Philosophy Postgraduate. The place of ancient philosophy in the history of philosophy
POSTGRADUATE
At the Department of "Philosophy" SGN-4 MSTU. N.E. Bauman, admission to postgraduate studies in 2 specialized specialties is carried out:
1. “Philosophy of science and technology (09.00.08).
2. "Social Philosophy" (09.00.11).
It is possible to study full-time and in absentia, on a budgetary and contractual (paid) basis.
Acceptance of documents from June 1 to September 10
Entrance exams from September 20 to October 10
Enrollment in graduate school from October 20.
Rules for admission to the graduate school of the university.
1. Citizens of the Russian Federation with higher professional education and creative achievements in scientific work are admitted to postgraduate studies on a competitive basis.
2.Persons who have previously completed a full course of study in graduate school do not have the right to secondary education in graduate school at the expense of the budget.
3. Applicants to graduate school prepare an essay on their chosen specialty, are interviewed by a prospective supervisor, who reports the results of the interview to the admissions committee. The decision on admission to the entrance examinations to graduate school is made by the selection committee, taking into account the results of the interview with the supervisor and the grade for the essay.
4. Applicants to graduate school take the following competitive entrance exams in accordance with state educational standards higher vocational education:
special discipline;
a foreign language determined by the university and necessary for a graduate student to complete a dissertation;
philosophy.
Retaking the entrance exams or answering the second exam ticket is not allowed. Applicants are prohibited from using any materials not issued by the examination committee.
5. The competition for applicants for state budget and paid education is separate. Applicants for paid education do not have the right to participate in the competition for state budget education.
Citizens of foreign states, including the states - republics of the former USSR, are admitted to graduate school only for a paid form of education (except for the Republic of Belarus).
6. Those who did not appear without good reason for the entrance exam at the appointed time, who refused to answer the questions of the exam ticket orally or in writing, who received unsatisfactory marks for further exams are not allowed. An appeal regarding the entrance examination is submitted personally by applicants only on the day and hours of passing this examination group. The appeal is considered by the Admissions Committee before the start of the next exam.
7. Applicants who have not passed through the competition in the state budgetary graduate school may be enrolled in a paid form of education.
At MSTU im. N.E. Bauman, two dissertation councils were formed in the following specialties: 09.00.08 - philosophy of science and technology; 09.00.11 - social philosophy with the right to accept dissertations for competition degree Doctor of Philosophy.
For more details on the conditions of admission, please visit the postgraduate school website of the Moscow State Technical University named after N.E. Bauman
Postgraduate students are supervised by:
Ivlev V.Yu. - Ph.D., prof.,
area of interest - ontology, theory of knowledge, logic, history of philosophy, philosophy of science and technology.
Nekhamkin V.A. - Ph.D., prof.,
area of interest - the study of alternatives to the past; counterfactual historical research; theoretical and methodological analysis of counterfactual historical research; subjunctive mood in historical knowledge; scenarios of failed history; counterfactual historical modeling; philosophy of history and its problems (including the role of personality in history); socio-philosophical analysis of cities ("urban civilization").
Lebedev S.A. - Ph.D., prof.,
area of interest - metaphilosophy, logic and methodology of science, theory of knowledge, history and philosophy of science, scientific management, philosophical anthropology.
Gubanov N.N. - Doctor of Philological Sciences, Associate Professor,
area of interest - the mentality and forms of its manifestation in modern society.
Nazarova I.R. - Candidate of Philological Sciences, Associate Professor,
area of interest - the philosophy of technology, engineering activities and technical creativity, technological and humanitarian aspects of civilizational development.
Kavinova I.P. - Candidate of Philological Sciences, Associate Professor,
area of interest - historical and philosophical problems, the study of social aspects of Eurasianism, the philosophical analysis of suicide, as well as the problems of modern pedagogy and methodology of scientific knowledge.
Philosophy (from the Greek Phileo - I love and Sophia - wisdom) literally means "love of wisdom." It originated about 2500 years ago in the countries of the ancient world (India, China, Egypt). The classical form is in other Greece. The first person to call himself a philosopher was Pythagoras. As a special science, philosophy is singled out by Plato. This science at first included the entire body of knowledge, later turned into a system of general knowledge about the world, with the task of answering the most general and profound questions about nature, society, and man.
To reveal the specifics of philosophy, it is important to turn to the origins of philosophical thinking, as well as to the mythological and religious worldview as a prerequisite.
Mythology. The first attempt of man to explain the origin and structure of the world, the causes of natural phenomena and other things gave rise to mythology (from the Greek. Mifos - legend, legend and logos - word, concept, teaching). In the spiritual life of primitive society, mythology dominated and acted as a universal form of social consciousness.
Myths are ancient tales of different peoples about fantastic creatures, about gods, about space. Myths are associated with rituals, customs, contain moral norms and aesthetic ideas, a combination of reality and fantasy, thoughts and feelings. In myths, man does not distinguish himself from nature.
The myths of different countries contain attempts to answer the question about the beginning, the origin of the world, about the emergence of the most important natural phenomena, about world harmony, impersonal necessity, etc.
Mythological consciousness within that historical era was the main way of understanding the world. With the help of the myth, the past was connected with the present and the future, the spiritual connection of generations was ensured, the system of values was fixed, certain forms behavior ... Mythological consciousness also included the search for the unity of nature and society, the world and man, the resolution of contradictions, harmony, the inner harmony of human life.
With the extinction of primitive forms of social life, myth, as a special stage in the development of social consciousness, has outlived itself and left the historical stage. But the search for answers to a special kind of questions, begun by the mythological consciousness, about the origin of the world, man, cultural skills, social structure, the secrets of origin and death, did not stop. They were inherited from the myth by the two most important forms of worldview coexisting for centuries - religion and philosophy.
Religion (from Latin Religio - piety, piety, shrine, object of worship) is a form of worldview in which the development of the world is carried out through its doubling into this world - "earthly", natural, perceived by the senses, and otherworldly - "heavenly", supersensible .
Religious faith manifests itself in worship higher powers: the beginnings of good and evil, the demonic and divine sides of religion were intertwined here for a long time developed in parallel. Hence the mixed feeling of fear and respect of believers in relation to higher powers.
Faith is a way of existence of religious consciousness, a special mood, experience.
One of the historical missions of religion, acquiring unprecedented relevance in the modern world, has been and is the formation of consciousness of the unity of the human race, the significance of universal human moral norms and values.
Philosophical worldview is focused on a rational explanation of the world. General ideas about nature, society, man become the subject of real observations, generalizations, conclusions, proofs and logical analysis.
The philosophical worldview inherited from mythology and religion a set of questions about the origin of the world, its structure, the place of man, etc., but differs in a logically ordered system of knowledge, characterized by the desire to theoretically substantiate provisions and principles. The myths that exist among the people are reviewed from the standpoint of reason, they are given a new semantic, rational interpretation.
Thus, it can be said with full confidence that the origins of philosophy are mythology and religion.
If the essence of philosophy is that it is a worldview, then how should the latter be understood?
Worldview is traditionally understood as a system of views on the world as a whole. At the same time, the concept of ""the world as a whole"" includes the world of the essential and proper, and the Earth, and the universe, and micro-, macro- and mega-worlds known from physics.
It should be noted that the worldview is not only philosophical, but also religious, mythological, ordinary, scientific, progressive and regressive. What is the specificity of the philosophical worldview proper, that is, the worldview understood in the broadest sense of the word? I would like to think that the philosophical worldview is represented by a coherent, scientifically substantiated set of views that determine life positions, programs of behavior, actions of people. It differs from the religious form in that it builds a general picture of the world through concepts, theories, logical arguments and evidence, while religion is characterized by the primacy of faith over reason, the logical unprovability of "dogmas".
Structural components:
1. sustainable scientific picture of the world. It is responsible for the reliability of the proposed knowledge about the laws of the development of the world, sets guidelines scientific research. It includes the main results of scientific research.
2. assessment of life, based on a system of ideals, and a goal-absorbing idea, based on a system of values. The world understood in this way, consisting, as it were, of three kingdoms - reality, value and meaning - is the basis of the philosophical worldview.
3. a complex of beliefs, and then the actions and actions of the subject. Worldview turns out to be the background and foundation of man and mankind. It makes itself felt not only in the spiritual sphere, but also in practical life. I. Kant has the concept of "citizen of the world"". However, it means by no means unanimity, but participation in the universal order of the universe, the possibility of uniting and recognizing oneself in another. It acts as a certain guarantee of the constancy of one's own Self, its self-identification.
The outlook can be represented as multilevel education in which there is an everyday, everyday worldview with its rational-irrational elements, reason and prejudices, mythological, religious, artistic, political, scientific worldview, etc.
The main question of philosophy is the question of the relation of consciousness to being, thinking to matter, nature, considered from two sides: firstly, what is primary - spirit or nature, matter or consciousness - and, secondly, how does knowledge about the world relate to the world itself, or, in other words, whether consciousness corresponds to being, whether it is capable of correctly reflecting the world. Consistent decision O. century. f. only possible if both sides are taken into account. Philosophers who are supporters of materialism recognize matter, being, as primary, consciousness as secondary, and consider consciousness to be the result of the impact on the subject of an objectively existing external world. Philosophers-idealists take for the primary idea, consciousness, considering them as the only reliable reality. Therefore, from their perspective, knowledge is not a reflection of material existence, but is only the comprehension of consciousness itself in the form of self-knowledge, analysis of sensations, concepts, knowledge of the absolute idea, world will, etc. An intermediate, inconsistent position in the decision of O. in. f. dualism, agnosticism. Only Marxist philosophy has provided a comprehensive, materialistic, scientifically substantiated solution to O. v. f. She sees the primacy of matter in the fact that: 1) matter is the source of consciousness, and consciousness is a reflection of matter; 2) consciousness is the result of a long process of development material world; 3) consciousness is a property, a function of the highly organized matter of the brain; 4) the existence and development of human consciousness, thinking is impossible without a linguistic material shell, without speech; 5) consciousness arises, is formed and improved as a result of the material labor activity of a person; 6) consciousness has a social character and is determined by material social being.
Functions of philosophy (main).
1. The ideological function of philosophy consists in its ability to give a picture of the world as a whole, to combine the data of sciences, arts, and practices.
2. The methodological function of philosophy is to determine how to achieve some goal, for example, the effective construction of scientific knowledge, aesthetic creativity, social practice. In accordance with the specifics of philosophy, we are talking about such methods, principles of action that have a fundamental, and not a narrowly localized meaning. One of these methods is the historical method: whatever you do, there is a reason to take into account the history of the problems that interest you. Much is being done in philosophy in terms of clarifying the content of the basic principles of science, art, and practice.
3. The humanistic function of philosophy also manifests itself very clearly, it is realized in an extremely attentive attitude towards a person. A good philosophy is thoroughly imbued with love for people, human dignity. In this regard, it is significant that philosophy does not limit itself to the scientific approach, but along with it cultivates aesthetic and ethical approaches.
4. The practical function of philosophy is, as already noted, primarily in its morality, concern for the welfare of people.
Appointment of philosophy: Socrates and Plato believed that under the influence of philosophy, a person would stop being truly perfect. "Hobbes believed that the lack of philosophy causes a lot of suffering. The German thinker Heidegger characterized philosophy as "the last pronunciation and the last dispute of man." Our compatriot B. C. Solovyov saw the purpose of philosophy in striving "for the spiritual integrity of human existence."
Philosophy is the search and finding by a person of answers to the main questions of his being.
Philosophy is a sharply conscientious attitude of a person to the world around him.
Philosophy is scientific, aesthetic, moral.
The purpose of philosophy is the elevation of man, the provision of universal conditions for his improvement.
Philosophy summarizes the achievements of the entire world culture, world-historical practice and position, is the spiritual quintessence, self-awareness of the era (Hegel, Marx). It acts as an ideological and methodological basis of any activity.
Philosophy is not only the study of general principles of being and knowledge, but also a tool for consistently changing reality in order to free a person from all types of exploitation and oppression, in the interests of personal development, meeting the material and spiritual needs of people, and building a society of social justice.
Already in the early stages, along with religion, the development of new knowledge and orientations is taken over by secular culture in its various manifestations: art and literature, philosophy and science. On the one hand, these forms of spiritual production have their own "heritage", established results, recognized knowledge and value. At the same time, their most important characteristic of secular culture was the desire for innovation, open new horizons in knowledge, types of orientation and ways of living
Science is a developing system of knowledge associated with the discovery of new phenomena and laws, a type of cognitive, spiritual activity and, at the same time, a special social institution that plays an important role in society, involving the presence of academies, ministries, universities and other organizations. There are humanitarian (including socio-political, public), natural and Technical science. Moreover, in the structure modern science 3 layers of knowledge can be distinguished.
General Regional Frequent Science
The first layer is represented by philosophy, as well as mathematics adjacent to it. This is the layer of universal knowledge.
The second layer consists of private sciences that study objects within one of the forms of matter and motion, or at the junction of two adjacent structural levels of the material world (intermediate sciences such as biophysics). This also includes agricultural and medical sciences, the technical field of knowledge. This layer of science is called private scientific.
The structure of philosophy determines its functions. In accordance with its status, philosophy performs two main functions in relation to all branches of knowledge without exception - peaceful and methodological. In retrospect, philosophy always performs a peaceful function, and in perspective, in relation to further development science, has methodological significance.
Solving the problem "Is philosophy a science?" depends on how we understand science and how we evaluate philosophy itself. Science, as a rule, is identified with a system of true knowledge, but this is a clear exaggeration. Firstly, the foundations of any science (the same mathematics - a symbol of scientific rigor) are very indefinite, only accepted as true, but not proven in this capacity. They can be different and even alternative. Secondly, the "upper floors" of science also have their own heterogeneities: theories containing contradictions, unproved theorems, purely hypothetical constructions, speculative forecasts, paradoxes, ideas and concepts that are fiercely competing with each other, and other non-scientific formations. Third, science is public institution, i.e., a social spatio-temporal diversity filled with people, their research and other roles, in which there is a place for everything, up to delusions, prejudices and rumors.
Philosophy in our time is also institutionalized. It also satisfies many requirements of scientific character, such as, for example, consistency, internal self-consistency, i.e., consistency, intersubjectivity, predictability, etc. But the main thing that philosophy does not have, but that science does have, is evidence. In philosophy, many believe, one can only refute something, in particular by reducing it to absurdity (reductio ad absurdum), but never prove it.
Philosophy, of course, is not groundless - it is based on universal human experience, on the achievements and acquisitions of other forms of social consciousness, including science. But philosophy grows from the innermost essence of human freedom. Her task is different - to offer the most general worldview, methodological and meaningful guidelines for finding such solutions and evidence.
In general, the connection between philosophy and science, at first glance, is rather strange: as soon as something matures for a truly scientific, evidence-based coverage, it immediately falls out of philosophy. Where? In a specific or special science. Philosophy, thus, acts as a pra-hypothesis (the first, initial hypothesis) of human thinking. Her work is always pioneering, pioneering. Philosophy is a special, or very specific science.
All aspects of the philosophical problem "world - man" were also interpreted historically and materialistically. Classical philosophical questions (about the relationship "man - nature", "nature - history", "personality - society", "freedom - non-freedom"), even with the new approach, have retained their enduring ideological significance. They appeared as an expression of real dialectical "polarities", irremovable from people's lives and therefore fundamentally irremovable from philosophy.
What was new in the understanding of philosophical problems? You can answer quite briefly: historicism. Passing through all human history, acting in a certain sense as eternal problems, they acquire in various eras, in different cultures and its specific, unique appearance. And this is not about two or three problems; we are talking about a fundamentally new general concept of philosophy, its purpose. It is important, however, to emphasize that overcoming the old form of philosophical teachings by no means meant and does not mean a refusal to preserve, develop, deepen the content of the serious problems discussed in them, but, on the contrary, presupposes all this.
Great philosophical problems have been and will continue to be addressed by thinkers of different eras. With all the difference in their approaches and the historical change in the nature of the problems themselves, a certain semantic unity and continuity will still be preserved in their content and understanding. The historical-materialistic approach called into question not the problems themselves, but only the usefulness, the sufficiency of their purely speculative solution. He led to the conclusion that the solution of philosophical problems requires a deep positive knowledge of history, a concrete study of trends and forms of historical development.
As for the relation “world - man” (“being - consciousness”, etc.), it is also involved in history, although its abstract form hides this circumstance. But one has only to imagine the problem, as it becomes clear that the disjointed human ties with the world unfold in the course of history. They are realized in the changing forms of work, everyday life, in the change of beliefs, the development of knowledge, in political, moral, artistic and other experiences. In other words, the field of practical, cognitive, valuable relations of people to the world, which are the main subject of philosophical reflection, is an entirely historical phenomenon.
Human history is a reality of a special kind. This is a complex combination of people's social life (forms of production, socio-economic, political structures) and all kinds of its spiritual components. Moreover, both components are intertwined, interact, inseparable. Hence the dual focus of philosophical research - on the realities of human life, on the one hand, and on various, including theoretical, reflections of these realities in human consciousness - on the other.
There are three main stages in the philosophy of India:
1) Vedic period (1500-500 BC),
2) classical, or Brahmin-Buddhist (500 BC - 1000 AD)
3) the post-classical or Hindu period (since 1000).
Dharma is a doctrine, a doctrine, in our understanding, philosophy. In the East, dharma is philosophy and religion together (inseparable), dharma is the moral duty and path of every pious person.
The Vedas are ancient (before 1500 BC), sacred texts of Hinduism, written in Sanskrit (Vedic Sanskrit). The Vedas and commentaries on the Vedas are at the heart of Indian philosophy.
Karma is the law of cause and effect, even gods have and depend on karma.
Maya is a philosophical category that postulates the assertion that everything that surrounds a person is just an illusion. Man, by virtue of his ignorance, creates an illusory idea of the world, and it is this idea that is maya.
The goal of a Buddhist is to realize the world as it is, and not as it seems.
The traditional philosophical schools of India are divided into orthodox and unorthodox. The orthodox accept the authority of the Vedas.
Orthodox Schools of Ancient India.
1) Nyaya - questions of logic, belief in the Vedas, the idea of Brahman are considered. The material world exists and a person cognizes it with the help of the five senses, everything that goes beyond the five senses does not exist.
There are four sources of knowledge: perception, inference, comparison, and the word of authority.
2) Vaisheshika - founded by rishi Canada. There are two worlds: the sensible and the supersensible. The basis of everything is indivisible particles. The space between particles is filled with akasha substance (ether). Brahman is the original life force of atoms. There are two sources of knowledge: perception and inference.
4) Sankhya - recognizes that the world is objective and material, characterized by 3 gunas, consists of purusha and prakriti.
5) Vedanta - the end of the Veda, focused on the philosophy set forth in the Upanishads.
6) Yoga is a system of practical actions aimed at the knowledge of the absolute. The basic treatise is the Yoga Sutra. Yoga is devoted specifically to determining the driving force of the process of liberation, describing the practical methods for achieving somadhi.
Unorthodox Schools of Indian Philosophy.
1) Individual materialism. Schools - Lokayads - believe that a world religion is not needed, there is only what we feel, the soul is the body. The purpose of life is to obtain satisfaction (hedonic philosophy)
2) Jainism - the fundamental principle of the world - the eternal, uncreated substance (matter). Substance is a carrier of energy and has a simple and progressive movement, its total does not decrease. The whole world consists of atoms of different weights, atoms merge into things. The law of karma (hyperfine matter that determines the movement of atoms). There are 2 types of items: souls and inanimate matter. The main principle of life is non-harm to all living things.
3) Buddhism. The Four Noble Truths of the Buddha:
A) life is suffering
B) the cause of suffering - desires and passions
C) suffering can be eliminated by giving up desires
D) the crown of everything - liberation from the bonds of samsara.
Three great teachings originated in China: Confucianism, Taoism, and Chinese Buddhism.
The revival of philosophy began with the book of changes. The universe is threefold: heaven + man + earth.
By man is meant the emperor. Earth is a square with China in the center.
The energy of the universe - tsy. In which there are 2 beginnings, yin and yang.
Confucius commented on the Book of Changes, his treatise "Ten Wings". The main focus is on the past, attention is paid to practical problems - state management. Characteristics of a noble man who must have philanthropy, observe etiquette (norms of behavior). Knowledge is compared with knowledge of ancient texts. Loyalty is valued, everyone should know their place.
Confucius paid great attention to the problems of ethics and politics.
According to Confucius, noble men are called to govern the state, headed by the sovereign - "the son of heaven." A noble husband is a model of moral perfection, a person who affirms the norms of morality with all his behavior.
The education of subjects is the most important state business, and it must be carried out by the strength of personal example. "To manage is to do the right thing." In turn, the people are obliged to show filial piety to the rulers, to obey them implicitly. The prototype of the organization of state power for Confucius was the management in family clans and tribal communities (patronymy).
Confucius was a strong opponent of rule based on laws. He condemned the rulers who relied on frightening legal prohibitions, and advocated the preservation of traditional religious and moral methods of influencing the behavior of the Chinese.
Taoism is a treatise "The Book of Tao and Te". The founder of the movement is Lao Tzu, an archivist. The main category is Tao (the path). Tao refers to the universal law of the world, which is the driving force behind everything.
The foundations of Taoism, the philosophy of Lao Tzu are set forth in the treatise "Tao Te Ching" (4th-3rd centuries BC). At the center of the doctrine is the doctrine of the great Tao, the universal Law and the Absolute. Tao is ambiguous, it is an endless movement. Tao is a kind of law of being, space, the universal unity of the world. Tao dominates everywhere and in everything, always and without limits. No one created it, but everything comes from it, in order to then, having completed the circuit, return to it again. Invisible and inaudible, inaccessible to the senses, constant and inexhaustible, nameless and formless, it gives rise, name and form to everything in the world. Even the great Heaven follows the Tao.
Each person, in order to become happy, must embark on this path, try to cognize the Tao and merge with it. According to the teachings of Taoism, the human microcosm is eternal in the same way as the universe-macrocosm. Physical death means only that the spirit separates from the person and dissolves into the macrocosm. The task of a person in his life is to ensure that his soul merges with the world order of Tao. The moral ideal of Taoism is a hermit who, with the help of religious meditation, breathing and gymnastic exercises, achieves a high spiritual state that allows him to overcome all passions and desires, immerse himself in communion with the divine Tao.
Chinese Buddhism. Buddhism began to penetrate China at the turn of BC. e. There were legends about the appearance of Buddhist preachers there as early as the 3rd century BC. e., but they cannot be considered reliable.
Initially, Buddhism was perceived in China as one of the forms of the national Chinese religion - Taoism.
The Miletus school (Ionian school of natural philosophy) is a philosophical school founded by Thales in Miletus, a Greek colony in Asia Minor (1st half of the 6th century BC). Representatives - Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes.
The philosophers of the Milesian school stood at the origins of Greek science: astronomy, geography, mathematics, meteorology, physics. The notions of cosmogony, cosmology, theology and physics, previously widespread in mythology and tradition in an abstract and symbolic form, were transferred by the Milesians to the plane of scientific interest, forming a group of non-abstract images. They introduced the first scientific terminology, for the first time they began to write their works in prose.
Based on the principle of conservation "something does not arise from nothing", the Milesians believed the One - eternal, infinite, "divine", the material origin of the visible diversity of things, the source of life and existence of the cosmos. Thus, behind the variety of phenomena, they saw their essence, which is different from these phenomena (“the beginning”, which included: water, air, fire, earth); for Thales it is water, for Anaximander it is apeiron (an indefinite and boundless primary substance), for Anaximenes it is air. (“Water” of Thales and “air” of Anaximenes should, of course, be understood conditionally and allegorically, as a symbol of a complex of abstract properties of such a primary substance.)
The Milesian school considered the world as a living whole; did not make a fundamental difference between the living and the dead, mental and physical; recognized for inanimate objects only a lower degree of animation (life). Animation itself (“soul”) was considered as a “subtle” and mobile form of primary matter.
Miles marked the beginning of ancient Greek philosophy: the Milesian philosophers rose above appearances and behind the variety of phenomena they saw some kind of essence of things different from them (“the beginning”). For Thales it is water, for Anaximander it is an indefinite and boundless primary substance (apeiron), for Anaximenes it is air.
Eleatics - ancient Greek philosophers, representatives of the Eleatic school (end of VI - first half of V centuries BC).
Belonging to the Eleatic school is attributed to such philosophers as Parmenides, Zeno of Elea and Melissus. Sometimes Xenophanes is also referred to her, given some evidence that he was the teacher of Parmenides. Unlike most pre-Socratics, the Eleans did not deal with issues of natural science, but developed a theoretical doctrine of being (for the first time the term itself was proposed precisely in the Eleatic school), laying the foundation of classical Greek ontology.
The Eleatic school was characterized by strict monism in the doctrine of being and rationalism in the doctrine of knowledge. At the center of the teachings of all three Eleatic philosophers was the doctrine of being: Parmenides first made the concept of "being" the subject of analysis in his philosophical poem "On Nature". Zeno, with the help of logical aporias, showed the absurdity of teachings based on other premises than Parmenides (ie, from the assumption of movement and multitude). Melisse summed up school dogma in his treatise On Nature, or On Being. According to Parmenides, “what is” (being) is, and this follows from the very concept of “to be”, and “what is not” (non-being) is not, which also follows from the content of the concept itself. From this the unity and immobility of being is derived, which cannot be divided into parts and has nowhere to move, and from this a description of conceivable being is derived as a continuum that is not divided into parts and does not grow old in time, given only to thoughts, but not to feelings. Emptiness is identified with non-existence, so there is no emptiness. The subject of thinking can only be something (being), non-being is not conceivable (the thesis “to think and be one and the same”). The truth about being is known by the mind, feelings form only an opinion that inadequately reflects the truth. Opinion, “doxa”, is fixed in the language and represents the world as contradictory, existing in the struggle of physical opposites, but in fact there are neither many nor opposites. Behind the conventional names stands the unconditional unity (“lump”) of being.
The interest of the representatives of the Eleatic school in the problems of being was developed in classical Greek thought by Plato and Aristotle.
Program
philosophy exam
for admission to graduate school
Moscow 2012
I.general provisions
The goals of mastering the discipline "Philosophy" are to familiarize applicants for graduate school with philosophy as a complex fundamental discipline that studies the most common essential characteristics and fundamental principles of being and cognition, human being, the relationship of man and the world; formation of a holistic worldview based on philosophical knowledge as a necessary basic component; education of skills of cultural-philosophical, religious tolerance.
Applicants to graduate school must have the following competencies:
Know:
Definition of the subject of philosophy and its basic methodological principles, general methods of cognition of reality; disciplinary structure of philosophical knowledge; main categories and concepts of philosophy; distinctive characteristics, features of the main stages in the development of philosophical knowledge; the specifics of domestic philosophical teachings, the main stages and features of the evolution of domestic philosophy; modern trends in development and the main problems of Western and domestic philosophy.
II. Sample Topics for the preparation of
for the entrance exam in "Philosophy"
Topic 1. What is philosophy?
Worldview and its historical types (myth, religion, philosophy). The concept of philosophy, the specifics of philosophical problems. Functions of philosophy: worldview, epistemological and methodological, etc.
Materialism and idealism are the main directions in the development of philosophy. Objective and subjective idealism.
Philosophy in the system of spiritual culture of man and society. Philosophy and Science.
Topic 2. History of philosophy. Eastern philosophy.
The subject of the history of philosophy. The emergence of philosophy, the main stages of its development.
Subject, object of scientific knowledge and types of scientific rationality.
The relationship between science and technology. Features of technical sciences.
Topic 11. Philosophy of man. Philosophy of values.
Specificity of philosophical knowledge about a person. Philosophy about the problems of the creation of man and consciousness. The concepts of "man", "personality", "individual", "individuality". The structure of personality.
1. The role of ancient philosophy in the development of scientific rationality;
2. The main philosophical schools of Ancient Greece;
3. Philosophical doctrine of Socrates;
4. Basic provisions of Plato's philosophy;
5. Aristotle's system of philosophy;
6. Truths of faith and truths of knowledge in the philosophy of Thomas Aquinas;
7. Philosophical teaching of the Fathers of the Church (patristics);
8. Features of scientific knowledge in the era of scholasticism (R. Bacon, D. Scott, W. Ockham);
9. Humanism philosophy of the Renaissance;
10. Scientific revolution of the XVI-XVII centuries. and its influence on the philosophy of the New Age (N. Kuzansky, N. Copernicus, J. Bruno, G. Galileo, I. Newton);
11. Cartesian rationalism. Descartes' doctrine of the scientific method;
12. F. Bacon's empiricism and its role in the formation of the science of the New Time;
13. Features of empiricism in the philosophy of T. Hobbes and J. Locke;
14. The problem of knowledge in the philosophical teachings of J. Berkeley and D. Hume;
15. Philosophy of the French Enlightenment of the XVIII century. (Voltaire, J.-J. Rousseau, C. Montesquieu);
16. Philosophical and scientific program;
17. Metaphysical monism and rationalism of B. Spinoza. Ethics;
18. I. Kant's doctrine of knowledge ("Critique of Pure Reason");
19. Science of I. Fichte. Philosophy of nature by F. Schelling;
20. The doctrine of the spirit and dialectics G.F.V. Hegel.
21. Neo-Hegelianism;
22. The problem of methodology in the philosophy of neo-Kantianism;
23. Positivism (O. Comte, J. S. Mill, G. Spencer);
24. Neopositivism of the Vienna Circle (R. Carnap, M. Schlick, A. Neurath, F. Frank);
25. The main problems of the philosophy of existentialism;
26. American pragmatism (C. Pierce, W. James, J. Dewey);
27. "Philosophy of life" and its main problems;
28. Phenomenology of E. Husserl;
29. Structuralism and post-structuralism;
30. Language and thinking. Philosophy of language;
31. Social Philosophy of the Frankfurt School (T. Adorno, J. Habermas);
32. Philosophical ideas of classical psychoanalysis (Z. Freud). Neo-Freudianism;
33. Philosophical hermeneutics (F. Schleiermacher, G.-G. Gadamer);
34. Neo-Thomism in the context of the dialogue between religion and science;
35. Personalism and its contribution to the doctrine of man in the twentieth century;
36. Basic concepts of the philosophy of postmodernism;
37. Arab-Muslim philosophy (periodization, schools, personalities);
38. Periods and schools of Indian philosophy;
39. Main directions philosophical thought Ancient China (periodization, schools);
40. Comparative approach to the problem of philosophical dialogue "West-East";
41. The problem of man in Russian philosophy of the XIX–XX centuries. (on the example of personalities of choice);
42. The problem of "Russia-West" in the philosophy of the XIX century. Westernizers and Slavophiles;
43. The main directions of Russian philosophy of the XIX - early XX centuries;
44. Philosophy of unity V. Solovyov;
45. Philosophical ideas of Russian cosmism (,);
46. Russian religious philosophy of the twentieth century;
47. The subject and functions of philosophy. The structure of philosophical knowledge;
48. Philosophy in the system of culture. Worldview function of philosophy.
49. Levels scientific research: empirical and theoretical. Methods and forms of empirical knowledge. Theoretical level of knowledge;
50. The problem of truth in scientific and philosophical knowledge;
52. Classical and non-classical epistemology;
53. The problem of consciousness in philosophy. The role of science in the study of consciousness;
54. Nature as an object of philosophical knowledge. Nature and Society;
55. Main problems of the philosophy of history;
56. Concept social structure. The problem of social justice;
57. The role of economic life in the development of culture and civilization;
58. Spiritual life of society. The concept of public consciousness;
59. Man as a subject of philosophical analysis;
60. The spiritual world of man and the problem of the formation of personality;
61. Culture and civilization. Features of the development of modern civilization;
62. Philosophical problems of ethnogenesis;
63. Social progress. Concepts of sustainable development;
64. Socio-philosophical problems of globalization;
65. The aesthetic ideal of modernity and the problem of beauty;
66. Problems of morality. Features of modern moral consciousness;
67. Art as a form of spiritual activity;
68. Ideas about the perfect person in different cultures. The meaning of human existence;
69. Freedom and responsibility of a person and society. Ethics of non-violence;
70. The concept of value and its role in knowledge.
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2. Philosophy. Textbook / Ed. , . - M.: Academic Project, 2003.
3. Philosophy. Textbook / Ed. , . Third ed. - M.: Gardariki, 2003.
4. Kanke. Historical and systematic course: Textbook for universities. M., 2007.
5., Panin. M., 2010.
6., Saranchin of Russian philosophy. M., 2005.
7. Zotov Western philosophy. M., 2010.
8., Ancient world. M., 2010.
9. Ilyin V., Mashentsev A. Philosophy in schemes and comments. M., 2006.
ten. , . Philosophy. M., 2009.
11. Kuznetsov philosophy of the XVIII century. M., 2006.
12. Kuznetsov classical philosophy. M., 2003.
13. New philosophical encyclopedia. In 4 volumes. M., 2000.
14., Khamidova. Directory. M., 2008.
15. The path to philosophy. Anthology. M., 2001.
16., Mitroshenkov. M., 2007.
17. Russian philosophy. Small encyclopedic Dictionary. M., 1995.
18. Russian Philosophy: Dictionary / Edited. M., 1995.
19. Dictionary of philosophical terms. M., 2004.
20. Sokolov Introduction to Philosophy: History of Philosophy by Epochs and Problems: A Textbook for High Schools. M.,
22. Philosophy. Reader. M., 2009.
23. Philosophy. Edited by. M., 2009.
24., and others. Reader in Western Philosophy. Antiquity. Middle Ages. Renaissance. M., 2003.
1Philosophy is the doctrine of the world as a whole, of the general principles and patterns of its existence and knowledge.
arose from the need of people for a generalized and holistic view of the world around
most ancient science, set about 3 millennia.
Unlike mythology, with its fantastic images and orientation to traditions, and in contrast to religion based on faith and appeal to the supernatural, the content of philosophy is the understanding of the results cognitive activity human on the basis of the principles of reason and the data of science.
The term “philosophy” is “love of wisdom” or “search for truth”. The main question of philosophy reveals the relationship between the ideal and the material, consciousness and matter. Its substantiation provides answers to two questions: 1) what is primary - consciousness or matter? and 2) is the world cognizable?
answered: materialists and idealists.
Materialists - matter is primary, they believe that the world is knowable,
idealists, on the contrary, deny the cognizability of the world.
Why and when does philosophy arise? - when serious contradictions and conflicts arise in public life and in public consciousness that cannot be resolved with the help of traditional beliefs and beliefs associated with mythology.
A crisis mythological consciousness- the economic development of Greece, the expansion of trade and shipping, contacts with other peoples, beliefs.
The problem of the organization of the world.
"philosophy":
1. one of the forms of worldview;
2. a special science with its own subject of study;
3. a special form of social consciousness, reflecting one of the aspects of reality.
A worldview is a system of views on the objective world and a person’s place in it, on a person’s attitude to the reality around him and to himself, as well as the basic life beliefs, ideals, principles of cognition and activity, value orientations conditioned by these views.
Depending on how the question of the relationship between spirit and matter is resolved, the worldview can be idealistic and materialistic, religious or atheistic.
Subject - personality, social. group and society as a whole.
The basis is knowledge. They composed information side. Knowledge comes in the form of beliefs. W. is that prism through which reality is seen.
F. is a theory. the core of the worldview.
The worldview is formed not only by philosophy, but also by scientific disciplines, as well as various forms of social consciousness - political, religious.
The worldview of the pre-philosophical period in primitive man is presented in the form of: myths, legends, legends.
Myth is a sacred giving, folded about the deed of the gods, in a cat. tells about how the world works. Mythology is the very first form of awareness of reality. It is associated with ceremonies and rituals.
Later, Religion arises - this is a form of general consciousness, the meaning of the cat lies in a fantastic, illusory, distorted representation. Religion is based on belief in gods, more precisely on the existence of one or more gods (monotheism, polytheism). The difference from myth is that religion has its own books and organizational organ.
In different eras, different types of worldview developed:
Cosmocentrism - infinite power, harmony of the cosmos (pre-Socratic philosophy);
Theocentrism (Theos - God), The Age of Religion (Middle Ages);
Renaissance. Man felt himself the center of the universe.
Conclusion: outlook is formed under the influence of social. conditions, upbringing and education. Formation - from childhood. It determines the life position of a person.
Philosophy is a system of the most general theoretical views on the world, the place of people in it, the understanding of various forms of relations between people. to the world.
2
Philosophy is a form of social consciousness; the doctrine of the general principles of being and knowledge, of the relationship of man to the world; the science of the universal laws of development of nature, society and thought. Relationship with other sciences - social, humanitarian, natural, technical. Philosophy acts as a methodological basis for other sciences,
The object is the whole objective reality, the whole material and spiritual world, including the person himself.
The subject is the most general laws of development of nature, society and human thinking, developed on the basis and in the process of studying the object of its study (as well as a certain area of reality or a range of problems studied by philosophers in this moment time or period)
Since the human world consists of such things, properties, relations that are largely equal, identical to each other, the categories of philosophy express this commonality of the individual components of the human world, create the prerequisites for the dialogue of people.
Philosophical categories are constantly evolving, refined, criticized, rejected, filled with new content.
Structure - philosophical teachings that consider any one side of the material and spiritual world:
history of philosophy
The theory of philosophy, which includes
Ontology - the doctrine of being;
Social philosophy - the doctrine of society;
Dialectics - the doctrine of the universal connection and development of objects, phenomena and processes of the material world;
Gnoseology - the theory of knowledge;
Philosophical anthropology - the doctrine of man;
Methodology - the doctrine of methods.
Perhaps other components in the structure (for example, natural philosophy, or philosophy of nature)
Functions:
1. Worldview function, consisting in the formation of the basis of the scientific picture of the world.
2. Methodological function, which consists in guiding the impact on the sciences.
3. Theoretical-cognitive function, which consists in
increment of new knowledge about the world.
4. Use philosophy in educational, managerial activities.
5. Moral or ethical function.
3
The transition from a socially homogeneous tribal society to a socially differentiated society led to a change in ways of thinking.
Was: mythological character.
Myth is a way of describing the world, a form of life, worldview attitudes, specific knowledge, religious ideas, ethical norms, the process of the birth of the world, the process of the successive birth of gods.
Anaximenes - air. Does not belong to water. Oxygen is breath and life. Condensed and discharged - generates the rest.
^ Eleatic School
Qualitative concept of life.
Xenophanes - ridicule of the gods. The earth appeared from the sea - shells, prints of fish. One God. It is the center of being, it is being itself. ^ Being in many forms and this one is God . God is not separated from the world.
Parmenides - correlation of thinking and being. Being has not arisen: it is imperishable. Being is, non-being is not. There is no movement.
Zeno is a refutation of the existence of many. Denied movement.
Pythagoreans
Quantitative concept. "Everything is a number"
Pythagoras - among them - the laws of nature. String experiments. Everything repeats itself through periods.
The soul is immortal. Reincarnation.
Empedocles - 4 elements, 2 forces that unite and divide - friendship and enmity.
Democritus - atomism. Thought does not exist without a carrier.
Sophists
There was an aristocracy and tyranny - it became a slave-owning democracy
Sophists are itinerant paid teachers of virtue, in the center of their attention is the life of man and society. knowledge is a means to achieve success in life, valuable - rhetoric - possession of a word, the art of persuading.
Protagoras - "Man is the measure of all things: existing, that they exist, and non-existent, that they do not exist." The relativity of knowledge - for every statement there is a statement that contradicts it.
Gorgias - proves three positions: that nothing exists, and if something exists, then it is inexpressible and inexplicable. Nothing can be said for certain.
Socrates - from thinking about the world and space and nature - to man and the society in which he lives. From materialism to idealism. The main thing is the knowledge of good, because evil - from people's ignorance of their true good. The path to knowledge - self-knowledge, in caring for one's own immortal soul, and not about the body, in understanding the essence of the main moral values. Know yourself. A person who knows what good is will not do evil . “I know that I know nothing” - the principle of cognitive modesty.
Sophists seek the foundations of human existence not in the world, but in man himself.
^ Conclusion: natural philosophy - the philosophy of nature. It was the first historical form of philosophy and actually merged with natural science.
5
The term "dialectic" (from the Greek - the art of conversation, dispute) has different semantic shades. It was first used by Socrates, referring to the art of dialogue, aimed at reaching the truth through the clash of different opinions. Plato considered dialectics as a process of dividing concepts into types and linking them into more general concepts, "birth".
Now dialectics as the doctrine of the inconsistency of the existing and the possibility of resolving contradictions in life and thought.
Parmenides - making a fundamental difference between thinking and sensibility, and, accordingly, between the conceivable world and the sensually cognizable world. Thinking and the conceivable, intelligible world corresponding to it are, first of all, “one”, which Parmenides characterized as being, eternity and immobility. He gives one of the first formulations of the idea of the identity of being and thinking: “thinking and being are one and the same.” The criterion of truth is reason, he rejected sensations because of their inaccuracy. Everything that is conceivable is being.Being is a thought, it is one and unchanging, absolutely and self-identical, has no division into subject and object within itself; it is all possible fullness of perfection, among which in the first place is Truth, Good, Good, Light. Being always exists, always exists, it is indivisible and motionless, it is complete. This is not God and not matter, and even more so not any specific physical substrate. This is something that becomes accessible to our thinking only as a result of mental efforts, i.e. actually philosophizing. If we recognize non-existence, then it must exist. If this is so, then being and non-being turn out to be identical, but therein lies a visible contradiction. If being and non-being are not identical, then being exists and non-being does not exist. But how then to think non-existent? And Parmenides comes to the conclusion that it is impossible to think in this way. In Parmenides, the very fact of the existence of the world, which is at the same time truly existing knowledge, is associated with being.
Plato - The basis of all being is the “one”, which in itself is devoid of any signs, has no parts, that is, neither beginning nor end, does not occupy any space. Nothing can be said about it at all, it is higher than any being, sensation, thinking. Being is a special concept that is not generic. This means that it cannot be subsumed under a more general one, as well as under it all other concepts. Therefore, accepting the thesis of Parmenides, which identifies being and the thought of being, he clarifies this position, saying that being in itself is only an abstraction, potential, conceivable being, there always exists the being of something, i.e. existence of concrete objects. Consequently, the ratio of being and thinking is the ratio of a specific object and thought about this object. The world is the real existence of individual, material and spiritual objects and phenomena, while being is an abstraction that underlies the solution of general questions about the world.
6
Plato - ancient Greek philosopher, student of Socrates, teacher of Aristotle. Known for his doctrine of ideas and the ideal state.
About ideas: a person goes from ideas to things. First, ideas-examples, then things embodying them. There are many ideas in my head. Will there be an incarnation? The world of ideas is reality, the world of things is a shadow. An idea in the head is an act of remembering the world of ideas. An example is to imagine a cave. The fundamental principle is the world of ideas. They cannot be touched, seen or touched, they can only be contemplated by the mind, through concepts.
About the soul: The soul of a person before his birth resides in the realm of pure thought and beauty. The body is a dungeon, “remembers the world of ideas.” The soul is an immortal entity, three parts: rational, turned to ideas; ardent, affective-volitional; sensual, driven by passions or lust.
About the state: a worthy life can only be led in a perfect state, Plato creates the conditions of an ideal state for his students in the Athenian school. The “ideal state” is an aristocracy, an aristocratic monarchy; Tyranny is the worst form of government, and democracy was for him the object of general criticism. three main forms of government - monarchy, aristocracy and democracy.
Triple division (like the soul)
the population is divided into three estates: farmers-artisans, guards and rulers (wise men-philosophers).
only aristocrats, as the best and wisest citizens, are called to govern the state.
a perfect state is such a state, in the first estate moderation prevails, in the second - courage and strength, in the third - wisdom.
each one does what he ought to do;
the state is the embodiment of ideas, and people are toys invented and controlled by God.
Conclusion: The philosophy of Plato turned out to be the most important intellectual achievement of the ancient era. In the school founded by Plato he was brought up Aristotle, along with Plato, who had a decisive influence on the development of Western European philosophy.
7
Aristotle, disciple of Plato, founder of science logic. He vacillated between idealism and materialism.
Love for systematicity, details - laid the foundation for new sciences. Laws of logic, forms of logical thinking: concept, judgment, conclusion, proof, refutation.
disagreed with his teacher on a number of issues. Ideas cannot exist apart from things. Ideas are the forms of things.
There is no spirit outside of matter. Plato argued otherwise. The objective existence of matter, Aristotle considered it eternal, uncreated and indestructible. Matter cannot arise from nothing, nor can it increase or decrease in quantity. However, matter itself is inert, passive.
In order for various things to arise from it, a potter is needed - a god. Form and matter are inextricably linked. The whole world is a series of forms connected with each other.
Metaphysics contains the doctrine of the 4 basic principles of being.
Being is a living substance characterized by special principles or the four principles (conditions) of being:
Matter - "that from which." The variety of things that exist objectively; matter is eternal, uncreated and indestructible; it cannot arise from nothing, increase or decrease in its quantity; it is inert and passive. Formless matter is nothingness. Primary matter is expressed as five primary elements (elements): air, water, Earth, the fire and ether(heavenly substance).
The form - "what". Essence, stimulus, purpose, and also the reason for the formation of diverse things from monotonous matter. God (or mind-prime mover) creates forms of various things from matter. Aristotle approaches the idea of a single being of a thing, a phenomenon: it is a fusion of matter and form.
^ Operating cause (beginning) - "that from where." The beginning of all beginnings is God.
Target- "for what". The highest goal is the Good.
The soul cannot exist without the body, but it itself is incorporeal. “It is the soul that gives meaning and purpose to life.” The death of the body frees the soul for its eternal life: the soul is eternal and immortal.
^ About society and the state .
Man is a political being, i.e. social, and it carries in itself an instinctive desire for "living together." He did not separate society from the state.
He considered the formation of a family to be the first result of social life. The need for mutual exchange led to communication between families and villages. This is how the state was born.
He singled out 3 forms of state. governments: monarchy, aristocracy, and polity. Deviation from monarchy gives tyranny, from aristocracy - oligarchy, from polity - democracy. At the heart of all social upheavals lies property inequality.
The best state is a society that is achieved through the middle element (between slaves and slave owners), the larger the middle element, the better the system.
Duties of citizens at different times of life: in youth - military service, in adulthood - public administration affairs; agriculture, handicrafts, and in general any physical labor remains the lot of slaves. Slavery is a natural phenomenon and should always be the basis of production.
Conclusion: The philosophy of Aristotle was one of the pinnacle achievements of ancient thought and had a significant impact both on the subsequent history of philosophy in antiquity and on the philosophy of the Middle Ages.
8
5-15 centuries. Medieval philosophy is associated primarily with religion. Philosophy is the servant of theology.
movement of philosophical thought was permeatedreligious issues.
The Bible is the "Book of books". The Bible has become the starting point of any theory. The exclusion of polytheism and the unified essence of the world.
the art of correctly interpreting and clarifying the provisions of the Testament.
The decline of philosophical and scientific thought. Philosophy was subordinated to religion.
Christianity is the state religion
Most scientists are representatives of the clergy, monasteries are centers of culture and science.
The ultimate reality is not nature, but God.
The advantage of the spiritual over the bodily is torture, the mortification of the flesh. Ideas at odds with the teachings of the church - heresy, punishments - bonfires, torture, which is stronger - the body or the spirit.
Patristics is the teaching of the Church Fathers. The problem of the essence of God, trinity. the attitude of human freedom through the possibility of salvation or death of the soul. the origin of evil and why God tolerates it.
Augustine Aurelius (Blessed)
His ideas touch upon the problems of being and time, the movement of history and historical progress, the problem of the individual, his will and reason before God. Augustine believed that God created the world out of nothing, i.e. he created not only order and structure in the world, but also the very substance (first matter). God also created time, which did not exist before the creator. God Himself is outside of time.
Story, is determined by divine providence, it has a direction. History will end with the second coming of Christ, who will judge the nations and every person for sins.
Problems of the individual, his freedom, will and mind. Man is a rational soul that uses an earthly body. Man aspires to God because he finds in Him love, peace and grace.
Will and Faith, far above the mind, which is prone to error, unreliable. Faith is the highest source of truth. Truth must be sought in God, not in science.
^ The human person is free (even if it is a slave) to choose between good, good and evil. Evil is the lack of good. God is not responsible for the existence of evil. Man is not just a "servant of God", he is a personality, connected with God. Man is the likeness of God. Every person (even a child) is a person.
I wanted to unite all peoples not in the state sense, but in peacekeeping.
Scholasticism is a school philosophy, representatives - to rationally substantiate and systematize Christian doctrine.
Thomas Aquinas - the problem: ratio religion and philosophy, faith and knowledge .
Man must be studied as a whole, i.e. in the unity of soul and body. ^ A corpse is not a person, but a spirit is not a person either. . Man is a person, and a person is led by God to bliss. Nature is not evil, but a good beginning . God created nature.
We must live in the real world, in unity with nature and strive for earthly (and not just heavenly) bliss. This does not contradict the teachings of Christ, but follows from the teachings set forth in the Gospel. There is only one truth - it is Christ and his teaching. Reason and faith help in the knowledge of the truth.
^ God created nature, as well as all forms of being . Reason begins with facts, sensations and comes to truth, explains the existence of God and the values of Christianity. Consequently, reason and science based on the facts of nature do not contradict the church and faith. God is the ultimate reality.
^ Conclusion: worldview on a religious basis, faith, in the center of philosophy - God. Education of the flesh and submission to the spiritual principle.
9
New time - from the 17th century.
philosophy - for the knowledge of nature, not divine truths. The peculiarities of modern science are the result of a kind of scientific revolution. Active "questioning" of the secrets of nature and the practical use of its results. Science should serve the public good, and not only glorify the wisdom of the creator, thought the thinkers of the New Age.
the science of modern times is based on experience and experiment, is inseparable from mathematics, since it expresses regular connections in nature with the help of numbers. science becomes the productive force of society, since its discoveries are purposefully introduced into production through engineering activities. And over time, it becomes the driving force behind the renewal of military equipment.
philosophy followed two paths - the path of empiricism and rationalism.
Representatives empiricism- that the basis and source of all our knowledge about the world is the experience that we receive through the senses.
The soul and mind are originally pure, there are no innate ideas. Sensations and perceptions write knowledge on them. sensations can deceive - experiment. inductive method.
^ Francis Bacon-4 idols distort knowledge. Induction - from the individual to the general.
gobb c (empiricist) sees in the world around us diverse interactions physical bodies which occur according to purely mechanical laws. The world, from his point of view, is matter, or rather, material bodies in motion. And this kind of movement is easy to predict scientifically. In the same mechanistic way, Hobbes describes the vital activity of living beings, including a person whose heart is like a spring, nerves are like threads, joints are like wheels. And all this tells our body, like a machine, movement. As for the human psyche, Hobbes considered its driving force to be the natural desire to survive.
^ Locke (empiricist)- the doctrine of sensations as a source of knowledge. people are not born with ready-made ideas. A newborn is a blank slate on which life draws knowledge. There is nothing in the mind that was not in sensations before.
Rationalism- a philosophical view that recognizes reason (thinking) as the source of knowledge and the criterion of truth, while feelings play only a supporting role.
Perceptions and sensations are illusory. Experienced data are doubtful. The main thing is that a person thinks. The deductive method. There are a number of ideas in the mind without the help of sensations. They must be developed. Get true knowledge about the world. The true method of all sciences and philosophy is like that of mathematics.
Descartes- in mathematics, sensory experience is not of decisive importance; in it, the main role belongs to the conclusion, the proof. But conclusion and proof are already forms of cognition with the help of reason. It is he who plays a decisive role in cognition. Deduction - from the general. "I think, therefore I am." Dualism. 2 substances. question.
Spinoza - God exists but is devoid of personality traits. It is nature having extension and thinking. nature-thinks. And human thinking is part of thinking.
Leibniz– the world consists of monads (spiritual elements of being, active, independent, continuously changing, capable of suffering, perception and consciousness). The lower and higher monads are animals and people.
^ Conclusion: amplification of science, 2 opposing points of view. The predominance of rationalism is the development of mathematical logic.
10
French mathematician and philosopher Rene Descartes
He sought to develop a universal deductive method for all sciences, based on the theory of rationalism, which assumes the presence in the human mind of innate ideas that largely determine the results of knowledge. Descartes - in mathematics, sensory experience is not of decisive importance, in it the main role belongs to the conclusion, the proof. But conclusion and proof are already forms of cognition with the help of reason. It is he who plays a decisive role in cognition. Deduction - from the general.
Rationalism is a philosophical view that recognizes the mind (thinking) as the source of knowledge and the criterion of truth.
mechanical character. The universe is a mechanism, rules. God gives the impulse. Then creativity.
The formation of stars and planetary systems is the vortex motion of matter. World matter is boundless, homogeneous, has no voids and is divisible to infinity. Matter is in continuous quantitative and qualitative motion, determined by the universal laws of mechanics. The organic world obeys the same laws: animals are complex machines. Man, unlike animals, has a soul, mind and speech, which goes beyond the laws of mechanics.
^ The fundamental concept is substance.
He rejected the animation of the animal world, the soul is inherent only in man, constituting a special substance.
Substance-god. The rest is created by God.
Dualism. Two kinds of substances - spiritual and material. The material is divisible to infinity, but the spiritual is indivisible. The substance has attributes - thinking (impression, imagination, desire) and extension (figure, position), other derivatives of them.
To question leads to certain knowledge. I cannot doubt that I doubt that there is my doubt, thought. Hence: "I think, therefore I am."
Deductive method based on 4 principles:
1. One cannot accept as true what is not obvious.
2. divide the problem under study into many parts.
3. from simple to complex.
4. to make reviews of the researched phenomenon.
Conclusion: At the same time, his views were met with hostility by the church.
11
The greatest explorer of nature in modern times was the English philosopher Francis Bacon.
Founder of empiricism. He believed that philosophy should be primarily practical. He set the task of creating a scientific method. Great restoration of sciences.
"Knowledge is power". Mighty is the one who can, and maybe the one who knows. The way to knowledge is observation, analysis, comparison and experiment - experience
Experience is the foundation of knowledge, it is subject to goals. The scientist, according to Bacon, should go in his research from the observation of single factors to broad generalizations, i.e. apply the inductive method of cognition.
Experience can give reliable knowledge only when the consciousness is free from false "ghosts". People have many prejudices and delusions.
“Ghosts of the race” are errors arising from the fact that a person judges nature by analogy with the life of people;
“ghosts of the cave” are errors of an individual nature, depending on the upbringing, tastes, habits of individuals;
“ghosts of the market” are the habits of using current ideas and opinions in judging the world without a critical attitude towards them;
"ghosts of the theater" are associated with blind faith in authorities.
Fighting ghosts does not guarantee correct knowledge. The right method is needed - a slow, careful ascent to the general. First of all, it is necessary to dismember, analyze natural phenomena. The next stage is finding “simple natures” - the properties of phenomena.
people tend to make generalizations that are not supported by facts.
Science does not depend on religion, like water, it has its source either in the heavenly spheres or in the earth. It consists of two types of knowledge - one is inspired by God, and the other originates from the senses. Science is thus divided into theology (theology) and philosophy.
The classification of human knowledge is based on the three abilities of the rational soul. History is based on memory, poetry on imagination, philosophy on reason.
Conclusion: So, in his theory of knowledge, Bacon rigorously pursued the idea that true knowledge follows from experience. This philosophical position is called empiricism. Bacon was not only its founder, but also the most consistent empiricist.
12
Kant's work is divided into two stages - subcritical and critical. In the works of the pre-critical period, Kant is an empiricist, in the work “The Universal natural history and the theory of the sky” he put forward the famous hypothesis about the origin of the solar system from a giant gaseous nebula. He studied the relationship between the tides and the rotation of the Earth, developed a classification system for the animal world, and put forward the idea of the natural origin of human races.
The critical period begins with the works: Critique of Pure Reason, Critique of Practical Reason, Critique of Judgment. Kant's transition to critical philosophy was not a one-time event, but went through several important stages. The first step was associated with a radical change in Kant's views on space and time.
All the main problems of criticism boil down to one question: “what is a person?”: “what can I know?”, “what should I do?”.
knowledge is heterogeneous, there are different objects of cognition, which correspond to different types of cognitive activity that are not reducible to each other. There are spiritual abilities that are not reducible to cognition.
Kant distinguishes a world that does not depend on our sensations and thinking - the world of “things in themselves”. For theoretical knowledge, the world of things in themselves is closed. However, there is a world of phenomena, phenomena - the world of sensual objects, conceivable by reason. Sensibility is opposed by thinking or reason.
Sensuality is interpreted by him as the ability to experience the effects of objects. Feelings are the result of such influence.
Kant distinguishes between external and internal feeling. He calls the form of external feeling space, the form of internal - time.
Famous for antinomies (the clash of two opposing statements that have the same place to be):
1. antinomy of finiteness and infinity of space and time. 2 statements - the world has a beginning and the world has no beginning.
He proved: how the present came, if there was infinity before us - the world has a beginning.
The world is limited in time, which means there was time before it (before the beginning of the world), and it is empty - the world has no beginning.
2. antinomy of the simple and the complex.
3. natural in man and free will. Man is subject to the laws of nature - a free creature, a contradiction.
4. antinomy of necessity and chance.
Conclusion: The philosophy of Kant had a tremendous impact on subsequent thought. Kant is the founder of the "German classical philosophy", represented by the large-scale philosophical systems of G. W. F. Hegel and others.
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Hegel is a German philosopher, a representative of German classical philosophy,
System
The starting position of Hegel's philosophy is the identity of being and thinking, i.e. understanding of the real world as a manifestation of an idea, concept, spirit. Hegel considered this identity as a historically developing process of self-knowledge by the absolute idea of itself.
The world is the self-development of the absolute spirit, passing through 3 stages:
1. idea (thesis) - statement
2.nature (antithesis) - negation
3. spirit (synthesis) - negation of negation
Nature is the negation of an idea. Spirit is the return of an idea to itself. At this stage, there is a synthesis of thinking and being.
The Spirit of God, according to Hegel, is not a spirit above the stars, outside the world, but God is omnipresent.
mind is the ultimate reality.
Everything is in process - Hegel's philosophical views are permeated with the idea of development: it is impossible to understand a phenomenon without understanding the whole path that it has taken in its development, that development does not occur in a vicious circle, but progressively from lower to higher forms, that in this process a transition is made quantitative changes into qualitative ones, that contradictions are the source of development: contradiction drives the world.
Contradictions are not a mistake or a lack of thinking, but the root of movement. We think objects with the help of contradictions - in the unity of opposites. From it - the diversity of the world.
philosophy is divided into three parts: logic, philosophy of nature and philosophy of spirit.
Logic contains: the doctrine of being, for example, includes: 1) quality, 2) quantity, 3) measure.
Quality consists of three parts: 1) being, 2) being present, 3) being for-itself. Being is a triad: pure being - nothingness - becoming. Here the limit of division is reached, or the triad, consisting of categories, each of which cannot be decomposed into triads.
Hegel looked at the world, human life globally, reducing individual consciousness to nothingness. His philosophy is the philosophy of the absolute spirit. Its development in stages: nature, people, their life and consciousness.
Mind in history.
The search for this reason led Hegel to the discovery of a historical pattern:
history does not develop automatic process; the history of mankind is made up of the actions of individuals, each of whom strives to realize their own interests and goals. Understanding history lies in human activity. As a result of the actions of people pursuing their goals, something new arises, different from their original intentions, which people are forced to reckon with in their future activities. So chance becomes a necessity.
Reason in history is carried out in such a way that each people gets the right to contribute to the process
It has four stages:
the Eastern world (one person is free. That was the era of despotism, and this one person was a despot.), Greek and Roman (that some people are free, but not a person as such. Accordingly, freedom was closely connected with the existence of slaves and could only be accidental, a short-lived and limited phenomenon. With the spread of Christianity, humanity learned true freedom; humanity began to realize that man as such is free - all people) and
German. Where is the German embodiment of complete freedom.
World history is the embodiment of freedom in real life peoples.
A people without a state has no history.
It is in the state that a person acquires his dignity as an independent person.
Conclusion: In the philosophical concept of Hegel there are fatalistic and even tragic motives. Hegel had a tremendous influence on the philosophy of the 19th century. The philosophical teachings of L. Feuerbach, K. Marx, F. Engels and others.
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The philosophy of Ludwig Feuerbach (1804 - 1872) is considered the final stage of German classical philosophy, of which Kant and Hegel were prominent representatives, and the beginning of the materialistic era in German and world philosophy.
The main direction is the criticism of German classical idealism and the justification of materialism.
The philosophy of Ludwig Feuerbach's main features were:
A complete break with religion (atheism) and liberation from centuries of religious influence;
An attempt to explain God and religion from a materialistic point of view, based on human nature;
Great interest in socio-political issues;
Belief in the comprehensibility of the surrounding world.
The early period is characterized by criticism of idealist philosophy, especially of Hegel.
Rejects the idea of the identity of being and thinking;
Does not recognize the existence of an absolute idea - an independent substance and the pre-cause of the material world;
The surrounding world is obvious and tangible, while the absolute idea is only a guess of the mind, an invention of Hegel;
Does not recognize the unity of philosophy and religion;
Feuerbach considers Hegel's philosophy to be artificial, subject to prejudice, facing the past, not corresponding to the latest achievements of science.
He put forward the theory of anthropological materialism. essence:
The only realities that exist are nature and man;
Man is part of nature;
Man is the unity of the material and the spiritual;
Man must become the main interest of philosophy;
The idea does not exist by itself, but is a product of human consciousness;
God as a separate and independent reality does not exist; God is a figment of man's imagination;
Nature (matter) is eternal and infinite, no one can create and no one can destroy;
Everything that surrounds us (objects, phenomena) are various manifestations of matter.
A special place is the problem of God.
There is no God as an independent reality;
God is a product of human consciousness;
Religion has nothing to do with reality;
The roots of religion are in the feeling of a person's powerlessness in front of the outside world, his dependence on it and insecurity;
The thought of God - a superpowerful rational being - consoles a person, dulls his fear and affects;
God is the ideal image of man, created by man, this is what a man would like to see himself;
God is not really a creator, He is a creation of man, his mind, while the true creator (and not creation) is a man.
questions of knowledge
the world around us is cognizable, and the cognitive possibilities of the mind are unlimited. However, the limitlessness of the possibilities of cognition of the mind does not come immediately, but develops gradually.
"What we do not know, our descendants will know."
Socio-political views
Man is a unique biological being endowed with will, mind, feelings, desires;
Religion should become the basis of ties between people in society, the core of society;
This religion should not be based on belief in a fictional supernatural being - in God, but on other principles;
It is necessary to discard the traditional religion (Christianity, Islam, etc.) and replace it with the religion of people's love for each other and the religion of love within the family as the most consistent with human nature;
The purpose of human life should be the pursuit of happiness.
^ Conclusion: his materialism became the starting point for the formation of the philosophy of Marxism.
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Renaissance 14th-17th centuries
The revival of interest in ancient philosophy and culture, in which they begin to see a model for modernity.
The ideal of knowledge is not religious, but secular knowledge.
The predominance of urban life over rural. The beginning of a new urban civilization.
Rethinking the Christian Tradition
Anthropocentrism. Now not God, but man is placed at the center of research.
Man is first of all a natural being, he is the creator of himself, and this distinguishes him from other natural beings. He is master of nature itself, through creative activity he not only satisfies his needs, he creates new world, creates beauty and itself. The person and his problems are put in the center of attention. Anthropocentrism proclaims that man is the center of the Universe (that everything revolves around him, that it is not God who is in charge, but Man).
For the medieval - the superiority of the spirit over the body, hence the religious mortification of the flesh, etc. The Renaissance is associated with the rehabilitation of the human. reflection in art. a medieval person manifests his personal will in search of the salvation of his soul, then the Renaissance man actively asserts himself and expresses himself in earthly life - in politics, art, science, philosophy, etc.
Humanism is associated with an open proclamation and justification of a person's desire for happiness in life, on a par with the kingdom beyond the grave.
Man as a source of enormous creative power. He is a creator like a god.
Pico della Mirandola is a humanist of the Renaissance, who showed, on the one hand, the imperfection of man, and on the other, the direction in which he should move.
Man is free, his freedom is not limited by the intervention of God.
Philosophy is the way to "natural" happiness. Without philosophy, there is no person, so every person should deal with it. The study of philosophy ensures the arrival of a person to virtue, eliminates vices.
Rediscovering the study of nature - natural philosophy
A specific feature of the natural philosophy of the Renaissance is pantheism - a philosophical doctrine that identifies the world and God. In it, the Christian God loses his extra-natural character, merges with nature, which is thereby deified.
^ Nicholas of Cusa - God is One, and his creation is many. God is the potential world, and the world is God represented. Man is a kind of center of the world for Cusa. Man is a “finite-infinite” being: he is finite as a bodily earthly being and infinite as a spiritual being.
Man is the best of God's creations, in him God not only unfolds, but also folds, concentrates himself. Man is trying to embody and contain in himself the universal definitions of the infinite God. Human nature pulls together the entire universe. like a microcosm.
Christology. Man is the maximum nature, and Christ is the maximum man. Man is pulling the world. Christ-human essence. Christ - the world returns to God.
J Bruno - the sun is not the center of the universe. seeks to separate science from theology. the world - and the subject of the creator, and its own creation - infinite matter. matter and the universe are infinite, then matter always exists in all its possible forms, including in the form of thinking matter, in the form of spirit. In other worlds, rational beings like people can live. He does not see something in the spirit that is opposed to matter. Christian ideas about spirit and matter are based on opposing one to the other as antipodes. At the same time, the eternal spirit in the face of God creates matter as its opposite.
^ Conclusion: the essence of the philosophy of the era is anthropocentrism. man is the creator. It laid the foundation for a philosophy free from religion.
XVIII century - enlightenment.
Scientific knowledge - previously a narrow circle of scientists, began to spread. Faith in the power and strength of the human mind, which is the only one capable of changing the life of mankind for the better. Criticism of religion and the church, which stimulated the development of religious skepticism, occupied an important place in the activities of the enlighteners.
“knowledge is power.” boundless faith in science, in our mind. all our actions can then be guaranteed to be successful when they are permeated with the light of knowledge, will be based on the achievements of the sciences. Therefore, the main task of a civilized society was declared to be the general education of people. - "enlightening the minds", enlightening people, familiarizing them with all the most important achievements of science and art. - The 18th century was called the Age of Enlightenment, or the Age of Enlightenment. Enlightenment was directed against the Church and Christianity as an ideology protective of feudalism. Required element The Enlightenment was thus atheism, which, as a more or less broad and influential current, further separated philosophy from theology, religion, and the church.
England is for aristocrats. France is for everyone. The ideological leader of this undertaking is D. Diderot - to compile an encyclopedia, in which both science and philosophical views.
A deep faith in the unlimited possibilities of science in understanding the world is noticeably developing.
A new concept is being formed public history, about its deep connection with the achievements of science and technology, with scientific discoveries and inventions, with the enlightenment of the masses.
French materialists create a scientific picture of the world in which there is no place for God. All observable reality, all countless bodies, they stressed, is nothing but matter. All phenomena are concrete forms of its existence.
Matter is also an infinite number of elements (atoms, corpuscles) from which all bodies are formed.
Eternity and uncreability of the entire material world. Moreover, this world was thought to be infinite not only in time, but also in space. They considered motion to be the most important property of matter. Motion was defined by them as a mode of existence of matter, necessarily arising from its very essence.
Man as a biological species has its own history of formation (D. Diderot).
Nature is subject to objective laws and that these laws completely determine all changes in it.
Cognition they defined as the process of reflection in our minds, in our knowledge of the real phenomena of reality.
Concerning public life, they argued that history is determined primarily by consciousness and will. prominent personalities. They were inclined to think that the best government of society is the reign of an enlightened monarch. They emphasized the essential dependence of the mental and moral makeup of a person on the characteristics of the environment in which a person is brought up.
Philosophers of the XVIII century propose a new one - a society in front of which all individuals are equal.
The reason for the development of society is the activity of the mind, striving to understand and systematize everything.
Marxist philosophy is a system of philosophical ideas of Marx, Engels and their followers
Marxism arose in the middle of the 19th century. At this time it happened
exacerbation of the social and economic contradictions of capitalism that gave rise to
the need to create a scientific theory.
Marxist philosophy has its origins in the philosophy of Hegel. M. philosophy is a science aimed not just at explaining the world, but at its practical change. According to Engels, this is "the science of the most general laws of the development of nature, society and thought." Engels formulated three basic laws of dialectics:
1. The law of unity and struggle of opposites;
2. The law of the transition of quantity into quality and vice versa;
3. The law of negation of negation.
reality is in constant motion and change.
everything in the world is in continuous development and that this development occurs as a result of the interaction of opposing forces. These forces are called "thesis" and "antithesis".
In the collision of these two forces, a new essence arises - “synthesis”. the action of this process can be observed in nature (the evolution of biological species or the germination of a seed and its transformation into a plant). this principle operates in the history of the economic and social development of mankind.
Materialism - there is nothing supernatural or immaterial in nature. Reality is essentially material.
they do not deny the existence of the mind and do not reduce thinking to a purely physiological process, but they believe that the mind is a product of the activity of the brain, which ceases to exist after the death of a person.
deny the existence of a Creator and adhere to the Darwinian theory of evolution. They attach particular importance to science in the knowledge of the surrounding world and emphasize that all ideas must be tested by practice.
Practice idea.
the history of human society is a series of successive socio-economic formations in which leading role plays a mode of production of material wealth.
5 stages of economic development of society. change of formations
Primitive communal
2) Slave
3) Feudal
4) Capitalist
5) communist society
Each change of socio-economic formations is a revolution. Revolution - accelerates historical progress.
the history of society is the history of the class struggle. Since the means of production (factories, factories, etc.) have become private property, society has been divided into warring classes.
As a result of the collision of two classes (representing the thesis and antithesis), a new socio-economic order (synthesis) arises.
Primitive communal - dominated by public ownership of the means of production, there was everything in common.
Then the denial of the primitive community and the successive change of formations (slave ownership, feudalism and capitalism), in which the laws of the class struggle operated.
In the slave system, this is the relationship between slave owners and slaves,
In feudal society - landowners and serfs,
in capitalist society - the bourgeois and the proletariat.
The harshest type of exploitation is slavery and the mildest form of exploitation is wage labor, when a person sells his labor power.
Marx's position on history is a position of moderate fatalism, i.e., the belief that history acts as a whole, and a person can either accelerate historical development, or slow it down and no more. History is something great, powerful, to which man must obey.
For him, man turned out to be subordinate to society. The weakness of the individual and the strength of society.
a person is a part of society, a part of social matter, society is the highest stage in the development of nature. society is more important than nature.
the economy determines all elements of the life of society, including the form of government, dominant ideas, laws, and even religion. Not ideas, but the economy is the determining factor of history. Even "human nature" depends on economic system.
the capitalist phase is necessary for the accumulation and development of the means of production, the subsequent overthrow of this system. Capitalism favored the exploitation of the proletariat by the bourgeoisie:
1 element "surplus value" - the difference between the value of the goods and the wages of the worker.
2 element of capitalism - "alienation". When the capitalist appropriates part of the value of the commodity produced by the worker, the worker is alienated from the results of his labor and thus from part of himself. . Man can be saved from this "alienation" by abolishing private property and class distinctions. Each of us can become a "new person" due to economic, social and political changes in society.
Marx predicted that capitalist society would eventually collapse. This will happen, firstly, due to increasingly severe economic crises, and secondly, as a result of the increasing impoverishment of the proletariat.
when the state is freed from all bourgeois elements, a communist society will arise. Everything in it will be socialized, and the need for a state will disappear by itself. Human nature will be cleansed of all selfish aspirations, universal peace and prosperity.
of great importance in theory:
Under communism, each person will give to society "according to his ability" and receive from society "according to his needs."
Marxist philosophy is a system of philosophical ideas of Marx, Engels and their followers. The spread of Marxist philosophy in various national cultures. In Germany, in Italy, in Russia - G.V. Plekhanov and V.I. Lenin.
Plekhanov on historical materialism, developed the teachings of Marx and Engels on the role of the individual in history. Personality is only capable of slightly modifying the "physiognomy" of the historical process, but cannot significantly influence it. Great personalities became such because they "guessed" the logic of objective history. The creator of history is the masses.
Capitalism in Russia, as in Europe, fulfills a progressive, civilizing role, since it uproots archaic - feudal and patriarchal - orders and opens the way for modern, more civilized forms of social life.
The key to revealing the essence of social phenomena must be sought not in the nature of individual individuals, but in the relations they enter into in the process of production.
The state is not as a special apparatus of violence, but as a whole supra-class formation
Matter as a source of sensations is a collection of "things in themselves". The sense organs do not mechanically copy reality, but transform information, which then appears in the form of “hieroglyphs”, bringing to our attention what is happening in reality, with “things in themselves”.
Significance as one of the most important means of cognition, overcoming not only the deceptiveness of the senses (color as such, for example, objectively does not exist outside of a person), but also delusions.
Russia is not yet ripe for such a revolution, which requires the gradual maturation of the conditions for socialism. To October revolution was extremely negative.
Lenin- the idea of social transformation, the elimination of private ownership. He demanded consciousness and organization in the struggle against any spontaneity. allowed all means to fight, to achieve the goals of the revolution. could not bear injustice, oppression, exploitation.
Matter problem. Previously, the idea of matter was identified with matter, the physical field is not matter, but something spiritual. Lenin - Matter exists objective reality, which exists outside and independently of consciousness and is displayed by it. not only matter and field, but also antimatter, production relations and many other things that exist outside of consciousness and are able to directly or indirectly affect it.
The problem of truth. Truth is the content of our ideas, which does not depend on either man or humanity. truth as a process.
The Problem of Practice. Practice is absolute and relative. It cannot be absolute. It itself is in development, that is, it can be less developed or more developed. Not every practice can serve as a criterion of truth, but only such as is comparable with the level of development of the theory.
State theory. Lenin proves that although the forms of the modern bourgeois state are varied, their essence is the same: the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie, about the need to destroy the old, bourgeois state apparatus. Before building communism, an intermediate stage is necessary - the dictatorship of the proletariat. Communism is divided into two periods: socialism and communism proper. Under socialism, there is no exploitation, but there is still no abundance of material goods to satisfy any needs of all members of society. He developed the theory of socialist revolution, concluding that the victory of the proletarian revolution was possible initially in one country.
Conclusion: in the USSR, the dominant worldview was Marxism, the justification of the political regime that had existed for several decades. The ideological atmosphere that took hold in the country as Stalin's autocracy strengthened became a serious obstacle to the development of Marxism.
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Our culture developed later than most Asian and European civilizations.
and was in constant contact with them. The formation of our culture took place not only in favorable conditions, but also in conditions of forcible planting of alien samples and
ideals, through orders and prohibitions, destruction and punishment.
However, Russian culture has managed to create own way of thinking and feeling, which cannot be unequivocally attributed to either the eastern or the western variants.
Rus was formed as a union state headed by Kyiv;
· Presence of cultural and trade relations with East and West;
Creation of writing, dissemination of literacy, bookishness,
school education
Adoption of the Byzantine Orthodox Christianity in 988,
served as the initial impetus for the emergence of Russian philosophy.
The peculiarity of this process was that the Slavs did not submit to Orthodoxy,
they him paganized because:
Russian psychology was alien to the Slavs (they did not expect the Messiah-
savior) therefore gradually there was a reorientation from the cult of Christ to
cult of the Virgin
The principle was not consistent with the usual communal morality personal responsibility for the sins of the world. Therefore, Christianity, having been transformed and intertwined with paganism, became a powerful force, infiltrating the foundations of national culture and psychology.
All this left an imprint on the features of ancient Russian philosophy.
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