Bulgakov main ideas. Philosophy of Bulgakov's economy, analysis of the work of the economy as socio-natural phenomena by S.M. Bulgakov

Sergei Nikolayevich Bulgakov (or father Sergius) (1871-1944) was born into a priest's family in the town of Livny, Oryol province. His main works: Philosophy of Economics (1912), On God-Mankind. Trilogy (1933-45), Philosophy of the Name (published in 1953). Russian philosopher and Orthodox theologian, economist, publicist, public figure.

His childhood, about which Bulgakov himself wrote beautiful pages in his Autobiographical Notes, proceeded under conditions of strict clericalism. But already in the seminary, where he entered at the age of 13, he began a religious crisis - and this period lasted for him until the age of 30. Bulgakov left the seminary a year before graduation, entered the last class of the gymnasium, and after graduating (1890) entered Moscow University. Already at that time, he was fond of Marxism, specialized in political economy, and after graduating from the university very soon passed the master's exam, after which, having already married, he went abroad to work on his dissertation. The theme of his work was to test the basic provisions of Marxism in the field of agriculture ("Capitalism and Agriculture", vols. I and II (1900)) - and already in this work, very rich in facts and very thorough in analyzes, Bulgakov showed that the position of K. Marx is not justified in the process of agricultural evolution. According to Bulgakov himself, at that time he was "captured by science," and not only by science: he was already a member of the Social Democratic Party, became intimately acquainted with Kautsky, Bebel, Liebknecht, wrote articles and essays on political economy, and gradually became gain national fame. After defending his master's thesis, Bulgakov was elected professor (in the department of political economy) at the Kyiv Polytechnic Institute. Bulgakov lived in Kyiv for 5 years (1901-1906), and it was during these years that the second crisis occurred in him, which, however, had a positive effect on his spirituality and religiosity. Everything that Bulgakov wrote at that time and what is collected in his collection From Marxism to Idealism (Petrograd, 1903) is an expression, first of all, of a philosophical turning point in Bulgakov, very close to the same turning point in Berdyaev. Public lectures and Bulgakov's articles at that time received a wide response in Russian society - Bulgakov, together with Berdyaev (partly, Struve and Frank), became the most prominent leaders of that Russian intelligentsia, which was looking for a religious and philosophical renewal. Actually, already from abroad, Bulgakov returned, as he writes, "lost the ground and already with a broken faith in his ideals."

The turn "from Marxism to idealism" began a new era in Bulgakov's life - and here he owed a lot to Vl. Solovyov, as evidenced by his articles on Solovyov, especially the article "What Vl. Solovyov's Philosophy Gives to Modern Consciousness" in his collection "From Marxism to Idealism". Here is what Bulgakov wrote in this era: "Soloviev's philosophy gives modern consciousness a holistic and consistent developed Christian worldview." Bulgakov not only philosophically freed himself from the doctrine of economic materialism, not only accepted the basic principles of idealism, but also consciously and completely switched to a religious worldview. Bulgakov, together with Berdyaev, creates the journal "Questions of Life" (1905), where he publishes a number of articles on religious and social topics. In 1906, he moved to Moscow and received a chair at the Commercial Institute (whose director was P.I. Novgorodtsev), was elected a deputy to the 2nd State Duma (from the constitutional democratic party), wrote a number of articles collected in the collection "Two cities "Vol. I and II (Moscow, 1911). During these years, Bulgakov became extremely close to P. Florensky, who had an enormous influence on him, accepted Florensky's sophiological concept, which he gradually reworked in his own way. In 1912, he published the book Philosophy of Economics, for which he received a doctorate in political economy from Moscow University, where he developed his sophiological concept for the first time. At the same time, Bulgakov devotes a lot of time to writing journalistic articles, the most striking of which - "Heroism and Asceticism" - was placed in the famous collection "Milestones"; draws close to the most prominent representatives of the religious revival in Russia (Samarin, Novoselov, etc.), publishes in 1917 the book "Never Evening Light" - an essay on the system of his new worldview, writing which Bulgakov devoted 5 years (1911-1916). "My book," Bulgakov wrote in the preface, "is a kind of spiritual autobiography or confession; it is a generalizing comprehension, as it were, the result of my traversed, so broken and complex - too complicated! - spiritual path." This book, in fact, ends the period of Bulgakov's purely philosophical work; now, with the exception of a small collection "Quiet Thoughts" (Moscow, 1918), which contains articles on questions of art, Bulgakov is completely moving on to purely theological creativity.

Perhaps, one more significant circumstance should be mentioned, which played a role in the spiritual biography of S.N. Bulgakov, - his communication with L.N. Tolstoy. Here is what A.B. Goldenweiser in his diary (entry dated March 20, 1897, Moscow): "I was at the Tolstoys, S.N. Bulgakov was there. The Marxist. L.N. Marxist propositions. Lev Nikolayevich's dialectics prevailed, and Bulgakov argued weaker and weaker towards the end. I am deeply convinced, - writes A. B. Goldenweiser in a footnote to this entry, - that this conversation was one of the strong impulses that forced Bulgakov to soon from Marxism and go along a completely different, albeit very far from Lev Nikolayevich, path. Influence of L.N. Tolstoy's opinion on Bulgakov was rather "negativist" in nature: it contributed to the destruction of his old views, but did not stimulate the formation of new ones.

In 1918, Bulgakov accepted the priesthood, ended up in the Crimea, from where he could no longer return to Moscow, became a professor at Simferopol University for a while, but very soon left him because of the work of a clergyman. On November 23, 1922, in relation to S.N. Bulgakov, an authorized department of the SOC KPU Malli drafted a resolution, following which he "is subject to indefinite expulsion from the territory of the RSFSR without the right to return."

In 1923, the Soviet government expelled Bulgakov from Russia, and he went first to Constantinople, and from there to Prague, where he lectured at the Russian Faculty of Law, which then existed in Prague, and in 1925 moved to Paris in connection with the founding of the Theological Institute in Paris. From the very beginning of the Theological Institute until the end of his days, Bulgakov was its permanent dean; he taught dogmatics at the institute.

Bulgakov's theological creativity flourished during these years. In addition to the "small trilogy" ("Burning Bush", "Friend of the Bridegroom", "Jacoblev's Ladder"), individual sketches (often quite significant, like "The Icon and the Worship of Icons"), Bulgakov writes a "large trilogy" - "On God-Mankind" (part 1). I - "Lamb of God", part II - "Comforter", part III - "Bride of the Lamb"). Last volume trilogy comes out after the death of Bulgakov. In addition to these works, many of his books have remained, fully prepared for publication, of which so far only the book on the Apocalypse has seen the light of day, the rest remain unpublished.

The sophiological understanding of the dogmas of Christianity caused Bulgakov to be severely condemned for heresy by Metropolitan Sergius (Moscow), who, however, had at hand only detailed extracts from his book, made by Bulgakov's opponents and sent to Moscow by them. Metropolitan Evlogy, as rector of the Theological Institute, considered it necessary to create a special commission to clarify the issue of "heretical" Fr. Bulgakov; The report of the commission was, in general, favorable for Bulgakov, who could continue his teaching at the Theological Institute.

In the spring of 1939, Bulgakov had to undergo a major operation. The operation was successful, but the vocal cords were removed, however, after a few months, Bulgakov could speak (almost in a whisper), could perform the liturgy and even give lectures. In the summer of 1944 Bulgakov died as a result of a cerebral hemorrhage.

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CHAIR OF PHILOSOPHY AND CULTUROLOGY

in the discipline "Philosophy" on the topic:

"RELIGIOUS PHILOSOPHY OF SERGEY NIKOLAEVICH BULGAKOV"

Introduction

The history of all Russian philosophy has been the subject of analysis by researchers more than once. The first experience of determining the specifics of Russian philosophy belongs to Gavriil Voskresensky, a professor at the Kazan Theological Academy. In 1839-1840 he published a multi-volume domestic History of Philosophy.

Already at the end of the 19th century, the works of such well-known researchers as A.I. Vvedensky, A.F. Losev, G.G. Shpet, B.V. Yakovenko appeared. They considered the history and specifics of Russian philosophy. Their assessments were ambiguous, and contained many critical statements. Many of them were in the position of Eurocentrism and could not correctly determine the role and significance of Russian original thought. Reducing the significance of philosophy only to epistemological problems, they concluded that there was no developed form philosophical reflection.

All of the above researchers, in addition to Russian religious philosophy, attached great importance to Russian religious philosophy. Everyone treated Russian religious philosophy differently, but emphasized that it had a very great influence on philosophy as a whole.

During the Soviet period, religiously oriented movements received a negative assessment, and they were seen as "hindrances".

No literature was published, except for the manuals of A. A. Galaktionov and P. F. Nikandrov. The authors, although they adhered to the Marxist view of the historical and philosophical process, at the same time expounded the concepts of the Russian idealists, of course, from a critical position.

Despite the fact that for today, all difficulties are left behind, the manifestation of the creative power of Russian thinkers, Russian religious philosophy, is waiting for a holistic analysis.

Correlation of religious and philosophical views of one or another researcher, coexistence of dogmatic obligation with the desire for free philosophical research, ways of philosophizing Orthodox theology, evaluation of the ideas of Russian religious philosophy by representatives of the official church, the relationship of spiritual-academic and religious-philosophical traditions and other important elements to today not studied enough.

1. The phenomenon of Russian religious philosophy

The study of such a phenomenon as "Russian religious philosophy" involves the disclosure of this concept, the identification of its specificity in relation to "Orthodox thought" or "Orthodox philosophy". Closest to Russian religious philosophy is "Orthodox thought". This is a fairly voluminous concept that does not have a clear definition, but its broad and narrow direction can be distinguished.

In the first case, it can be Orthodox-oriented works of art, literary works and other forms of manifestation of the spirit.

In the narrow meaning of the word, views that fit into the context of dogma, church doctrine, which are actually Orthodox. It should be emphasized that churchliness does not mean sameness, because Orthodoxy is characterized by the recognition of the principle of assembly or, in other words, “unity in multitude”.

Consequently, Russian religious philosophy is part of Orthodox thought, understood in the broadest sense of the term.

In Orthodox thought, one can distinguish various currents: conservatism, innovation, modernism, and many others.

For theology there is a single basis, but this unity does not abolish the individual characteristics of thinkers. Each has its own interpretation. Therefore, within the framework of Orthodoxy, there can be such different thinkers as A. S. Khomyakov, P. S. Kazansky, P. A. Florensky, V. N. Lossky and S. N. Bulgakov.

When analyzing religious philosophy, it is necessary to study two stereotypes that have been consistently present in historical and philosophical research.

The first, as already noted, is associated with Eurocentrism, which is inextricably linked with the history of Western Europe. The adoption of Orthodoxy by the Slavic people, from the point of view of some thinkers, leads to stagnation in the sphere of thought, because on Slavic soil Christianity is devoid of fruitful influence, in comparison with Europeans. Proceeding from such an interpretation of Orthodoxy, it must be admitted that nothing creatively original can be created in the history of Russian religious philosophy. It is worth noting that not only foreign thinkers brought such conclusions, but also a number of domestic thinkers came to this opinion.

According to P. Ya Chaadev, independent mental work is unusual in Russian society. Naturally, in modern society, the interpretation has been changed, but the essence has remained unchanged. Russian philosophical tradition is a deviation from the main path of development of human thought.

The theme of the specifics of Russian philosophy, its cognitive and social functions, is, in fact, inexhaustible. At the same time, it is very important what value orientation a scientist adheres to when analyzing the history of Russian philosophy. For example, P. A. Florensky specifically noted that, in contrast to natural science, which deals with matters indifferent to spiritual culture, in historical sciences, and the sciences of culture, the subject of study is the spiritual value. Proceeding from this, he finds completely opposite features in Russian religious philosophy.

The second stereotype is associated with the educational tradition, which considers the Middle Ages as a time of "gloomy and dim existence", as a kind of lethargic dream of the intellect.

Christian universalism, addressing people of all nations does not cancel the national components that exist in real church thought. Consequently, the historical existence of religion is inextricably linked with the history of a particular ethnic group.

Undoubtedly, the leading role in Russian religious philosophy is played by organic religion. It is the spiritual basis on the basis of which the features of national psychology and culture are formed. Organic religion has a significant impact on the development of society. It acts as an important integrating force for the ethnos, it unites it on the basis of tradition, preserves and develops national identity.

For Russians, Orthodoxy is an organic religion; therefore, the history of Russian philosophizing is inseparable from the history of Russian Orthodoxy. It is natural, therefore, that the peculiarities of Orthodoxy left an imprint on the Russian philosophical tradition, which is not found in philosophical schools oriented towards Western Christianity, for both of these directions have a number of fundamental differences. Since the ideological basis of Russian philosophy is Eastern Christianity, it is precisely the relationship of wisdom with Orthodoxy, which has been of a different nature in the course of history, that determines the periodization of Russian religious philosophy.

The first stage (XI-XVII) - Russian medieval philosophy - passed under the dominant influence of Orthodox attitudes; the second stage (XVIII-XIX), during this period, an independent secular philosophy appears, primarily as part of an educational ideology that is in opposition to the historical Church; the third stage (XIX-XX) is characterized by the creation of an original Russian religious philosophy based on the synthesis of the Orthodox tradition with highly developed forms of philosophical thinking; finally, modern religious philosophy, presented primarily as Orthodox philosophy.

Many different researchers, both Russian and foreign, were busy searching for the correct course of Russian religious philosophy. As mentioned above, such researchers were V.S. Solovyov, N.A. Berdyaev, D.A. Andreev, L.N. Tolstoy, S. N. Bulgakov.

I was very interested in the research of Sergei Nikolaevich Bulgakov in the field of Russian religious philosophy, so the topic of my essay sounds like "Russian religious philosophy of S. N. Bulgakov."

Sergei Nikolaevich Bulgakov was born in June 1871 in the family of a priest. He received a good education, studied at the Livny Theological School and the Oryol Theological Seminary.

In addition, he graduated from the law faculty of Moscow University.

In 1906 S.N. Bulgakov finally chooses the religious and philosophical path, takes part in the famous collection "Milestones", in 1911 the collection of articles "Two Cities" was published. In 1912, the book "Philosophy of Economics" appears, in which the author examines all the problems of political economy and social philosophy, from the point of view of the philosophy of religion. The continuation of this work was the book "Non-Evening Light".

2. The genesis of the philosophical views of S.N. Bulgakov

2.1 The path from Marxism to religious Orthodoxy

The ideological legacy of Bulgakov's philosophical views has long attracted attention and has been analyzed by many both secular and religious researchers. But still, there are a number of topics that have not been studied enough. These are such problems as the thinker's understanding of theological creativity, assembly, historiosophy.

According to Bulgakov's works, it becomes clear that the philosopher went through a difficult path from Marxism to idealism, and then to a religious-Orthodox worldview. The creativity of a thinker can be divided into three stages:

Until 1903 - Marxist, characterized by an interest primarily in socio-economic issues.

1903-1925 - religious and philosophical.

After 1925 - theological, connected primarily with ecclesiological and sophiological problems.

It should be noted that in the Marxist period, when for him the materialistic understanding of history is necessary condition introduction " social phenomena into the system of scientific experience," he admits the insufficient development of Marxist sociology.

3.2Religion and Marxism from the point of view of Bulgakov.

In the future, Bulgakov understood that the search for an analogy of Marxism turns into an undermining of faith. Based on this, he published an article

"Basic Problems of the Theory of Progress", in which he opposes the positivist and materialistic worldview, since a person cannot live by exact science alone, because the need for "metaphysics and religion are irremovable and have never been eliminated from human life."

Bulgakov's reassessment of the position was accompanied by two very important conclusions.

First, it is impossible to establish historical patterns and describe the historical process in a logical order.

Secondly, belief in the absolute meaning of human life leads to a "vicious circle".

At this stage, the thinker Sergei Nikolaevich Bulgakov began to move away from Marxism and began to spread the principles of the religious-idealistic worldview to ontology and epistemology.

One of the most difficult problems in philosophy, which has been dealt with by many thinkers, is the question of the relationship between the unified nature of the spirit and the diversity of the world.

In other words, it is necessary to say how unity and plurality, spiritual community and unique individuality are combined in being.

Here Bulgakov focuses on the sophianic nature of the world, which emphasizes the single source of all that exists, which is God.

As a result, he comes to the conclusion that "unity is realized only in plurality."

Bulgakov, following V.S. Solovyov, considered the individual "a conductor of the all-unifying divine principle into elemental multiplicity."

However, in human nature, the "disease of being" is manifested, since it, in its individual element, breaks out of the Sophian unity. It is this process of separation of personality that predetermines the specifics of human cognition.

Bulgakov's ideal of knowledge is not a rational system based on the arguments of reason, but a synthesized education that seeks to combine the real with the ideal, the rational with the empirical, the material with the transcendent. It is impossible to express the essence of the “organism-idea”, therefore “the mind rests on antinomies”. Antinomianism should not breed skepticism. In this area, Bulgakov does not agree with the Western European thought tradition, which puts "philosophy above religion". The correct relationship between them is that "religion, as a revelation, as a doctrine not rationalistic, but dogmatic or peacemaking, precedes philosophy, since it stands above it." But, nevertheless, the Russian thinker does not deny the importance of science for society. From his point of view, science finds its justification if it is considered as “a social labor process, which is aimed at obtaining the knowledge necessary for human existence.

3.3Spheres of human knowledge.

According to Bulgakov, there are three main areas of human knowledge: religious, philosophical and scientific. There is a clear subordination between them, if you move from the bottom up, then this is the path from science through philosophy to religion.

Consequently, the theological, philosophical and scientific spheres of cognition, in order to fulfill their purpose, that is, to make a person “participant in Sophian principles,” must have not only epistemological, but also certain value orientations. For Bulgakov, these value orientations are set by Orthodoxy.

3. Bulgakov's theological and philosophical themes

In the post-revolutionary period, the Russian Orthodox Church found itself in a very difficult situation. Unprecedented pressure from totalitarian power has led many educated believers to renounce religion. In addition, mass emigration, many prominent clergymen ended up abroad. All this leads the church to an educational decline. Only those who could not imagine their life outside of Orthodoxy remained in the church. In the post-revolutionary years, adherents of Orthodox conservatism prevailed.

It should also be noted that the mass, unjustified repressions that fell upon the representatives of the church practically excluded theological creativity from spiritual life.

Abroad, in the conditions of a non-verbal environment and against the backdrop of the changes that were in the Soviet Union, the question of "fidelity to the Orthodox Church Tradition" sharply arose.

When solving such problems in foreign Orthodoxy, two approaches were identified.

In the first case, tradition is understood as a fixed and unchanging state of faith.

In the second case, tradition is understood "as a teaching that lives and develops in history".

From Bulgakov's point of view, domestic representatives claim to be "an expression of the fullness of Orthodox teaching", but in reality, faith cannot cover all aspects of moralizing. Then the thinker turns to the term theologeme.

3.1 Theologeme and dogma

A theologeme, that is, a partial theological opinion, and it should not claim to be infallible and universally binding. According to Bulgakov, "the field of dogma should not coincide with the available dogmas." It follows from this that dogmatics should be based not only on the creed, but it can be "completed from other sources, in addition to direct and obligatory dogmatic definitions."

This process involves the search for dogmatics, that is, the struggle of theological opinions that have existed for quite a long time.

In this regard, several questions arise: about the criteria for theological truth, about dogmatic development, about the relationship between dogmatism and theological opinion.

Sergei Nikolaevich Bulgakov deeply studied these problems, he understood that the question of the truth of this or that church position, that is, the question of the infallible authority of the Church, is an exceptional difficulty in posing and discussing and, perhaps, the impossibility for final theoretical development.

Catholics attribute supreme authority in matters of doctrine and attribute infallibility to the pope. Protestantism, on the other hand, is declared the religion of a reborn personality, that is, through its justification, to find oneself and through oneself become a church.

Bulgakov emphasizes "that Protestantism turns out to be "ego-papism, in which everyone .... wants to be a pope for himself, claiming, therefore, infallibility in matters of faith." Bulgakov's criticism of Catholicism and Protestantism is largely based on the arguments put forward by A.S. Khomyakov. All their reasoning boils down to the fact that papism and Protestantism are in many ways similar to each other, despite the differences.

In addition, when assessing Orthodoxy, Bulgakov also relies on the arguments of A.S. Khomyakov. He considers assembly to be the highest manifestation of religious consciousness, defining it as "unity in plurality." For him, the words prefabricatedness and truth coincide, to be prefabricated means "to be in truth, which means to know it." These principles are most adequately expressed in Orthodoxy, but they oppose both Catholic authoritarianism and Protestantism. Therefore, the misunderstanding of Orthodox Churchness comes from ignoring catholicity when considering dogmatic quests.

The complexity of revealing catholicity lies in the fact that "the concept of language does not fully express the essence of the knowable", moreover, the manifestations of "unity in the multitude" are diverse in the religious sphere. The most general classification of church conciliarity, according to Bulgakov, is the allocation of external, quantitative and internal, qualitative.

The external understanding of catholicity draws attention to the connection of the church with the cathedrals, that is, "defining the church as containing the teachings of ecumenical and local councils." It also emphasizes the idea that "the church gathers, includes all peoples and extends to the whole universe."

Since both the cathedrals and the geography of the spread of Christianity depend on historical conditions, on the spiritual needs of that time. The external manifestation of catholicity is manifested by the human factor.

Internally, the definition of catholicity emphasizes that it is very close to the truth. This truth has a transcendent character, it does not depend on any conditions, human lives.

The qualitative side of catholicity is based on the doctrine of the Trinity: God is one and at the same time exists in three hypostases, each of which has certain qualities. In the Trinity, "unity in plurality" finds its fullest, absolute expression, therefore "the Holy Trinity is eternal catholicity." It contains the fullness of self-disclosure. And at the same time, the whole "fullness of unity." At the same time, “in the Holy Trinity, that which is inconceivable for the created consciousness is accomplished,” since it is impossible to manifest its idea, to reveal its content.

3.2 The phenomenon of Sobornost

For Bulgakov, catholicity is a property that goes into "the very bowels of church life", and in this regard, it cannot be joined with the help of rationalistic constructions. When defining conciliar truths, it is necessary to overcome the opposition of the subject and object of knowledge.

The Orthodox spiritual tradition emphasizes that truth is the norm of being, and only then the norm of consciousness. Only with such an approach can one understand the gospel position of the church as the pillar and ground of the truth. Therefore, the knowledge of conciliar truths means life and existence in truth. Such an approach makes possible and essential the connection between catholicity and ontologism, the two most characteristic features of the Russian mentality. The truth that does not transform being cannot be called catholic, and, on the contrary, the “acceleration of the truth of the church people” testifies to its catholic character.

External quantitative, and internal, qualitative aspects of catholicity do not exist in isolation from each other. They are interconnected as essence and phenomenon. At the same time, the essence is given to man for centuries, while the phenomenon is of a historical nature. It is known that Orthodox dogmatic theology assigns special significance to the ecumenical council in revealing eternal truths and faith.

Bulgakov seeks to clarify the understanding of the role of ecumenical and local councils in the life of Eastern Christianity. In Orthodoxy there is a danger of dictating conciliar decisions as an external infallible authority in matters of faith. In this case, Orthodoxy converges with Catholicism, but only instead of the infallibility of the pope, the opinion of the bishops is declared infallible. In both cases, the criteria for ecclesiastical truth is outside. The conciliar truth belongs to the whole people and is accepted by the faithful, not at the behest of the council, but as an expression of the will and consciousness of all the churches. In other words, all councils are significant as a means of awakening and revealing the consciousness of the Church.

Thus, according to Bulgakov, Orthodoxy cannot and should not know external doctrinal authority. The criteria for the truth of a dogma can only belong to the fullness of the ecclesia, and as a result, it will become clear that "churchhood is truth, and truth is churchness." From the point of view of rationalism, such theses form a "vicious circle" proving the same through the same.

However, as the Russian thinker believes, "this circle ... is a natural and irremovable property of an ontological judgment."

The denial of external authority leads Bulgakov to a peculiar interpretation of dogmas. Orthodox theology, as already noted, understands dogma, the meaning of an indisputable, indisputable truth that has absolute authority and is not subject to criticism. Proceeding from such an attitude, it is the creed that becomes the criterion of the truth of church thought, and church life in general.

For Bulgakov, dogmas cannot be evaluated as the highest doctrinal formula. Therefore, he believes that, speaking of dogmas, one has to keep in mind not the truth of certain formulations and definitions, but the correctness or incorrectness of their experiences, which is the basis. It is about belittling the dogmatic principle in the church. In this regard, Bulgakov continues the line of M. Tareev, who declared the primacy of the “mystical experience of the believing subject” over dogmatic attitudes. Consequently, both for Tareev and Bulgakov, dogmatic formulations form the sphere of secondary phenomena, but if in the former they are based on individual experience, then in the latter they are based on general church principles. Proceeding from this, Bulgakov believes that dogma should become a science that testifies to the content of religious life and its internal facts and self-determination. The “dogmatic inventory” itself, that is, the external form of the expression of faith, although it should be studied, its significance in the religious sphere cannot be exaggerated. Besides, for a thinker, dogmas do not claim to be a complete expression of church self-awareness, they are only a part of it. Therefore, catholicity of the church is immeasurable, richer in content than all that is revealed ... in church teaching. There is a certain danger in this approach, since it contains the possibility of subjective distortion of Orthodox morality. If there is no dogmatic clarity, then there is a temptation to impose on the church any opinion that is not grace-filled. Church tradition, recognizing the absence of dogmatic formulations, at the same time has always emphasized the need to correlate all the phenomena of church life with dogmatic principles. The ecclesiastical giving becomes such only when it is consistent with dogmatic attitudes, follows from them.

The philosopher himself understood that his positions were very vulnerable, from the point of view of the church. Bulgakov believed that if Orthodoxy reduces the preservation of its spiritual wealth to a completely categorical form, then it is precisely then that ecclesiastical thought will come to a standstill. Dogmatic development is manifested in the disclosure of the truths of faith in history, their understanding in church experience, which is unique for each believer.

According to the thinker, the acceptance of dogmatic truths in Orthodoxy should not be external, that is, imposed by the church, but internal and free. But, at the same time, the believer's freedom must be combined with church discipline and obedience.

Thus, the difference between Catholic authoritarianism and Protestant personal arbitrariness, Orthodoxy offers the free choice of truth, and thereby overcoming the limitations of individual consciousness, a qualitatively new state of polyunity occurs.

An analysis of the problems of dogmatic development touches upon the issues of the correlation of stability and variability in dogma, the interaction of church tradition and theological creativity. Church catholicity, as it has already become clear, according to Bulgakov, contains a noumenal and phenomenal character.

The first level is connected with the activity of the Trinity. Inner, essential catholicity cannot be reduced to the passive preservation of the truth in the heavenly church.

The thinker uses the special term unction to designate activity.

Unction is an act that takes place in time, it also allows the implementation of the parts, that is, the knowledge of the truth, the whole occurs as the church develops.

He comes to the conclusion that at first this process manifested itself in church life, that is, in metaphysical practice, prayer.

Based on the priority of church life over theological consciousness, the thinker concludes that it is not dogma that prescribes religious practice, but, on the contrary, this latter is the basis for dogma. But at the same time he does not deny obvious fact that after the dogmas become elements of catholicity, they already serve as the basis for practice.

In Christianity, church life cannot be thought of as immobile, on the contrary, it is dynamic and varied. In this regard, Bulgakov's conclusion is understandable that catholicity not only exists, but is also being accomplished, and this is a continuing revelation that takes place in history as a dogmatic development.

Dogmatic development is unction, which takes place in those forms that are peculiar and accessible in place and time. It makes church tradition vital, and therefore changeable and becoming, therefore true ecclesia can never be a dead guardian of tradition. Unction connects the church with a particular country or people that inhabits it. Hence, it becomes clear that at a phenomenal level, catholicity acquires a folk coloring, it reflects the mentality of one or another people. Such an understanding of tradition leaves its mark on the attitude to theological creativity.

For Bulgakov, theology is also a manifestation of unction. The church appreciated the role of theological thought in the history of Christianity, glorifying human efforts in this area. The Russian thinker emphasizes that the affairs of ecumenical revolutions, that is, the adoption of conciliar decisions that are fateful for the evangelical religion, would not have been realized without the presence of theological efforts. But, nevertheless, the role of theology is not limited to the era of the teachers of the church, because the need for theology, based on all available means scientific research, was present at all times.

Conclusion

While working on the abstract, we came to the conclusion that the religious philosophy of Sergei Nikolaevich Bulgakov is somewhat different from the views of other researchers. The thinker lays the foundations of his own philosophical teaching, which was directed in line with sophiology. He continued the teachings of V.S. Solovyov, agreeing with the concept of God-manhood, in which the doctrine of the world process develops, from the act of creation through being in the fall to the final transformation. This is presented as a "God-human process".

In this regard, there is the emergence of private teachings about various aspects of life.

In addition, the consideration of being under the sign of dynamics is presented as a theology in history, where the Church is at the center.

Bulgakov's entire life has become an example of searching - intense, spiritually passionate, fused with rationalism, patriotism and sincere service to the church. In his works, in addition to philosophical and religious constructions, a number of precise, far-sighted thoughts regarding the future of the whole world surprise.

In addition to all of the above, Bulgakov's understanding of dogmatic development and theological creativity is innovative. He defines the church itself as "life, creativity, impulse." The religious thinker must find his place in this process, which is what Sergey Nikolaevich Bulgakov tried to do in his works.

Bulgakov philosophy religious

Bibliography

1) Bulgakov S.N. "Two cities" Volume 1. Moscow 1971.

2) Bulgakov S.N. "Works on sociology and theology" Volume 2, Moscow 1997

3) Bulgakov S.N. “Dogma and Dogmatics// Living Tradition. Orthodoxy in modern times" Moscow 1997.

4) Shaposhnikov L.E. Fedorov A.A. “History of Russian religious philosophy”, Moscow 2006.

5) "History of Russian Philosophy", ed. M. A Maslina Moscow 2008.

6) Bulgakov S.N. “Essays on the doctrine of the church// Way” Moscow 1992.

7) Gulyga A.V. "The Russian idea and its creators"

8) Akulinin V.N. "S.N. Bulgakov: Bibliography" Novosibirsk 1996

9) Bulgakov S.N. Works Volume 2, Moscow 1993.

10) Bulgakov S.N. “Blessed Covenants of St. Sergius to Russian Theology" Book 1.

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TEST

On the discipline "Philosophy"

On the subject: “S.N. Bulgakov"

Introduction

1. Legal Marxism

2. Religious philosophy

3. Theology

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

S. Bulgakov (1871–1944) was a philosopher, theologian, and economist who made a difficult transition from Marxism to idealism and Christianity.

The work of the outstanding Russian religious philosopher and theologian Sergei Nikolaevich Bulgakov is not easy to understand. He was a thinker guided primarily by religious intuition, often without bringing his ideas to full clarity. His views and direction of creative search have changed more than once.

Sergei Nikolaevich Bulgakov belonged to the original priestly family. He was born on June 28, 1871 in the town of Livny, Oryol province, into the family of a provincial cemetery priest. In a modest parental home, an atmosphere of piety and orderliness of church life reigned. The boy's childhood impressions included both the sublime beauty of the liturgy and the natural harmony of the nature of his native places.

Bulgakov is a creative, searching, developing personality. In its development, his social views went through a number of periods, namely: legal Marxism (1896-1900); religious philosophy (1901–1918); theology (1919 - until the end of his life). Note that the periods chronologically overlap each other, so that it is not always possible to clearly indicate the end point of one period and the beginning of another. Rather, Bulgakov nurtured a series of cherished ideas, fighting among themselves and forcing each other out, but often overlapping in time.

1. Legal Marxism

In 1884, after graduating from the theological school, Bulgakov entered the Oryol Theological Seminary. However, the official spirit of this educational institution, its formal religiosity disappointed Sergei, and in 1888 he left the seminary, moving away from religion for a long time. Having survived a real crisis of faith, Bulgakov chose, as it seemed to him, the most correct path: he decided to devote his life to the humanities and economic sciences, to thoroughly engage in political economy, or rather the Marxist direction in it. After a two-year stay at the Yelets Gymnasium, he entered the law faculty of Moscow University. After graduating from the university in 1894, Bulgakov remained in the department of political economy and statistics to do scientific work. At this time, he began to publish the first scientific works on the topics of sociology and political economy. Most of them, in particular the book "On Markets in Capitalist Production", were permeated with Marxist ideas. In general, Marxism for seventeen years (from 1890 to 1907) determined Bulgakov's worldview, although, in essence, it was violence against his soul, since philosophy and literature really attracted Sergey Nikolayevich. But the young mind was not able at first to move away from the "intellectual religion" that was fashionable at that time. At the same time, Marxism was presented to the Russian youth as scientifically substantiated social idealism, a guarantee of equality, freedom and progress.

In 1898 Bulgakov married Elena Ivanovna Tokmakova. Received a scholarship to continue scientific work and preparation for a professorship, the Bulgakov couple left for two years in Germany, the birthplace of social democracy and Marxism. There, Sergei Nikolaevich wrote his master's thesis - a two-volume work "Capitalism and Agriculture", which was published in 1900 and made the author one of the most authoritative theoreticians of Marxism.

2. Religious philosophy

Paradoxical as it may seem, but it was precisely the desire to "faithfully serve Marxism" that led to the opposite - disappointment in all its ideas and a gradual transition to religion, to faith. Her Bulgakov began timidly at first, and then more and more boldly, to propagandize to the great indignation of his yesterday's like-minded people. Bulgakov wrote about this dramatic period in his inner ideological life in his Autobiographical Notes: “Essentially, even in a state of spiritual savagery in Marxism, I always yearned religiously, I was never indifferent to faith. At first I believed in an earthly paradise, but tremblingly, sometimes with tears. Then, starting from a certain moment, when I allowed myself to do this and decided to confess, I quickly, abruptly, resolutely went straight to my spiritual homeland from a distant country: returning to faith in a “personal God” (instead of the impersonal “idol of progress”), I believed in Christ, whom I loved in my childhood and carried in my heart, and then in Orthodoxy.” Since that time, Bulgakov began the second period of spiritual biography, which can be called "religious and philosophical."

In 1901–1906 The Bulgakov couple lived in Kyiv, where Sergei Nikolaevich taught at the Polytechnic Institute and the University, being a professor of political economy. Teaching activity accompanied by active creative work. At this time, his book "Two Cities" and a collection of articles "From Marxism to Idealism" were published, which marked the transition from a trend that had become alien to idealistic philosophy. Russian religious philosophers, especially Vl. Solovyov, to whom Sergei Nikolaevich devoted a number of articles, comparing the founder of Russian religious thought with the great German philosopher Schelling.

In 1906, Bulgakov moved to Moscow, where he taught political economy at the Commercial Institute as a Privatdozent. During this period, his role in public life was also noticeable: Sergei Nikolayevich was an active participant in the religious and philosophical society, a deputy of the Second State Duma, the author of many publications on social and political topics in the journals New Way, Questions of Life, and the collection Questions of Religion ", an active employee in the book publishing house" Way ", where in 1911-1917. the most serious works of Russian religious thought were published.

The most important events in Bulgakov's life of those years include friendship with P. Florensky, whose religious and philosophical worldview became closer and closer to the former theoretician of Marxism every year. It is no coincidence that Bulgakov's article "Heroism and Asceticism" appeared in the famous "Milestones", in which he called on the intelligentsia to sober up, move away from herd morality and utopianism for the sake of spiritual understanding and a constructive social position.

In parallel with lectures and articles on religious topics, Bulgakov also had other motives in his work, indicating a serious approach to scientific and philosophical problems. In the doctoral dissertation "Philosophy of Economics", written in 1912, and the monograph "The Never-Evening Light" (1917), the foundations of his own teaching, which is in line with the views of Vl. Solovyov and P. Florensky, and a number of his own ideas, fed by Orthodox religiosity.

The book The Never-Evening Light, which Bulgakov himself called in the preface "a collection of motley chapters", can be considered the fundamental work of Russian religious philosophy. In it, he tried to reproduce the religious contemplation associated with life in Orthodoxy. The preface alone, which occupies 119 pages and is devoted to the problems of religious epistemology and methodology, is in itself a treatise on the prerequisites of theological thinking.

3. Theology

The book "Non-Evening Light" determined the beginning of the third, actually theological period of Bulgakov's work. In 1917, he took part in the work of the All-Russian Local Council, which restored the patriarchate in the country.

A year later, he made an important decision for himself - to become a priest. The idea of ​​accepting the dignity of dignity has matured with Sergei Nikolayevich for a long time. But, as he later wrote in Autobiographical Notes, “various obstacles stood in the way. The first of them is the habits and prejudices of the environment and even those closest to you. Among the intelligentsia, where godlessness was just as naturally implied, the acceptance of the priesthood, at least in the state of a professor at Moscow University, a doctor of political economy, etc., was a scandal, madness or foolishness, in any case, self-exclusion from an enlightened environment ... But for me there was still an obstacle insurmountable by human forces: that was the connection between Orthodoxy and autocracy, which led to the humiliating harmful dependence of the church on the state. Through this I could not step over, did not want to and should not have. This obstacle suddenly disappeared in 1917 with the revolution: the church was free, from the state it became persecuted.

On Trinity Day 1917, Fr. Sergius, with the blessing of Patriarch Tikhon, was consecrated by Bishop Theodore of Volokolamsk to the rank of deacon, and on Spirits Day, to the rank of presbyter. FROM this time about. Sergius began to play a prominent role in church circles, actively participating in the work of the All-Russian Local Council of the Orthodox Church and working closely with Patriarch Tikhon.

October revolution about. Sergius took it negatively, responding to her with the dialogues "At the Feast of the Gods." In this work, the fate of Russia was presented to him in the key of disturbing unpredictability and apocalyptic visions. In the works “Philosophy of the Name” and “The Tragedy of Philosophy” written in the anxious 1920, Fr. Sergius revised his view of philosophy and Christianity, coming to the conclusion that Christian speculation can be expressed without distortion exclusively in the form of dogmatic theology. The latter has since become the main area of ​​his activity.

During the years of the civil war, Fr. Sergius left Moscow because his family was in the Crimea, and he was expelled from the university for accepting the priesthood. He managed to get to the Crimea, where he remained until the end of December 1922, when, together with a group of prominent Russian scientists and philosophers, he was sent abroad. After a short stay in Constantinople, in May 1923, Fr. Sergius took up the position of professor of ecclesiastical law and theology at the Faculty of Law of the Russian Scientific Institute in Prague. Soon, with his active participation, the project of creating the Theological Academy (Orthodox Theological Institute) in Paris was successfully implemented. From its opening in 1925 until his very death, Bulgakov was its permanent dean, as well as a professor in the department of dogmatic theology. Under his leadership, Sergiev Compound, as they called the complex of institute buildings with a temple in the name of St. Sergius Radonezh, grew up in largest center Orthodox spirituality and theological science abroad.

In addition to the affairs associated with the institute, and in addition to theological creativity, Fr. Sergius paid great attention to two more areas: the spiritual guidance of Russian youth and participation in the ecumenical movement. The Russian Christian Movement, Fr. Sergius was one of its main founding fathers. In the work of the ecumenical movement, Fr. Sergius joined in 1927 at the World Christian Conference "Faith and Church Organization" in Lausanne. Until the end of the 1930s, he took part in many ecumenical undertakings, becoming one of the influential figures and ideologists of the movement.

In Paris, Fr. Sergius set about creating an integral theological system called "On God-manhood." On this wave of theological inspiration, he created a unique trilogy about Christ - the first volume "The Lamb of God", the second volume about the Holy Spirit "Comforter" and the third volume called "The Bride of the Lamb", which was published after the death of Fr Sergius in 1945 According to the modern German theological researcher R. Schlensky, “the three-volume work of S.N. Bulgakov is the only modern dogma of the Eastern Church, in which all the dogma is thought out and presented with great systematic force and originality.

However, in the 30s and 40s of the XX century. far from all critics and theologians accepted the work of Fr. Sergius for sure. In particular, the Moscow Patriarchate condemned many of its provisions and accused Bulgakov of heresy. Responding to criticism, he stated that his theological writings affect only the theological interpretation of the dogmas of the Orthodox Church, but do not contradict their actual content.

In defense of Bulgakov was warmly spoken by N. Berdyaev, who published an article in the journal “The Way” “The Spirit of the Grand Inquisitor (regarding the decree of Metropolitan Sergius condemning the theological views of Fr. S. Bulgakov)”, Berdyaev wrote that the decree has a much broader meaning, than the dispute about Sophia, it touches upon the fate of Russian religious thought, raises the question of freedom of conscience and the very possibility of thought in Orthodoxy.

In 1939, Fr. Sergius was diagnosed with throat cancer. He underwent major operations, was on the verge of death and largely lost the ability to speak. Started World War limited the scope of Bulgakov's activities. But before last days life in occupied Paris, he did not stop serving the liturgy and lecturing, and in addition, working on new compositions. Sergei Nikolaevich Bulgakov died on July 13, 1944.

Conclusion

Towards social problems Christians usually take two opposite positions. Some believe that the work of saving a person is done in the depths of the soul, and the organization of society is not at all involved in this. It is possible to be saved in any social system, for there is always the possibility of both deep prayer and the manifestation of acts of mercy. Talking about the influence of the social system, only exposing the earthly nature of thoughts, is a temptation that should be avoided in every possible way. Others, on the contrary, believe that social sphere not at all indifferent to the salvation of man. God created man as a social being, and therefore the spiritual growth of man requires the transformation of the social order. The Church cannot withdraw into itself; it must actively work on the creation of new social relations that meet the commandment of Christian love.

Bulgakov, no doubt, professed the second position. Moreover, it can be argued that he constantly struggled with the first way of thinking. True, he did not rush at his opponents with incriminating philippics. Rather, he tried to oppose them with a more thoughtful concept, to comprehend the foundations of Christian sociality more deeply. But his whole difficult path testifies that he never went into the spiritual retreat of personal salvation, but, being both a sociologist-economist, and a philosopher, and a theologian, he always professed the conviction that social human activity is a charitable and blessed, and therefore a necessary sphere of human life. . This idea is, as it were, the leitmotif of Bulgakov's entire sociology.

Teaching about. Sergius went through several stages in his development, which, differing in form and partly in sources, influences, are at the same time firmly connected by the unity of central concepts. Throughout its path, this is the doctrine of Sophia and God-manhood, the Christian doctrine of the world and its history as a reunion with God. Thought about. Sergius developed from economic problems and the philosophical doctrine of the economy (“Philosophy of Economics”) to the general doctrine of matter and the world, already visibly based on certain postulates about the connection between the world and God, but not yet making these postulates themselves the subject of special analysis (“Light Non-Evening"), and, finally, to an expanded theological system that provides the final solution to the original problem: rooting the world in God and at the same time directly following Christian revelation and dogma.

Bulgakov's doctrine of the world begins with the doctrine of creation. The essence of creatureness reveals the question: what is the world created from? Answer about. Sergius orthodoxly follows the biblical tradition: the creation of the world is a creation from nothing, pure non-existence and non-existence.

Bulgakov considered matter as the "third kind" of being, along with the things of the sensual world and their ideal prototypes, ideas. It is an unformed, indefinite "primal matter", materia prima potentially existing, the ability to reveal in the sensible. She acts as the "Great Mother Earth" of the ancient pagan cults of Greece and the East. "Earth" and "mother" key definitions matter in Bulgakov, expressing its conceiving and giving birth power, its fruitfulness and fruitfulness.

Bulgakov considers the existence of the world as a process that directly continues the original creative act of God, an unceasing creation, performed with the indispensable active participation of matter itself.

At the same time, in addition to its Sophian core, Bulgakov's system contains many fruitful ideas and developments. In accordance with the concept of God-manhood, she develops the doctrine of the world process, which in its entirety, from the act of creation, through being in the fall and to the final Transfiguration, is presented as a "God-human process", the reunion of the creature with God. Within this framework, a whole series of private teachings about various aspects of the life of the world arises. The earliest and most complete development of Bulgakov's doctrine was about the economy, which includes both economic and scientific and technical human activity. Reflecting the dual nature of the fallen being, the economy combines the “labor of cognition and action”, in which the sophianity of the world is revealed, and “the slavery of nothingness”, the service of the natural necessity born of the fall. important place in the Divine-human process belongs to art. Bulgakov interprets it as the ability to see and show the sophianity of the world, for one of the main names of Sophia is Beauty. But like everything in fallen being, art also bears the stamp of inferiority: it strives and cannot become theurgy, an effective transformation of the world. The phenomena of sex, creativity, power, etc. are analyzed similarly: Bulgakov sees everywhere both the sophianic, good beginning, and the seal of fallenness, non-existence. In recent years, this has been joined by an analysis of the “last things”, death (Sophiology of Death // Vestnik RSHD. 1978, No. 127; 1979, No. 128) and the end of the world (the eschatology of the “Bride of the Lamb”).

Considering the world under the sign of dynamics, process, Bulgakov’s teaching about the world is presented as a whole as the theology of history, where Sophia as the Church is in the center, since “the Church acts in history as a creative force” (The Bride of the Lamb, p. 362), and the Divine-human process can be understood as the formation of the entire universe by the Church. In its general type and appearance, in a number of leading motives and ideas, his system resembles the great theological systems of modern Western Christianity.

Bibliography

1. Vasilyeva E.K., Pernatiev Yu.S. 100 famous sages, Kharkiv, FOLIO, 2003

2. Somin N.V.S.N. Bulgakov: the logic of the development of socio-economic thought

3. Philosophy of the XX century. Tutorial. M., CINO of the society "Knowledge" of Russia, 1997 - 288 p.

4. Horuzhy S. Russian philosophy. Small Encyclopedic Dictionary, M., 1995

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BULGAKOV Sergey Nikolaevich (1871-1944) - Russian religious philosopher. Main works: "Two Cities", "Philosophy of Economy", "Non-Evening Light", "Burning Bush", "On God-Manhood", "Philosophy of the Name". Like many of his contemporaries, S. N. Bulgakov was fond of Marxism in his early years, but he considered it necessary to “trust Marx to Kant.” Bulgakov sharply raised the question of the theory of progress and believed that the social ideal should be formulated as a religious-metaphysical problem. This approach contributed to the appeal to the philosophy of "all-unity" V. S. Solovyov, who sought to create a system in which science, philosophy and religion are internally and organically connected with each other. Being on the position of transcendental idealism, Bulgakov in the process of cognition recognized the importance of intuition, which he identifies with faith. For him, rationalism is dear as criticism, and only revelation can tell about the roots of being, which can then receive philosophical processing. The world was created by God - this is an axiom of faith. The principle of antinomy in thinking as the unity of the logical and the alogical was of fundamental importance for Bulgakov. The metaphysics of "all-unity" led to its sophiology, developed by P. Florensky. Bulgakov goes from the cosmos to God, the foundations of his philosophical constructions lie in cosmology, so Bulgakov still has a difference between the absolute and the cosmos. Sophia, as the ideal basis of the world, stands between the absolute and the cosmos, as a kind of "third being", combining both divine and created nature. The world belongs to itself, it really has in itself the creative and driving force. The cosmos is a living, animated whole, therefore Bulgakov puts forward the concept of the “Soul of the World”, which, containing everything in itself, is the unifying center of the world, this is the entelechy of the world. Sophia acts as eternal femininity and the mother's bosom of being, as the fourth hypostasis. The world of ideas contained in Sophia exists for the created world not only as its basis, but also as a norm, the ultimate task. The concept of Sophia in Bulgakov is bifurcated, since during the creation of the world, two centers are created in Sophia - heaven and earth, which creates a distinction between divine Sophia and cosmic Sophia, that is, the potential Sophia of the world and Sophia as the ideal foundation of the world. Subsequently, the divine Sophia, belonging to the absolute, and the created Sophia will turn out to be identical. Bulgakov's ethics connects the existence of evil with "nothing", which breaks into the already realized universe, like a chaotic force. He is ready to admit that being in his freedom is not sophianic, which creates the possibility of evil. Man is the center of the universe, the unity of the microcosm and macrocosm, nature only in man realizes itself, becomes humanized. Puts forward humanity as a whole, as a true subject creative activity. Atonement for sin is the way of man. Bulgakov believes that all social relations, culture, economics, politics, human creativity and knowledge should be rebuilt on a religious basis. Bulgakov develops the problems of economic philosophy, believes that it is necessary to understand the world as an object of labor, economic impact. The problem of economic philosophy is about man in nature and nature in man. Bulgakov analyzes life as the beginning of the economy, which is always a struggle between life and death, freedom and necessity, mechanism and organism.

Early period

Born in the family of a hereditary priest. He studied at the Oryol Theological Seminary, having experienced a crisis of faith, left it in 1888 and completed his education at Moscow University in 1894 at the Department of Political Economy and Statistics. Until the early 1900s. joined the course of legal Marxism and was engaged in research in the field of political economy, published the books "On Markets in Capitalist Production" (1897) and "Capitalism and Agriculture" (vols. 1-2, 1900). At the turn of the century, he departed from Marxist ideology, turned to the philosophy of German classical idealism, as well as to Russian thought, the work of Dostoevsky and Vl. Solovyov. Such an evolution was characteristic of the Russian intelligentsia of that time, and soon Bulgakov became one of its recognized spiritual leaders. He participates in the collection "Problems of Idealism" (1902), publishes a collection of his articles under the program title "From Marxism to Idealism" (1903), actively participates in many undertakings of the unfolding religious and philosophical revival - in the journals "New Way" and "Questions of Life". ", collections" Questions of Religion "," About Vladimir Solovyov "," On the Religion of Leo Tolstoy "," Milestones ", in the work of the Religious and Philosophical Society in Memory of Vl. Solovyov and the publishing house "Way", where in 1911-17 the most important works of Russian religious thought were published. In 1906 he was elected to the 2nd State Duma (as a non-party "Christian socialist"). The most important of the lectures and articles of this period were collected by him in the collection "Two Cities" (vols. 1-2, 1911). In the philosophical developments of the 1910s (the monographs "Philosophy of Economics", 1912, and especially "The Light of Never Evening", 1917), Bulgakov outlines the foundations of his own teaching, which goes in line with the sophiology of Solovyov and P. A. Florensky, but which also experienced a noticeable influence of the late Schelling.

Revolution years
The process of a gradual return to the Church-Orthodox worldview ends already in the revolutionary years with the adoption of the priesthood (1918). Bulgakov actively participates in the work of the All-Russian Local Council of the Orthodox Church (1917-18) and closely cooperates with Patriarch Tikhon. On the October coup he responded with the dialogues "At the Feast of the Gods", written in the style and spirit of Solovyov's "Three Conversations" and included in the collective collection "From the Depths" (1918; reprinted 1991). During the Civil War, while in the Crimea, Bulgakov intensively worked on philosophical writings. In The Philosophy of the Name (1920; published 1953) and The Tragedy of Philosophy (1920-21, published in German translation 1927), he concludes that Christian speculation can be expressed without distortion exclusively in the form of dogmatic theology, which since then and becomes the main area of ​​his work.

In exile
In 1922 Fr. Sergius is included in the lists of scientists and cultural figures compiled by the GPU on the initiative of V. I. Lenin, subject to expulsion abroad. December 30, 1922 he leaves the Crimea and after a short stay in Constantinople in May 1923, he holds the position of professor of church law and theology at the Faculty of Law of the Russian scientific institute in Prague. With his close participation, the Orthodox Theological Institute was created in Paris (1925). From the moment of its opening until the very death of Fr. Sergius was its permanent head, as well as a professor of dogmatic theology. Under his leadership, the Sergius Compound (a complex of institute buildings with a church in the name of St. Sergius of Radonezh) grew into the largest center of Orthodox spirituality and theological science. One of the main founding fathers of the Russian Student Christian Movement, Bulgakov participated in its first congresses in Psherov (Czechoslovakia) and Argeron (France) and then continued to supervise it. In the 1930s, he became one of the influential figures and ideologists of the ecumenical movement, in whose work he joined in 1927 at the World Christian Conference "Faith and Church Order" in Lausanne. In 1939, Bulgakov was diagnosed with throat cancer, he underwent several operations, was on the verge of death and largely lost the ability to speak. However, until the last days of his life in occupied Paris, he continued to serve the liturgy and give lectures (which cost him enormous efforts), as well as work on new compositions.

Publicism
Bulgakov's journalism always came to the fore at critical moments in the life of Russia: the revolution of 1905-07, the beginning of the First World War, 1917. Its spectrum is unusually wide: religion and culture, Christianity, politics and socialism, the tasks of the public, the path of the Russian intelligentsia, the problems of church life, the problems of art, and others. Heroism and asceticism") as an ideological movement that called on the intelligentsia to sober up, move away from utopianism and rabid revolutionism, to spiritual work and a constructive social position. The ideas of social Christianity he develops include an analysis Christian attitude to economics and politics (with an apology for socialism, which gradually declined), criticism of Marxism, but also of bourgeois-capitalist ideology, projects of the "Christian Policy Party", responses to the topic of the day (from the standpoint of Christian liberal-conservative centrism), etc. The theme of Russia is solved, following Dostoevsky and Vl. Solovyov, on the paths of Christian historiosophy. The beginning of the First World War was marked by Slavophile articles full of faith in the universal vocation and the great future of the state. But already in the dialogues "At the Feast of the Gods" and others, the fate of Russia is depicted in tones of apocalyptic and disturbing unpredictability.

Philosophy and theology
Bulgakov's teaching went through two stages in its development: philosophical (before his expulsion from Russia) and theological, but all the way it remained the doctrine of Sophia and God-manhood, the Christian doctrine of the world and its history as reunification with God. Its driving motive is the justification of the world, the affirmation of the value and meaningfulness of being in all material and bodily fullness. Arguing with German idealism, Bulgakov rejects the thesis according to which reason and thinking are the highest principle, which has the exclusive prerogative of connection with God. Bulgakov's justification of the world includes the justification of matter, and the type of philosophical outlook he sometimes defined "religious materialism" with an expression taken from Solovyov. Using, like the fathers of the Church, the ideas ancient philosophy, Bulgakov makes Christian adjustments to them. Matter is not only "meon", an unformed universal substratum of sensible things, it is also "earth" and "mother", which, by the will of God, participates in the existence of the world as a creative process that continues the act of creation. The crown and goal of this creativity is the earthly birth of the God-man Christ, in which matter acts as the God-Earth and Mother of God, and the world ascends to union with God. The connection between God and the world is determined by the concept of Sophia the Wisdom of God.

sophiology
The sophological system of dogmatic theology was developed by Bulgakov mainly in the "big trilogy": The Lamb of God (1933), The Comforter (1936), and The Bride of the Lamb (1945). Here Sophia approaches "ousia", the essence of the Holy Trinity. This rapprochement, like its consequences, aroused objections and controversy; in 1935, Bulgakov's teaching was condemned in the decrees of the Moscow Patriarchate, as well as the foreign Bishops' Council in Karlovtsy. V. N. Lossky, who gave a critical analysis of the doctrine, finds that its essence is “the absorption of the personality by a Sophian-natural process that destroys freedom” (“The Dispute about Sophia”, Paris, 1936). Bulgakov answered his opponents, but the "dispute about Sophia" did not receive a final decision. Criticism of the Sophian ideas, however, does not affect many important topics and sections of Bulgakov's system, his analysis of the religious aspects of history, the material activity of man, the phenomena of sex, creativity, and art.