professional world is characterized by an increased need for professionally mobile specialists who are able to successfully realize themselves in changing socio-economic conditions. However, the actual practice of psychological counseling demonstrates that many people, even if they are dissatisfied with their profession, continue to work in it, as they consider changing the scope of work as an indicator of their own incompetence. At the same time, professional activity becomes ineffective, and dissatisfaction arises not only with the profession, but with life as a whole.

In this regard, along with the traditional tasks of labor psychology, it is necessary to analyze the causes, conditions and patterns of a conscious change of profession and its understanding in the context of building and implementing a personal professional perspective. To study this issue, the concept of professional development seems to be constructive.

Example 5 The relevance of research. A special role in the system of training specialists belongs to the professional psychological selection of applicants as initial stage professional development. An analysis of the practice of professional selection in military universities suggests that this process is currently proceeding largely spontaneously: there is no unified coordinated strategy for ongoing activities, selection is not considered as an integral system, insufficiently developed psychological aspects professional activity".

Example 6"Relevance and formulation of the problem of the study. The current trend in the growth of crimes in Russia in last years, the death of many police officers in the line of duty, the ever-increasing demands in society for the problem of combating crime predetermine the need for a significant increase in the level of combat, physical and moral. psychological training of personnel, search for new, effective ways of training them.

About availability problem situation was repeatedly emphasized in the decision of the Board of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia, at meetings of the Minister of Internal Affairs with the teaching staff of educational institutions of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia, where it was directly stated that graduates of educational institutions are not always able to resist the criminal environment and have poor physical and psychological fitness.

Prospects for the development of psychological training in the internal affairs bodies can only be determined on the basis of a scientifically substantiated concept. However, in our opinion, there is no such concept in the Ministry of Internal Affairs today."

Example 7 The urgency of the problem. The transition of our economy from planned-administrative methods of management to market ones has radically changed the economic, social, political and psychological situation in the country. This, no doubt, requires a significant restructuring of both strategy, tactics, and management psychology.

List of the most successful student research topics

1. Characteristics of the stages of love in Charlotte Bronte's novel "Jane Eyre"

2. Queen Elizabeth I in history and cinematography: similarities and differences

3. In search of a RUSSIAN word (Russian borrowings and their distribution in English)

4. Means of expressing the concept of tolerance in the Belarusian and English languages

5. Word creation (new formations of words) by JK Rowling in the literary fairy tale "Harry Potter"

6. Floral component as part of phraseological units

7. The phenomenon of industrial culture as a new concept for the preservation of cultural heritage and as one of the tourist routes in Germany (on the example of the Ruhr region of North Rhine - Westphalia)

8. Comparative characteristics Belarusian and German holidays (carols and Three Kings Day, Shrovetide and carnival, Ivan Kupala and Johannes Day) and mythological characters (brownie - in Belarus, witch - in Germany)

9. Phraseologisms-somatisms in Russian and French

List of failed student research topics

1. In the world of English idioms

2. Anglicisms in modern Russian

3. Suffixation - a way of word formation in the English noun system

4. Study of difficulties in learning English

5. Compound words in English vocabulary and in the works of English authors

6. Winged words in English

7. Basic lexical and grammatical differences between American and British English

8. Neologisms in English

9. Comparison of phraseological units in German and Russian

10. False friends of the translator

11. The influence of history, culture and traditions on the way of life of the British

12. Changes in German spelling

13. Etymology of English words

14. Borrowings, their role and place in the modern German language system

15.From the history of phraseological turns of the German language

16. Mutual influence and interpenetration of languages

The most common mistakes

1. Compilative nature of the work

2. Abstract nature of the work

3. Lack of research

4. Lack of novelty

5. Inconsistency of the structure of work with the requirements for scientific work. Lack of conclusions

6. The results of the study given in the conclusion are generally accepted axioms

7. The topic chosen for the study is not relevant: studies of this topic at the NPC of past years were presented more meaningfully

8. The hypotheses of the research work have no evidence

Topics of research papers in English

• "What is hot with the young generation?" “What is popular among young people?”
• "Golden Age" in British History.
• Nickname as a special kind of modern anthroponyms.
• Secrets of Global Communication (Secrets of global communication).
• Abbreviation in e-mail and on-line games.
• An abbreviation in English computer slang.
• Alfred the Great and his contribution to the development of the English language.
• American English - new trends.
• Americans and Russians through each other's eyes.
• Analysis of print media headlines.
• English vocabulary related to church and religion.
• English and Russian sayings and proverbs - similarity in difference.
• English and Russian proverbs and sayings, the difficulties of their translation.
• English inscriptions on clothes as an extralinguistic factor influencing the culture of adolescents.
• English wedding traditions.
• English elements in the titles of television and radio programs.
• English and Russian - are they so different?
• English as a global language of communication.
• English calendar. What do the names of the months and days of the week say?
• English as a reflection of the history and identity of the English people.
• Anglicisms in Russian.
• English borrowings in modern journalism.
• English borrowings in modern Russian.
• English borrowings in the modern Ukrainian language.
• English-language slogans in the Russian media.
• Biography and creativity of A. Milne.
• Biography and work of William Shakespeare.
• Biography and work of Lewis Carroll.
• Letters English alphabet. Their private life and life in the collective.
• The influence of British culture on Russian society.
• The influence of the Beatles on the music of the 20th century.
• The influence of the education system of English-speaking countries on the education system in Russia.
• The influence of the education system of English-speaking countries on the education system in Ukraine.
• The influence of J. Byron's work on Russian classical literature.
• Where do words live? My favorite dictionary.
• Globalization of the English language and its influence on the Russian language.
• Women Monarchs in British History.
• Animals in English proverbs and sayings and their Russian equivalents.
• Borrowing words in English as a way to replenish the dictionary.
• Empire McDonald's and us.
• Interpretation of the lexical unit "inspiration" in Russian and English.
• The use of English in the Internet communication of Russian speakers and ways of its adaptation.
• Stories about Winnie the Pooh by A. Milne translated by B. Zakhoder - features of the translation of jokes.
• Historical ties between Russia and Great Britain.
• Historical ties between Ukraine and Great Britain.
• History of English tea.
• Story English vocabulary naming plants.
• History of English vocabulary related to the monarchy.
• History of Britain in architecture.
• The history of the development of the Tower and the Peter and Paul Fortress.
• The history of the development of numerals in English.
• The history of the most famous songs of Russia and Britain (for example, "A Christmas tree was born in the forest" and "Happy Birthday").
• History of Slavic borrowings in English.
• The history of ways to represent passive action in English.
• The history of the formation of degrees of comparison of English adjectives.
• How Hefalump Became a Heffalump and Mr. Owl became Aunt Owl (based on B. Zakhoder's translation of stories about Winnie the Pooh).
• Number category of a noun in English and Russian.
• Concept "Time" in English.
• Cultural map of Great Britain.
• Limerick as a genre of English poetry.
• Linguistic aspect of African American language.
• Linguistic and stylistic analysis of the texts of modern Russian and English songs.
• International Institute for the Protection of the Rights of the Child.
• Can I become an English queen?
• Fashion in the UK: Yesterday and Today.
• My pocket phrase book.
• Youth culture of Emo kids in Russia and Britain.
• Primary school in Britain.
• The latest anglicisms in modern Russian.
• What do the inscriptions on the clothes of students of our school say?
• Clothes: fashion and tradition.
• Homonyms in English and their specific features.
• Online translators as a means of teaching English.
• Descriptive characteristics of the image of women in proverbs and aphorisms of the Russian and English languages.
• Orthoepic norms in the history of the English language.
• Features of English slang in Australia and Canada.
• Features of the intonation of English speech and literary translation on the basis of limericks.
• Features of the translation of A.P. Chekhov into English.
• Carefully! Talking clothes. (Analysis of inscriptions on T-shirts).
• Distinctive features of houses in Britain.
• Reflection of the culture of the English people in proverbs and sayings.
• Reflection of traditions at the level of phraseology in English.
• Negative sentences in the history of the English language.
• Political correctness as a linguistic phenomenon in the United States.
• The rights of the child in Russia and the UK.
• The press is the mirror of the world. There are different kinds of mirrors.
• Dorothy's Adventures in Oz and Ellie's Adventures in Wonderland.
• Signs and superstitions of Great Britain and Russia.
• Possessive case in the history of the English language.
• The problem of synonyms in translation.
• Problems of youth and ways to solve them.
• The origin of the English vocabulary naming animals.
• Ways of learning English using the Internet.
• Differences between British and American English.
• Speech portrait of DONKEY in the cartoon "Shrek".
• The role of the English language in the modern world.
• The role of the Plantagenet dynasty in the history of England.
• Russian borrowings in English.
• Most famous inventions British.
• Sentimentalism as a trend in English and Russian literature.
• Syntactic-semantic analysis of the constituents of compound words in English.
• Modern British slang.
• A modern take on the work of William Blake.
• Methods of education English abbreviations in internet correspondence. (Analysis of remarks in chats)
• Ways of translating sports terminology in English.
• Ways of word formation of adjectives in English.
• Comparative characteristics of the English speech genre "Jokes" and the Russian joke.
• Comparative characteristics of two variants of the English language: British and American.
• Comparative characteristics of holidays in the USA and Great Britain.
• Funds mass media in the UK and the USA.
• The structure of Russian folk tales and features of their translation into English.
• Spheres of functioning of English borrowings in Russian.
• Such different English.
• Toponymy. Origin of place names in different regions of Great Britain.
• Traditions and customs of Scotland and Wales. Comparative characteristics.
• Food Traditions in Great Britain and the USA.
• The wonderful world of W. Shakespeare's sonnets.
• Forms of address in English.
• Hip-hop culture and its influence on youth slang.
• Great Britain: symbols, names, discoveries.
• Reading Harry Potter.
• What banknotes can tell about their people.
• Shakespeare - who is he? Difficulties in translating poetic works.
• Scotland by Robert Baris.
• The ecological context of Herman Melville's novel Moby Dick.
• Extreme sports and stress. Pros and cons.
• Is the Beatles the most popular British band these days.
• Language as a means of storing cultural and historical information in the history of British costume.