The rise and fall of German science during the Second World War. Formation of technical sciences

Military science - a system of knowledge about wars

Military science is a system of knowledge about the preparation and conduct of war by states, coalitions of states, or classes to achieve political goals. Military science investigates the nature of possible wars, the laws of war and the methods of its conduct. She develops the theoretical foundations and practical advice on the organizational development of the Armed Forces, their preparation for war, determines the principles of military art, the most effective forms and methods of conducting military operations by groupings of the Armed Forces, as well as their comprehensive support. Based on political goals, assessments of a potential enemy and one's own forces, scientific and technological achievements and economic capabilities of the state and its allies, V. n. in unity with practice, determines ways to improve existing and create new means of armed struggle.

Components

The constituent parts of modern military science are:

theory of military art (strategy, operational art and tactics);
the theory of organizational development of the Armed Forces, which studies the issues of their organization, technical equipment, recruitment and mobilization;
theory of military training and education of personnel of the Armed Forces;
the theory of military economy, which studies the use of material, technical and financial means to ensure the activities of the Armed Forces;
military geography;
military history, studying the history of wars and the art of war;
military-technical sciences, with the help of which various types of weapons, military equipment and means of material support of the Armed Forces are developed.

The modern scientific and technological revolution causes intensive differentiation and integration of scientific knowledge, which leads to the emergence of new branches, directions and disciplines in most sciences. The development of military science takes place on the basis of a generalization of the historical experience of warfare, an analysis of all types of practical activities of troops in Peaceful time, foreseeing the development of new means of war and probable forms and methods of its conduct in the future, a comprehensive study of a potential adversary, as well as trends in the development of international relations.

Historical periods of military science

Military science took shape and developed over a long historical period. Its elements originated in antiquity, when during the period of the slave-owning society in Egypt, Persia, China, Greece and Rome, generals and military theorists raised and resolved some issues related to strategy, tactics, military geographical conditions, organization and education of troops, as well as analyzed and summarized the experience of battles and campaigns.

Military science continued to develop in the Middle Ages. As the productive forces of society grew, weapons and military equipment improved, command and control of troops and military art in general became more complicated, and military historical experience accumulated. All this ultimately led to the formation of military science as a specific system of knowledge.

Military researchers attribute the formation of modern military science to the 18th and early 19th centuries. At this time, military theory was further developed in various countries. One of the first representatives of foreign military science in the 18th century was the English General G. Lloyd. He outlined some general fundamentals theory of war, pointed out the connection of war with politics and emphasized the importance of the moral and political factor. However, he believed that military science is applicable only to prepare the army for war. The course and outcome of the war, in his opinion, entirely depend on the genius of the commander, since this area has no regularities and, therefore, has nothing to do with military science.

Serious progress in the development of Russian military science at the beginning of the 18th century is associated with the name of the statesman and commander Peter I, who carried out military reforms and created a regular army and navy. Peter I was the creator of the new "Military Regulations", which outlined the generalized experience of the battles and battles carried out, issues of military administration and education of military personnel. He laid the foundation for an independent Russian national military school. A great contribution to military science was made by major military figures in Russia in the second half of the 18th century, P. A. Rumyantsev, A. V. Suvorov, and F. F. Ushakov. Rumyantsev paid much attention to improving the organization of the Russian army, increasing its mobility and improving the combat training of troops. He introduced the principle of decisive battle as the main way to achieve victory. Rumyantsev's work "Rite of Service" (1770) was adopted as the charter of the Russian army, and his "Memorandum to Catherine II on the organization of the army" (1777) formed the basis for further improvement in the organization of the army.

Suvorov had a great influence on the formation of the military art of the Russian army, on improving the training and education of troops. He sharply opposed the cordon strategy and linear tactics that dominated the West. In his "The Science of Victory" (1795-96), Suvorov developed a number of important rules on military training, indoctrination and combat operations. Ushakov developed and put into practice new forms and methods of military operations at sea, which proved the advantages of maneuverable offensive tactics over linear tactics that dominated foreign fleets.

A significant contribution to the theory and practice of military art was made by the French commander Napoleon I. He gave a more harmonious organization to divisions and corps, sharply reduced the convoys, thanks to which the army gained greater mobility. The main goal of military operations, Napoleon I set the defeat of the enemy's manpower in one general battle, constantly sought to destroy the enemy in parts, achieving maximum superiority of forces in the direction of the main attack.

In the development of Russian military science, the military skill of M. I. Kutuzov, who managed to defeat one of the first-class armies of the early 18th century, the army of Napoleon I, was of great importance.

Among the military theorists of the 18th and early 19th centuries in Germany, a prominent place was occupied by G. D. Bulow, who made an attempt to theoretically generalize everything new that was created in the era of the Great French Revolution. He correctly believed that military strategy is subject to politics and fulfills its requirements, but he did not understand the class content of politics. He divided military science into strategy and tactics and thus reduced it only to the art of war.

The development of foreign military science in the first half of the 19th century is closely connected with the names of A. Jomini (a Swiss by birth) and K. Clausewitz (a German theorist), who served in the Russian army for a considerable time and made full use of its experience in their historical and theoretical writings. Jomini believed that military art could and should have its own scientific theory, but at the same time he recognized the dominance in military art of the “eternal principles” inherent in wars of all times, and thus deprived the theory he created of a genuine scientific basis. He erroneously asserted that the influence of politics on strategy is limited only to the moment of making a decision, and that in the course of a war, strategy allegedly does not depend on politics. The theoretical provisions of Jomini, his ideas, which emphasized the importance of military theory, found followers in various armies of the world. The merit of Clausewitz lies in the fact that he deeply revealed the connection between war and politics and many phenomena of war (the nature and essence of war, armed forces, offensive, defense, war plan, etc.). He attached great importance to the material, geographical and moral factors in the war, as well as the role of the commander.

In the 2nd half of the 19th and early 20th centuries, with the further development of technology, means of communication, means of communication, with the advent of more advanced weapons ground forces and the armored steam navy are intensively developing the strategy, tactics of the ground forces, and naval art. The complication of command and control required the creation of general staffs, which began to determine general direction development of military-theoretical views, military science in general. Assessing the military capabilities of both their own and other states, they to a certain extent influenced the policy of their states.

The 1st World War 1914-18 years. In the course of this war, military-technical means of combat continued to be improved, new types of troops appeared (aviation, tank, chemical troops); rich experience was gained in the field of organization of wars, operational art and tactics.

In the 1920s and 1930s, theories of warfare were created, which took into account the possibility of equipping armies with qualitatively new, more effective military equipment and replacing man with machine. The military theories of the “small army” (J. Fuller, Liddell Hart in Great Britain, H. Seeckt in Germany) and “air warfare” (J. Douhet in Italy, Mitchell in the USA) were widely known at that time. Fuller first stated his views in Tanks in the Great War, 1914-1918 (1923). The theory of "air warfare" assigned the decisive role in the war to the air fleet. It was believed that victory in the war could be achieved only by gaining air supremacy, after which air fleet broad offensive actions should in short term crush the resistance of the enemy country. The ground forces were assigned only occupying functions in a country that had been destroyed by aviation.

A great contribution to the development of Soviet military science was made by prominent military figures of the Soviet state: M. V. Frunze, M. N. Tukhachevsky, B. M. Shaposhnikov, as well as N. E. Varfolomeev, V. K. Triandafillov, V. A. Alafuzov, I.S. Isakov, and others. An advanced Soviet military-theoretical school gradually took shape.

The military science of fascist Germany was mainly aimed at developing the theory of "blitzkrieg", which provided for a surprise attack and the rapid advance of tank groups with the support of aviation with the aim of "blitzkrieg" defeating the enemy. The plans of the German leadership, designed to gain world domination, were based on the theory of "total war", previously developed by the military ideologist E. Ludendorff. He believed that such a war would be of a lightning-fast nature, but in its scope would cover the entire territory of the warring states, and in order to achieve victory, it was necessary to participate in the war not only of the armed forces, but of the entire people.

The Great Patriotic War of 1941-45. From the beginning of the war, it became necessary to further develop such important problems of the theory of Soviet military art and the practice of conducting operations as the leadership of the Armed Forces in the initial period of the war, in the context of general mobilization, the deployment of groupings of the Armed Forces and the transfer of the national economy to a war footing, as the centralization of control groupings of the Armed Forces operating in various theaters of military operations (directions), and coordination of their efforts. The war enriched the Soviet Armed Forces with vast combat experience. In the course of it, the following problems were comprehensively developed: the choice of the direction of the main attack, taking into account not only the provisions of the theory of military art, but also the requirements of politics and economics; organizing and conducting a strategic offensive and strategic defense; breaking through the enemy's strategic front; strategic use of the branches of the Armed Forces and coordination of their efforts to jointly solve important strategic tasks; covert creation, use and restoration of strategic reserves; use of the factor of strategic surprise; organizing and conducting operations to encircle and destroy large enemy groupings; leadership of the partisan movement, etc. The high level of Soviet military art was especially clearly manifested in the battles near Moscow, Stalingrad and Kursk, in operations in the Right-Bank Ukraine and in Belarus, Iasi-Kishinev and Vistula-Oder, Berlin and Manchuria.

The American and British armed forces during the years of the 2nd World War gained experience in strategic bombing, large-scale air operations and combat operations at sea; operations field armies and army groups in cooperation with large aviation forces, mainly in conditions of overwhelming superiority over the enemy. V. n. questions were developed: conducting large-scale amphibious landing operations with the participation of ground forces, the navy, aviation and airborne assault forces; organization of strategic coalition leadership of troops; planning and ensuring operations, etc.

The development of military science in the most developed countries is characterized by studies of a wide range of problems associated with the appearance of nuclear weapons in the 1950s, which caused a change in the nature of war, methods and forms of warfare, new methods of training and education of personnel. The role has increased psychological preparation soldiers and officers to war, the development of methods of propaganda and counter-propaganda in the conditions of "psychological warfare", etc.

In different foreign countries military science develops differently. In the second half of the 20th century, it was most widely developed in such capitalist powers as the USA, Great Britain, and France. Other capitalist countries borrow heavily from them in the field of military science.

Russian military science in last years developed new theoretical views on the nature of a future war, on the role and significance of the branches of the Russian Armed Forces and means of armed struggle, on methods of conducting battles and operations. It became obvious that the war, if it could not be prevented, would be waged by qualitatively new means. The role and significance of economic, socio-political and moral-psychological factors in achieving victory in modern warfare have been deeply studied. Military science revealed and substantiated the nature of a possible future world war and created a theoretical basis for the formation of modern military doctrine our state.

In the Renaissance in culture, rational, philosophical and scientific ideas again come to the fore, as in the era of antiquity, from the point of view of which medieval concepts begin to be rethought. Another important feature of the Renaissance culture is a new understanding of man. The Renaissance man no longer recognizes himself as a creature of God, but as a free master, placed in the center of the world, who, by his will and desire, can become either a lower or a higher being. Although a person recognizes his Divine origin, he himself feels himself a creator.

Both of these features of the Renaissance culture also lead to a new understanding of nature, science and human action. Natural laws gradually take the place of Divine laws, hidden natural processes take the place of hidden Divine forces, processes and energies, and created and creative nature turns into the concept of nature as a source of hidden natural processes that obey the laws of nature. Science and knowledge are now understood not only as describing nature, but also as revealing and establishing its laws. In this case, the identification of the laws of nature is only partly their description, more importantly, the identification of the laws of nature presupposes their constitution. In the concept of the law of nature, ideas of creation, as well as similarities between the natural and the human (nature is fundamentally cognizable, its processes can serve man) are visible.

Finally, a necessary condition for human activity aimed at using the forces and energies of nature is a preliminary knowledge of the "laws of nature." Another necessary condition is the definition of human triggering actions, so to speak, releasing, triggering the processes of nature. However, the Renaissance only creates the preconditions for the formation of science in its modern sense, and its worldview foundations and methodological principles are formulated in the works of the philosophers of the New Age. F. Bacon declares nature the main object new science and the condition of practical (engineering) action that produces "new nature", the source of natural processes, however, caused (launched) practical actions person. From this period, an understanding of nature begins to form as an endless reservoir of materials, forces, energies that a person can use, provided that he describes the laws of nature in science. This is how the foundations for the formation of an engineering attitude to the world are created.

The main components of engineering activity are design and design. Design is a type of engineering work that is carried out in various areas of human activity: in the design of technical systems, design, clothing modeling, etc. In engineering, design is mandatory integral part design process and is associated with the development of the design of a technical system, which then materializes during manufacturing in production. Design includes the analysis and synthesis of various design options, their calculations, the execution of drawings, etc. The development of design options is usually associated with the formulation and solution of problems of technical creativity. At the level of design, the implementation of a technical idea takes place within the framework of experimental design, which is associated with the formulation and solution of problems of technical creativity. In the design process, a drawing of a technical product or system is created, specific specifications and specific implementation conditions are fixed (nature of the material, productivity, degree of environmental friendliness, economic efficiency, etc.). The result of design development is a technical product, a finished design. Design is combined with the development of appropriate technological conditions, i.e. methods and technical conditions for the implementation of a particular model. Therefore, design is associated with technology, which reveals the mechanism for organizing the process for the production of a particular product. Design - the activity of a person or organization to create a project, that is, a prototype, a prototype of a proposed or possible object, state; a set of documentation designed to create a specific object, its operation, repair and liquidation, as well as to verify or reproduce intermediate and final solutions on the basis of which this object was developed.

Specialized knowledge was required for engineering activities. At first, it was knowledge of two kinds - natural science (selected or specially built) and actually technological (description of structures, technological operations, etc.). As long as it was about individual inventions, there were no problems. However, starting from the 18th century, industrial production and the need to replicate and modify invented engineering devices (steam boilers and spinning machines, machine tools, engines for steamships and steam locomotives, etc.) took shape. The amount of calculations and design increases dramatically due to the fact that more and more often an engineer is dealing not only with the development of a fundamentally new engineering object (i.e. invention), but also with the creation of a similar (modified) product (for example, a machine of the same class, but with other characteristics - different power, speed, dimensions, weight, design, etc.). In other words, the engineer is now busy both creating new engineering objects and developing a whole class of engineering objects similar to those invented. In a cognitive sense, this meant the emergence of not only new problems due to the increased need for calculations and design, but also new opportunities. The development of the field of homogeneous engineering objects made it possible to reduce one case to another, one group of knowledge to another. If the first samples of the invented object were described using the knowledge of a certain natural science, then all subsequent, modified ones were reduced to the first samples. As a result, certain groups of natural science knowledge and schemes of engineering objects begin to stand out (reflect) - those that are combined by the reduction procedure itself. In fact, these were the first knowledge and objects of technical sciences, but not yet existing in their own form: knowledge in the form of grouped natural science knowledge participating in the information, and objects in the form of diagrams of an engineering object, to which such groups of natural science knowledge belonged. Two other processes were superimposed on this process: ontologization and mathematization.

Ontologization is a step-by-step process of schematization of engineering devices, during which these objects were divided into separate parts and each was replaced by an "idealized representation" (scheme, model). For example, in the process of invention, calculations and design of machines (lifting, steam, spinning, mills, clocks, machine tools, etc.) by the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries, they were divided, on the one hand, into large parts (for example, J. Christian singled out the engine, transmission mechanism, tool) in the car), and on the other hand, into smaller ones (the so-called "simple machines" - an inclined plane, block, screw, lever, etc.). Such idealized representations were introduced so that, on the one hand, mathematical knowledge could be applied to an engineering object, and, on the other hand, natural science knowledge. In relation to an engineering object, such representations were schematic descriptions of its structure (or the structure of its elements), in relation to natural science and mathematics, they specified certain types of ideal objects ( geometric figures, vectors, algebraic equations etc.; movement of the body along an inclined plane, addition of forces and planes, rotation of the body, etc.).

The replacement of an engineering object with mathematical models was necessary both in itself as a necessary condition for the invention, design and calculation, and as a stage in the construction of the ideal objects of natural science necessary for these procedures.

Overlapping each other, the three main processes described here (information, ontologization and mathematization) lead to the formation of the first ideal objects and theoretical knowledge of technical science.

The further development of technical science took place under the influence of several factors. One factor is the reduction of all new cases (i.e. homogeneous objects of engineering activity) to those already studied in technical science. Such a reduction presupposes the transformation of objects studied in technical science, the acquisition of new knowledge (relations) about them. Almost from the first steps in the formation of technical science, the ideal of organization of fundamental science was extended to it. In accordance with this ideal, the knowledge of relations was treated as laws or theorems, and the procedures for obtaining it were treated as proofs. Carrying out the proofs involved not only the reduction of new ideal objects to the old ones already described in the theory, but also the division of knowledge acquisition procedures into compact, visible parts, which always entails the allocation of intermediate knowledge. Such knowledge and objects, resulting from the splitting of long and cumbersome proofs into simpler (clearer ones), formed the second group of knowledge of technical science (in the theory itself, of course, they did not separate into separate groups, but alternated with others). The third group included knowledge that made it possible to replace cumbersome methods and procedures for obtaining relations between the parameters of an engineering object with simple and elegant procedures. For example, in some cases, cumbersome transformation procedures and information obtained in two layers are greatly simplified after the original object is replaced first with the help of equations of mathematical analysis, then in graph theory, and the transformations are carried out in each of the layers. It is characteristic that the successive substitution of the object of technical science in two or more different languages leads to the fact that the corresponding divisions and characteristics of such languages (more precisely, their ontological representations) are projected onto the object. As a result, several types of characteristics are “fused” (through the mechanism of reflection and awareness) in the ideal object of technical theory: conductors, resistances, capacitances and inductances, and all these elements are interconnected in a certain way); b) characteristics directly or indirectly transferred from fundamental science (knowledge of currents, voltages, electric and magnetic fields, as well as the laws connecting them); c) characteristics taken from the mathematical language of the first, second. .., n-th layer (for example, in the theory of electrical engineering they talk about the most general interpretation Kirchhoff equations given in the language of graph theory). All these characteristics in the technical theory are so modified and rethought (some incompatible ones are omitted, others are changed, others are attributed, added from the outside) that a fundamentally new object arises - the actually ideal object of technical science, which in its structure recreated in a compressed form all of the listed types characteristics. The second process that significantly influenced the formation and development of technical science is the process of mathematization. From a certain stage in the development of technical science, researchers move from the use of individual mathematical knowledge or fragments mathematical theories to the use in technical science of entire mathematical apparatuses (languages). They were driven to this by the need to carry out, in the course of invention and design, not only analysis, but also the synthesis of individual processes and the structural elements that provide them. In addition, they sought to explore the entire field of engineering possibilities, i.e. we tried to understand what other characteristics and relations of an engineering object can be obtained, what calculations can, in principle, be made. During the analysis, the research engineer seeks to gain knowledge about engineering objects, describe their structure, functioning, individual processes, dependent and independent parameters, relationships and connections between them. In the process of synthesis, on the basis of the analysis performed, he constructs and conducts the calculation (however, the operations of synthesis and analysis alternate, defining each other).

What are the conditions for the use of mathematical apparatus in the technical sciences? First of all, for this it is necessary to introduce the ideal objects of technical sciences into the ontology of the corresponding mathematical language, i.e. represent them as consisting of elements, relations and operations characteristic of objects of mathematics of interest to the engineer. But, as a rule, the ideal objects of technical science differed significantly from the objects of the chosen mathematical apparatus. Therefore, a long process of further schematization of engineering objects and ontologization begins, ending with the construction of such new ideal objects of technical science that can already be introduced into the ontology of a certain mathematics. From this moment, the research engineer gets the opportunity to: a) successfully solve the problems of synthesis-analysis, b) explore the entire area of engineering objects under study for theoretically possible cases, c) reach the theory of ideal engineering devices (for example, the theory of an ideal steam engine, the theory of mechanisms , the theory of radio engineering devices, etc.). The theory of an ideal engineering device is the construction and description (analysis) of a model of engineering objects of a certain class (we called them homogeneous), made, so to speak, in the language of ideal objects of the corresponding technical theory. An ideal device is a construction that a researcher creates from the elements and relations of ideal objects of technical science, but which is precisely a model of engineering objects of a certain class, since it imitates the main processes and constructive formations of these engineering devices. In other words, not just independent ideal objects appear in technical science, but also independent objects of study of a quasi-natural nature. The construction of such model structures greatly facilitates engineering activities, since the research engineer can now analyze and study the main processes and conditions that determine the operation of the engineering object he creates (in particular, the ideal cases themselves).

If we now briefly summarize the considered stage in the formation of technical sciences of the classical type, we can note the following. The stimulus for the emergence of technical sciences is the emergence as a result of the development of industrial production of areas of homogeneous engineering objects and the application of the knowledge of natural sciences in the course of inventions, design and calculations. The processes of information, ontologization and mathematization determine the formation of the first ideal objects and theoretical knowledge of technical science, the creation of the first technical theories. The desire to apply not individual mathematical knowledge, but entirely certain mathematicians, to explore homogeneous areas of engineering objects, to create engineering devices, so to speak, for the future leads to the next stage of formation. New ideal objects of technical sciences are being created, which can already be introduced into mathematical ontology; on their basis, systems of technical knowledge are developed and, finally, the theory of the "ideal engineering device" is created. The latter means the appearance in the technical sciences of a specific quasi-natural object of study, i.e. technical science finally becomes independent.

The last stage in the formation of technical science is connected with the conscious organization and construction of the theory of this science. By extending the logical principles of scientific character developed by the philosophy and methodology of sciences to the technical sciences, researchers identify in the technical sciences the initial principles and knowledge (the equivalent of the laws and initial provisions of fundamental science), derive secondary knowledge and provisions from them, and organize all knowledge into a system. However, unlike natural science, technical science also includes calculations, descriptions technical devices, methodological instructions. The orientation of representatives of technical science towards engineering forces them to indicate the "context" in which the provisions of technical science can be used. Calculations, descriptions of technical devices, methodological instructions just define this context.

Technical sciences were formed in close interaction with the formation engineering education. Let's consider this process on the example of Russia.

Technical education in Russia was initiated by the Engineering (1700) and Mathematical and Navigation Schools (1701). The teaching methodology was more of a craft apprenticeship: practical engineers explained to individual students or small groups of students how to build one or another type of structure or machine, how to carry out practically one or another type of engineering activity. New theoretical information was communicated only in the course of such explanations, the textbooks were descriptive. At the same time, the profession of an engineer became more complicated and the practice made new demands on the training of qualified engineering personnel.

Only after the founding by G. Monge in 1794 of the Paris Polytechnic School, which from the very beginning of its foundation was oriented towards high theoretical training of students, did the situation in engineering education change. Many engineering educational institutions in Germany, Spain, Sweden, and the USA were built on the model of this school. In Russia, on its model, in 1809 the Institute of the Corps of Railway Engineers was created, the head of which was appointed Monge's student A.A. Betancourt. He developed a project, in accordance with which schools were established for the training of secondary technical personnel: a military construction school and a school for conductors of communications in St. Petersburg. Later (in 1884), this idea was developed and implemented by the outstanding Russian scientist, member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences I.A. Vyshnegradsky, according to whose idea technical education should be extended to all stages of industrial activity, higher schools that train engineers, secondary schools that train technicians (the closest assistants to engineers), and schools for craftsmen, factory and factory workers. To late XIX centuries, the scientific training of engineers, their special, namely, higher technical education, become urgently needed. By this time, many trade, secondary technical schools were transformed into higher technical schools and institutes, in which much attention was paid to the theoretical training of future engineers.

Except educational institutions the dissemination of technical knowledge was aimed at various technical societies. For example, the Russian Technical Society, formed in 1866, in accordance with its charter, had the goal of promoting the development of technology and the technical industry in Russia both "through readings, meetings and public lectures on technical subjects" and through "petitions to the government for adoption measures that may have a beneficial effect on the development of the technical industry.

Questions for control and self-examination:

1. What are the reasons for the emergence and separation of technical sciences?

2. Describe the main characteristics of the classical technical sciences.

3. How is the formation and development of technical sciences related to engineering education?

It would seem that the young Soviet branch of science could in no way compete with the German industrial institutions, which had a powerful material base, excellent scientists and strong traditions. German concerns have long maintained large research institutions. Here they well remembered the statement of Professor P. Thyssen: “Research is the foundation of technical superiority over the enemy. Research is the basis for worldwide competition." However, it is not enough to have power - you still need to use it correctly.

The People's Commissariat of the tank industry of the USSR was able to fully utilize its modest scientific resources. All research institutions and organizations that could bring at least some benefit were involved in solving the pressing problems of tank building.

It should be noted that this was facilitated by the entire system of Soviet applied science, originally created to serve the interests of not individual firms and factories, but at least the industry. By the way, such a system does not necessarily stem from the socialist system: the first industry-wide scientific structure appeared in Sweden in 1747 as part of the so-called Iron Office. By the way, it still operates today under the name "Association of Steel Producers of the Scandinavian Countries."

Departmental institutions of the NKTP

The People's Commissariat of the tank industry of the war years consisted of two main research institutions: the "armor" institute TsNII-48 and the design and technology institute 8GSPI.

NII-48 (director - A. S. Zavyalov) became part of the newly formed NKTP in the fall of 1941 and was immediately evacuated to Sverdlovsk, closer to the new tank factories. In accordance with the regulations approved on July 15, 1942, it became officially known as the State Central Research Institute of the NKTP of the USSR (TsNII-48). His list of tasks included:

"a) development and introduction into production of new types of armor and armor, structural and tool steel grades, non-ferrous and various special alloys in order to reduce the scarce or potentially scarce alloying elements contained in them, improve the quality of products manufactured by NKTP plants, and increase productivity the latter;

b) development and implementation of rational wartime metallurgical technology in the industries existing at the NKTP factories and armored factories of other people's commissariats, in order to maximize the output of products, improve their quality, increase the productivity of factories and reduce the consumption rates of metal, raw materials and materials;

Collage by Andrey Sedykh

c) technological assistance to factories in mastering new technologies or equipment for them, as well as working methods in order to overcome bottlenecks and production difficulties that arise at factories;

d) assistance in improving the technical qualifications of workers at NKTP factories by transferring to them the theoretical and practical experience accumulated in the USSR and abroad in armor production and other industries of the profile of NKTP factories;

e) organization of interfactory exchange of advanced technical experience of factories;

f) development of the theory and new ways of using armor protection for the armament of the Red Army;

g) coordination of all research work carried out in the NKTP system on issues of armor, metal science, metallurgy, hot working and welding of metals and alloys;

h) comprehensive technical assistance to design bureaus and other organizations and enterprises of other people's commissariats on all issues of armored production.

A clear idea of the scope of NII-48's activities is provided by its annual reports. So, in 1943 alone, proposals were developed and partially implemented in practice to reduce the number of consumed rolled profile sizes by 2.5 times. The technical processes for forging and stamping parts of the T-34 tank were also unified for all plants, the technical conditions for their heat treatment were revised, the processes for welding armored hulls "thirty-fours" and steel casting were unified, a chemical-thermal method for sharpening cutters was created, casting of tank turrets into a chill mold was introduced at UZTM, new grades of armor steel: 68L for cast parts T-34, an improved version of 8C for rolled armor, I-3 - steel with high hardness in a highly tempered state. in Uralsky tank factory employees of NII-48 worked out and introduced into production an improved brand of high-speed steel I-323. To this it is necessary to add surveys of defeats of domestic and enemy armored vehicles, which have become regular, both at repair plants and directly on the battlefield. The received reports and recommendations were immediately brought to the attention of all the chief designers of combat vehicles.

Or, for example, information of a different kind: during January-October 1944, at meetings of the Technical Council of the NKTP (where representatives of all factories were invited), the following reports of TsNII-48 were discussed:

"Unified technological processes for the manufacture of castings from iron, steel and non-ferrous metals."

"Documentation on the technology of forging - stamping".

"Influence of strain rate on metal penetration resistance".

"Modern Types of Anti-tank Artillery and the Development of Tank Armor".

"High-tempered armor of high hardness".

"Technological properties of low-alloyed high-speed steel P823 and the results of its implementation in the production of plant No. 183".

"Improving the strength of steel due to intensifiers (boron-containing additives, zirconium, etc.)".

"Improving the strength of steel for heavily loaded gears".

"Improving the fatigue strength of crankshafts made from steel grade 18KhNMA".

"Normals of chemical composition and mechanical properties of steel grades used in tank building".

And so - throughout the war years. The workload and pace are unbelievable, given that at the end of 1943, TsNII-48 had only 236 employees, including janitors and technicians. True, among them were 2 academicians, 1 corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 4 doctors and 10 candidates of sciences.

The 8th State Union Design Institute of the Tank Industry (director - A. I. Solin) was evacuated to Chelyabinsk at the end of 1941. In the first period of the war, all the forces of the 8GSPI were directed to fulfill the tasks of the People's Commissariat for the deployment and commissioning of evacuated tank and engine factories, as well as the development of simplified wartime technologies.

By the middle of 1942, other tasks came to the fore: the unification of technological processes (primarily machining and assembly) and the provision of various scientific and technical assistance to enterprises. So, at the Ural Tank Plant, a team of scientists and designers 8GSPI in the summer and autumn was engaged in a comprehensive calculation of the plant's capacity, theoretical calculations of the tank's transmission, reduction in the range of ferrous metals used, improvement in the design and manufacturing technology of 26 machine parts, unification of cutting tools. The Central Bureau of Standardization, which operated as part of the 8GSPI, created and implemented directly at enterprises standards in the field of drawing facilities, parts and assemblies of tanks, organization of control and measuring facilities, unification of tools, fixtures, dies, technological documentation. Thanks to the help of the bureau, the thirty-four manufacturers managed to achieve complete interchangeability in terms of components: final drive, final clutch, gearbox, main clutch, drive wheel, road wheels with external and internal shock absorption, sloth. The introduction of the developments of the bureau made it possible, according to estimates in 1944, to reduce the labor intensity in the industry by 0.5 million machine hours per year. The quality of Soviet tanks and self-propelled guns was largely predetermined by technical control standards, also drawn up by employees of the 8GSPI.

A separate and important area of work of the 8GSPI is the creation of documentation for the army repairmen and repair plants of the NKTP for the restoration of tanks and engines of all types, including captured ones and those supplied by the Allies. During 1942 alone, technical conditions appeared for the overhaul and military repairs of the KV, T-34, T-60 and T-70 tanks and the V-2-34, V-2KV and GAZ-202 engines, as well as albums of drawings of devices for dismantling and installation of T-34 and KV units in the field.

Involved technological research institutes and laboratories

In addition to the main institutions, scientists from many design and technological institutions that previously operated in other sectors of the national economy worked for the tank industry.

It is known that the main part of the staff of the central laboratory of plant No. 183 was made up of employees of the Kharkov Institute of Metals, which was evacuated along with the enterprise in 1941. At one time, in 1928, this scientific institution was established as a branch of the Leningrad All-Union Institute of Metals of the Supreme Economic Council of the USSR. The latter led its history from 1914 and was originally called the Central Scientific and Technical Laboratory of the Military Department. In September 1930, the Kharkov Institute of Metals became independent, but retained its former research topics: heat power engineering of metallurgical furnaces, foundry technology, hot and cold working and welding, physical and mechanical properties of metals.

The State Allied Research Laboratory of Cutting Tools and Electric Welding named after Ignatiev (LARIG) was located on the site of plant No. 183 in accordance with the order of the NKTP dated December 26, 1941, and retained the status of an independent institution. The duties of the laboratory included the provision of technical assistance to all enterprises in the industry in the design, manufacture and repair of cutting tools, as well as the development of electric welding machines.

The first major result of the work of LARIG was obtained in July 1942: at plant No. 183, the introduction of boring multi-cutter blocks developed in the laboratory began. At the end of the year, scientists, using new cutters of their own design and changing their modes of operation, achieved a significant increase in the productivity of carousel machines that processed the drive wheels of the tank. Thus, the "bottleneck" that limited the tank conveyor was eliminated.

During the same 1942, LARIG completed the work begun before the war on the introduction of cast cutter holders instead of the generally accepted forged ones. This reduced the cost of the tool and unloaded the forging industry. It turned out that cast holders, although inferior in mechanical strength to forged ones, served no worse than the latter. By the end of the year, the laboratory introduced shortened taps into production. This project also began before the war, and together with the Institute 8GSPI.

At another NKTP enterprise, Uralmashzavod, ENIMS operated during the war years, that is, the Experimental Scientific Institute of Metal-cutting Machine Tools. Its employees developed, and UZTM manufactured a number of unique machine tools and entire automatic lines used throughout the people's commissariat.

So, in the spring of 1942, at the Ural Tank Plant No. 183, the ENIMS brigade “set up” the production of rollers with internal shock absorption. She created the technological process and working drawings for three fixtures and 14 positions of cutting and auxiliary tools. In addition, projects for a multi-spindle drilling head and modernization of the ZHOR rotary machine were completed. An additional task for ENIMS was the development and manufacture of eight special machines for turning wheels.

The same thing happened in the processing of balancers. The ENIMS team was engaged in both technological process in general, and the creation of a special tool. In addition, the institute took over the design and manufacture of two modular boring machines: one multi-spindle and one multi-position. By the end of 1942, both were made.

Academic and university science

The most famous academic institution that worked for the tank industry is the Kyiv Institute of Electric Welding of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR, headed by Academician E. O. Paton. During 1942–1943, the institute, together with employees of the armored hull department of plant No. 183, created a whole range of machine guns of various types and purposes. In 1945, UTZ used the following auto-welding machines:

universal type for welding straight longitudinal seams;
universal self-propelled carts;
simplified specialized carts;
installations for welding of circular seams at a motionless product;
installations with a carousel for rotating the product when welding circular seams;
self-propelled plants with a common drive for feeding the electrode wire and moving the head for welding seams on bulky structures.

In 1945, automatic weapons accounted for 23 percent of the welding work (by weight of weld metal) on the hull and 30 percent on the turret of the T-34 tank. The use of automatic machines made it possible already in 1942 to release 60 qualified welders at only one plant No. 183, and in 1945 - 140. A very important circumstance: the high quality of the seam in automatic welding eliminated the negative consequences of refusing to machine the edges of armor parts. Throughout the war, as the instruction for the operation of automatic welding machines at the enterprises of the industry, the “Guidelines for Automatic Welding of Armored Structures” compiled by employees of the Institute of Electric Welding of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR in 1942 were used.

The activities of the institute were not limited to automatic welding. Its employees introduced a method of repairing cracks in tank tracks using welding with austenite electrodes, a device for cutting round holes in armor plates. The scientists also developed a scheme for the in-line production of high-quality MD electrodes and a technology for drying them on a conveyor.

Much less known are the results of work at the NKTP of the Leningrad Institute of Physics and Technology. Throughout the war, he continued to study the problems of the interaction of the projectile and armor, created various options constructive armor barriers and multilayer armor. It is known that prototypes were manufactured and fired at Uralmash.

A very interesting story is connected with Bauman Moscow State Technical University. At the beginning of 1942, the leadership of the NKTP became interested in a cutting tool with rational sharpening angles, created in the course of many years of work by scientists from this famous Russian university. It was known that such a tool had already been used at the factories of the People's Commissariat of Arms.

To begin with, an attempt was made to obtain information about the innovation directly from the People's Commissariat of Armaments, but, apparently, without much success. As a result, scientists from the Department of Theory of Machining and Tools of the Moscow State Technical University headed by Professor I.M. In the summer and autumn of 1943, quite successful experiments were carried out, and on November 12, an order was issued by the NKTP for the widespread introduction of such a tool and the dispatch of MVTU employees to factories No. 183 and No. tool with rational geometry.

The project turned out to be more than successful: cutters, drills and milling cutters had 1.6-5 times longer durability and allowed to increase machine productivity by 25-30 percent. Simultaneously with rational geometry, MVTU scientists proposed a system of chip breakers for cutters. With their help, plant No. 183 at least partially solved the problems with cleaning and further disposal of chips.

By the end of the war, scientists of the cutting department of the Moscow State Technical University. Bauman compiled a special manual called "Guidelines on the geometry of the cutting tool." By order of the People's Commissariat, they were approved "... as mandatory in the design of special cutting tools at the NKTP factories and in the further development of new 8GPI normals" and sent to all enterprises and institutions of the industry.

Another interesting technology - surface hardening of steel parts using high-frequency currents - was introduced at the enterprises of the tank industry by employees of the laboratory of electrothermy of the Leningrad Electrotechnical Institute, headed by Professor V.P. Vologdin. At the beginning of 1942, the laboratory staff consisted of only 19 people, and 9 of them operated at the Chelyabinsk Kirov Plant. The most massive parts were chosen as the object of processing - final drive gears, cylinder liners and piston pins of the V-2 diesel engine. Once mastered, the new technology freed up to 70 percent of CHKZ thermal furnaces, and the operation time decreased from tens of hours to tens of minutes.

At Tagil Plant No. 183, HDTV hardening technology was introduced in 1944. At first, three parts were subjected to surface hardening - the trunnion of the gun, the main friction clutch and the axle of the drive wheel roller.

The list of research institutes and laboratories that created technologies for the tank industry of the USSR is not exhausted by the examples given. But what has been said is enough to understand: during the war years, the NKTP turned into the largest scientific and production association in our country.

Swan, crayfish and pike in the German version

In contrast to the USSR, German industrial science was divided into cramped corporate cells and cut off from university science by an iron curtain. At least that's what he claims large group scientific and technical leaders of the former Third Reich in the review compiled after the end of the war "The Rise and Decline of German Science". Let us quote a rather extensive quotation: “The research organization of industry was independent, did not need the help of any ministry, state research council or other departments ... This organization worked for itself and at the same time behind closed doors. The consequence was that a researcher from any higher educational institution not only knew nothing, but did not even suspect about those discoveries and improvements that were being made in industrial laboratories. This happened because it was beneficial for any concern, for reasons of competition, to keep the inventions of their scientists secret. As a result, knowledge did not flow into a large common cauldron and could only bring partial success for a common cause. The Minister of Armaments and Military Production A. Speer tried to unite industrialists in the system of branch "committees" and "centers", to establish technological interaction between factories, but he could not completely solve the problem. Corporate interests were above all.

If branch institutes worked for concerns, then German university science in the first period of the Second World War was generally out of work. Based on the strategy of lightning war, the leadership of the Reich considered it possible to complete it with the weapon with which the troops entered the battle. Consequently, all studies that did not promise results in the shortest possible time (no more than a year) were declared unnecessary and curtailed. We read further the review “The Rise and Decline of German Science”: “Scientists were assigned to the category of human resources from which replenishment for the front was scooped ... As a result, despite the objections of the arms department and various other authorities, several thousand highly qualified scientists from universities, institutions of higher technical education and various research institutes, including indispensable specialists in high frequency research, nuclear physics, chemistry, engine building, etc., were drafted into the army at the beginning of the war and were used in lower positions and even as soldiers. Major defeats and the appearance on the battlefield of new types of weapons (Soviet T-34 tanks, British radars, American long-range bombers, etc.) forced Hitler and his entourage to moderate their rejection of intellectuals: 10 thousand scientists, engineers and technicians were withdrawn from the front . Among them were even 100 humanitarians. J. Goebbels had to issue a special directive on the prohibition of attacks against scientists in the press, on radio, in cinema and theater.

But it was too late: due to the loss of pace, the results of research and new developments, sometimes promising, did not have time to get into the troops. Let us give the general conclusion of the same review “The Rise and Decline of German Science”: “Science and technology are incompatible with improvisation. A state that wants to receive the real fruits of science and technology must not only act with great foresight and skill, but also be able to patiently wait for these fruits.

The prerequisites for the emergence of military scientific bodies in Russia appear with the formation of the General Staff in the Russian army on January 30, 1763. In fact, Empress Catherine II created a military body capable of carrying out a single, centralized management armed forces of the state.

Under him, the first military libraries and archives appeared. They kept historical documents - descriptions of the course of battles, plans and maps with the disposition of troops. Based on these materials, instructions and articles were developed for training troops for operations on the battlefield.

In the future, the formation of the Military Ministry of Russia on September 8, 1802, was of great importance for the creation of military scientific bodies. Just 10 years later, on January 27, 1812, for the first time in the military history of our country, a Military Scientific Committee (VUK) was created under this department. It consisted of six permanent members (two in quartermaster, two in artillery and two more in engineering), as well as honorary and corresponding members from Russia and other countries.

According to the Charter, the first VUK performed the following tasks:

-collected "all new published best works on military art and various units belonging to it", appointed "the best and most useful of them for translation into Russian";

-considered "projects and proposals for a scientific military unit and presented his opinions about them to the Minister of War";

—published the Military Journal, conducted examinations for all officials "joining the academic corps of the Military Department";

-participated in the supervision of all "scientific institutions in the Quartermaster, Engineering and Artillery parts ...".

The purpose of the establishment of the VUK was to "improve the scientific part of military art and disseminate military scientific information among the troops." We can say that it is still relevant today. In its history, the Committee has repeatedly changed its name and structure, but the direction of its activity - scientific - has remained unchanged.

In the second half of the 19th century, the VUK, created by Catherine, ceased to exist. It was replaced by the Advisory Committee, which was later renamed the Military Scientific Committee of the General Staff. The area of responsibility of this body included the scientific activities of the General Staff, the corps of military topographers, as well as education in the army and military archives.

In addition, the Committee dealt with the distribution of monetary subsidies for the publication of military history works. For example, the Military Scientific Committee published such major military-theoretical works as “The Northern War. Documents of 1705-1708”, “Letters and papers of A.V. Suvorov, G.A. Potemkin and P.A. Rumyantsev 1787-1789. The military heritage of Peter the Great, the Swedish wars, and the war of 1812 were studied in depth.

In 1900 VUK was disbanded. At the beginning of the 20th century, its functions were performed by the Committee of the General Staff, the Committee for the Education of Troops, and the Committee of the General Staff. These bodies had broad powers and were able to lead the development of fundamental works on military strategy, tactics and military history. Prominent Russian military scientists worked in them, who created numerous military-theoretical and military-historical works that are relevant to this day.

Later, during the Great Patriotic War, on the basis of the operational training department of the General Staff, a Department for the use of war experience was created. Its tasks included the study and generalization of combat experience; development of combined arms manuals and instructions for conducting combat; preparation of orders, directives of NGOs and the General Staff on the use of war experience; description of the operations of the Great Patriotic War for the "Collection of materials for the study of the experience of the war."

After the Victory, the Directorate for the Use of War Experience, the Military History Department, the Archives of the General Staff and the Archives of the Red Army were engaged in the study of historical experience and the development of military-theoretical problems at the General Staff.

It was these bodies that formed the basis for the formation in 1953 of the Military Scientific Directorate of the General Staff. It existed for a quarter of a century, was disbanded and re-created already in 1985. Over the 70 years of its history (1925-1995), military scientific bodies have undergone about 40 changes.

On October 25, 1999, the Military Scientific Committee of the General Staff of the Armed Forces was formed Russian Federation. Exactly 10 years later, by directive of the Minister of Defense of the Russian Federation of September 8, 2009, the Military Scientific Committee of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation was created on its basis.

At the moment, the All-Russian Commissariat of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation is a military science management body that is directly subordinate to the Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation - First Deputy Minister of Defense of the Russian Federation.

The Military Scientific Committee (VSC) of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation is designed to solve the problems of scientific substantiation of promising areas of construction, development, training, use and support of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation in real and predictable conditions of the military-political, economic and demographic situation.

Main goals:

advance development of the theory of construction, training and use of the Armed Forces, the study of conditions and the development of recommendations for improving their structure, improving forms and methods combat use groupings of troops, the development of weapons and military equipment, the study of other most pressing issues;
improving the system for planning scientific research and coordinating the activities of research organizations and universities of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation, scientific organizations of the Russian Academy of Sciences, other ministries and departments conducting research on defense topics;
improvement of the military-scientific complex of the Armed Forces, its composition, structure and staffing, taking into account existing needs, strengthening the regulatory legal framework that determines the conditions and procedure for the functioning of the complex;
development of a modeling and laboratory-experimental base, further automation of research processes, including systems information support;
management of military-historical work, scientific information and publishing activities in the Armed Forces;
organization and coordination of military-scientific cooperation with foreign states.

Theoretical natural science, which arose in the Renaissance, appeared as the second (after the formation of mathematics) most important milestone in the formation of science in the proper sense of the word.

As subsequent historically significant stages that determined its development and functions in culture, one can single out the formation technical and then social sciences and humanities. Their formation as special subsystems of experimental science (along with natural science) also had sociocultural preconditions.

The formation of technical sciences as an independent discipline has passed a difficult path and certain stages of development. When implementing periodization of technical knowledge it is necessary to take into account both the relative independence of the development of technical knowledge and its dependence on the progress of natural science and technology. Based on this, B. I. Ivanov and V. V. Cheshev are distinguished four main stages (periods) in the development of technical knowledge.

First stage -prescientific when the latter existed as empirical description of the subject, means of human labor activity and methods of their application. It lasts from the primitive communal system to the Renaissance. The evolution of this knowledge: from practical-methodical to technological and from it to constructive-technical. During this period, natural science and technical knowledge developed in parallel, interacting only sporadically, without a direct and permanent connection between them. In technology, this period corresponds to gun technology stage.

Second phase in the development of technical knowledge - the birth of technical sciences. (from the 2nd half of the 15th century to the 70s of the 19th century) attracting scientific knowledge to solve practical problems. At the junction of production and natural science, scientific technical knowledge arises, designed to directly serve production. Principles and methods of obtaining and building scientific technical knowledge are being formed. At the same time, the formation of natural science, which is connected with production through technical sciences and technology, continues. In natural science at this time, all those features were formed that later determined the face of classical science. Associated with the formation of the capitalist mode of production.

Allocate two sub-stages : 1st sub-stage(the second half of the 15th century - the beginning of the 17th century) is development of the experimental method based on the combination of science and practice. Science penetrates the applied sphere, but technical knowledge does not yet acquire the status of a scientific theory, since the theoretical constructions of the natural sciences based on experiment have not yet been finally formed.

The second sub-stage (from the beginning of the 18th century to the 70s of the 20th century) - the emergence of new scientific theories in natural science (at least in mechanics) created the necessary prerequisites for emergence of technical theory. Therefore, during this period, technical knowledge also begins to acquire theoretical character.

Third stage : 70s 19th century to ser. 20th century Techn. sciences look like a mature and developed area of scientific knowledge with its own subject, means and methods and clearly defined subject area of study. During this period, fairly stable clear forms of interconnection between natural sciences and technical sciences.

Fourth stage continues from the middle of the 20th century. (the time of occurrence of the scientific and technological revolution) to the present; is the integration of the natural sciences. and technical knowledge as a manifestation overall process science integration.

So, the final formation of technical. science took place in the era of the entry of technogenic civilization into stage of industrialism, and marked the acquisition of new functions by science - be a productive and social force.

By the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries, science finally becomes the indisputable value of civilization. It is more and more actively involved in the formation of a worldview, claiming to achieve objectively true knowledge about the world, and at the same time more and more clearly reveals its pragmatic value, the possibility of continuous and systematic implementation of its results in production, which are realized in the form new technology and technology. Examples of the use of scientific knowledge in practice can be found in previous historical periods, which gave impetus to understanding the practical significance of science. And yet, the use of the results of science in production in pre-industrial eras was more episodic than systematic.

At the end of the 18th - the first half of the 19th centuries. the situation is changing radically. K. Marx rightly noted that “for the first time, the scientific factor is being consciously and widely developed, applied and called up on such a scale that previous eras had no idea.” Industrial development has posed a rather complex and multifaceted problem: not just to sporadically use individual results of scientific research in practice, but to provide a scientific basis for technological innovations, systematically including them in the production system.

It was during this historical period that the process of intensive interaction between science and technology began and a special type of social development, which is called scientific and technological progress. The needs of practice more and more clearly indicated tendencies towards the gradual transformation of science into a direct productive force. Implementation of scientific results in production on an expanding scale became the main characteristic of social dynamics, and the idea of social progress increasingly associated with effective technological application of science.

An important role in the development of science, in particular in the formation of new branches of knowledge, was played by development of a large machine industry, which replaced the manufacturing industry. It is no coincidence that in those countries where capitalism was gaining more developed forms, science received advantages in development. The introduction of its results into production was increasingly seen as a condition for the producers to make a profit, as evidence of the strength and prestige of the state. The value of science, its practical usefulness associated with the extraction of dividends, was clearly beginning to be realized by those who invested in research.

The expanding application of scientific knowledge in production has created a social need for the emergence of a special layer of research that would systematically ensure the application of fundamental natural science theories to the field of engineering and technology. As an expression of this need, a kind of intermediary arises between the natural science disciplines and production - scientific and theoretical research of technical sciences.

Their formation in culture was due to at least two groups of factors. On the one hand, they were approved on the basis of experimental science, when in order to form a technical theory it turned out to be necessary to have its own “basic” natural science theory(period of XVIII-XIX centuries). On the other hand, the need for scientific and theoretical technical knowledge was initiated practical necessity when, when solving specific problems, engineers could no longer rely only on the acquired experience, but needed a scientific and theoretical justification for the creation of artificial objects, which cannot be carried out without an appropriate technical theory developed within the framework of technical sciences.

The technical sciences are not a simple extension of natural science, applied research that implement the conceptual developments of the fundamental natural sciences. The developed system of technical sciences has its own layer of both fundamental and applied knowledge, and this system has a specific subject of study. Such an object is technique and technology as a special sphere of the artificial, created by man and existing only thanks to his activity.

Arising at the junction of natural science and production, the technical sciences more and more clearly designated their specific features that distinguish them from natural science knowledge. They acquired their subject field, formed their own means and methods of research, its own special picture of the reality under study, i.e. everything that allows us to talk about the formation of a certain scientific discipline.

The developed system of technical sciences has its own layer of both fundamental and applied knowledge., and this system requires specific subject of research. Such a subject is technique and technology as a special sphere of the artificial, created by man and existing only thanks to his activity. An important feature of the functioning of technical knowledge, which reflects its connection with practice, is that it serves the design of technical and social systems. Design is very different from research. The knowledge used in the design has its own characteristics, determined by their use, orientation to specific tasks. That's why Technical science should be considered as specific area of knowledge arising on the border of design and research and synthesizing in itself elements of both. AT technical knowledge the features of the technical sciences are reflected in various ways. First of all, it reflects the socio-technical characteristics of objects. As the end product of cognitive activity, technical knowledge determines the nature of the cognitive process, acting as a means of socio-technical design. It defines to a certain extent the nature of the activities to create new facilities, and structural and functional characteristics of the objects themselves. Consideration of the features of these objects shows their dual nature. Duality: technical objects are a synthesis of "natural" and "artificial". Scientific and technical knowledge should synthesize the data obtained as a result engineering and practical experience (sl-but, artificial) and natural science research (natural). Since the distinctive features of the functioning of technical objects reveal themselves through technical characteristics, then without fixing these properties and describing them, technical knowledge is unthinkable. At the same time, technical functioning acts as a manifestation of the natural characteristics of the object, natural forces. As a result the ratio of the two types of characteristics represents specific content , which goes beyond the boundaries of natural science, and research allows, figuratively speaking, build a bridge from natural science knowledge and discoveries to their technical application to inventions.

Having formed, the technical sciences have taken a firm place in the system of developing scientific knowledge, and technical and technological innovations in production have increasingly begun to be based on the application of the results of scientific and technical research. And if earlier science, as J. Bernal noted, gave little to industry, then with the approval of the technical sciences, the situation changed. They not only began to meet the needs of developing technology, but also to outstrip its development, forming schemes of possible future technologies and technical systems.