Microeconomics practical approach. And output volumes

“MICROECONOMICS: A PRACTICAL APPROACH (Managerial Economics) Edited by A.G. Gryaznova and A.Yu., Yudanova Second edition, corrected Authorized ... "

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FINANCIAL ACADEMY

UNDER THE GOVERNMENT OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERASH AND

MICROECONOMICS:

PRACTICAL APPROACH

(Managerial Economics)

Edited by

A.G. Gryaznova and A. Yu, Yudanova

Second edition, corrected

Approved by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation as a textbook for students of higher educational institutions studying in specialties 0 6 0 4 0 0 "Finance and Credit", 0 6 0 5 0 0 "Accounting, Analysis and Audit", 060600 "World Economy", 3 5 1 2 0 0 "Taxes and taxation"

FOR INTRODUCTION ONLY

MOSCOW

459 ex. / ed. A.G. Gryaznova and L. Yu. Yudanov. - M. : KNORUS, 2005. - 672 p.

ISBN 5-85971-160-3 The book is the first rated textbook on microeconomics, specially designed for the preparation of a highly qualified aconomist-practitioner and corresponding to the internationally accepted structure of teaching the discipline for this category of female students and students (the first Russian textbook on microeconomics of the "management economics" class) . Fully satisfying all the requirements of the state educational standard in microeconomics, the textbook supplements the theoretical course with a consideration of the use of theory in the practical activities of the company.

For highly educated economist practitioners whose future profession involves activities as managers and leading specialists in private and public enterprises (finance, credit, management, production organization, marketing, accounting, etc.). Designed for students of economics, npoipami MBA teachers, graduate students and teachers.

UDC 338(100)+338.24+658+658.3 LBC 65.5:65.050:65.29:65.24 © Team of authors, 2004,2005 fSBN 5-85971-160-3 © KNORUS, 2004.2005 about economics: a practical approach (Managerial Economics) "- a very necessary book that allows linking economic theory with real historical experience. to train highly qualified managers, it is very important not only

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CHAPTER 6 GENERAL FEATURES OF THE COMPANY'S CONDUCT

IN THE MARKETS I NEVER PERFECT COMPETITION 230

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OPTIMIZING RESOURCE USE 375

CHAPTER 10 LABOR AS ECONOMICAL RESOURCE 377

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SECTION IV MANAGER IN A WORLD OF UNCERTAINTY:

LIMITED BUSINESS OPTIMIZATION 479

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CHAPTER 14 INFORMATION AS A CON ONOMIC RESOURCE

RISKS AND UNCERTAINTY 508

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CHAPTER 16 METHODOLOGY OF ECONOMIC THEORY

CONTROL

INSTEAD OF FOREWORD:

GENERAL MICROECONOMICS AND MICROECONOMICS

LAYA MANAGERS

the prevailing mass of students is almost non-existent today. In particular, the teaching of the theory of economics in the universities of our country is carried out according to textbooks of a general orientation. Courses in economics are taught. th theory, microeconomics and macroeconomics - the one that in other countries is usually combined with the concept of "general economics" (general economics) or simply "economy" (economics). The market is literally overflowing with textbooks and teaching aids of this type. The number of courses published by different universities and independent authors has long ago exceeded several hundred. At the same time, in Russia there is not a single domestic textbook on economics for managers, and only a few translated books on this subject have been published. This situation is strikingly different from world practice, and according to which the theoretical and economic training of managers is built taking into account their future specialization (courses managerial economics or executive economics).

The textbook brought to the attention of readers is intended to close (or at least reduce) this gap in Russian literature. And I would like to start the textbook with a clear explanation of what the authors understand under the course of economics for managers.

First of all, the book is addressed to all practicing economists.

The title "Microeconomics: a practical approach (M a n a g e r i a l Economics))) is simply a tribute to the world tradition, in according to which almost every practitioner is called a manager.

This is the world tradition. Microeconomics is a part of economic theory that studies the behavior of individual subjects of the economy.

And since the practical activity of a manager takes place precisely at the micro level - the level of an individual company, at most separate from the industry, the course of economics for managers is always built on the basis of microeconomic theory with only small ex courses in macroeconomics (descriptions of functioning National economy in yelom).

It is indicative that in Russia the generally accepted name of the corresponding course has not even settled down. It is sometimes referred to as "management economics", then "management economics", then "business economics".

Not all of them are textbooks. T a k, c a m a i notable work Sh. Maital "Economics for Managers" (M.: Aelo, 1996) is a brilliant collection of essays on the topic of what a manager can learn from the course of micro to about N about m and to and. But it is really impossible to teach students ONLY for INTRODUCTION using this book.

www.moimirknig.com9 for www.mirknig.com The choice of a “full format” volume of presentation of microeconomics that meets the requirements of economic universities is connected with both pragmatic and theoretical considerations. The pragmatic reason is that that the modern state standard does not imply the right of universities to replace the course of microeconomics (or the microeconomic section of the course of economic theory) with the course of economics for managers practical orientation In order to avoid difficulties, on the basis of our textbook, you can read a full-fledged course in microeconomics, but read it in a form that is adapted for future managers This is exactly how, in particular, we are acting in the Financial A cademy under the Government of the Russian Federation F The academic discipline is called "Economic Theory", but the basic textbook in the section "Microeconomics" nomics” in those institutes of the Academy that train future managers, this course has been adopted The theoretical reason is even more important treat the study of theoretical positions.

Every manager must know economic theory. For the sake of his own future, he has no right to treat it as an abstraction far from reality. Twenty-five centuries of the development of this science literally shaped modern economic thinking. Professionals in every applied discipline of economics—accountants, marketers, tax specialists, and others—build their work on the foundation laid by economic theory, although they themselves are often unaware of this.

In principle, there is nothing wrong with such an "unconscious" use of economic theory. When performing routine operations, it is more important to know the technique than the philosophy of your business. But in all cases when the standard procedure is violated (and in our country this happens especially often), it is the economic worldview that comes to the fore. Knowing why and why certain actions should be taken (and whether they should actually be taken) becomes much more important than knowing the technique of operations flawlessly.

The authors of this textbook have seen for themselves how helpless, for example, the transition to the international accounting system was met even by experienced accountants who did not have modern microeconomic training. The new system seemed absurd to them - it was not only impossible to use, but simply difficult to remember. And the whole point is that they did not understand the internal logic, so to speak, the “microeconomic ideology” of change.

Let us also note one more important point. In recent years, the process of adopting foreign business technologies has been extremely active in our country. "Management by objectives" and "controlling", "reengineering" and "product positioning", "branding", "outsourcing"

etc. - from one abundance of outlandish foreign terms, one's head is literally spinning. Nevertheless, all these technologies are being actively developed. A lot of money is spent by firms to familiarize themselves with the essence of these management technologies, and then to introduce ordinary employees into practice. And here the most unpleasant circumstance usually comes to light: directly, these technologies, perfected and, it would seem, brought ONLY for INTRODUCTION to full perfection, often do not work in Russia.

www.moimirknig.com 10 www.mirknig.com for Does this mean that international experience should be abandoned in our country? Not at all. On the contrary, it must be able to apply it to the real conditions of Russian business. And for this, again, knowledge of the theory is needed. What is required is not the mechanical execution of instructions, but an understanding of why they were drawn up in a certain way and how they should be modified so that they begin to work in our country, in a particular industry, in the environment in which this firm operates.

In view of all that has been said, the theory has been expounded by us in the most fundamental manner. In the textbook, without any discounts on the applied nature of the work, a graphic apparatus of microeconomics is given. Moreover, we consider it our duty to warn the reader that this textbook is more complicated than the average course of microeconomics for economic universities. internal combustion engine for schoolchildren, that is, at the level of general ideas, can be relatively simple. For example, in this presentation it is quite acceptable to ignore the force of friction. But if the audience is the future designers of the same engines, then even the general principles should be described much more accurately, in more detail and, most importantly, closer to practice.

Making the presentation accessible was a priority for the authors of the book. We have avoided rigorous proofs of those propositions that are understandable on an intuitive level. Mathematics was reduced to a minimum (often school-based). Where possible without significant loss of content, the explanation of the matter was carried out with the help of examples, and not general reasoning.

The second feature of our book is that the course of microeconomics is read in it from the point of view of practical issues/manager. We constantly asked ourselves the question: what benefit does the knowledge of this or that section of the theory bring to the manager; How can he put it into practice?

Let's bring the simplest example. Achievement by the firm of the maximum level of profitability is modeled in microeconomic theory on the basis of a comparison of the curves of demand and costs of the firm. This, it would seem, is a case of the closest connection between theory and practice! It hardly needs to be argued how important the goal of increasing profits is for any manager.

However, the theory (as it is presented in microeconomics textbooks) completely ignores the question of where the information about both curves comes from. With costs, everything is more or less clear. Data about them is provided by the accounting department of the company (although not always in the right form). The demand curve for the firm's products is always the "great unknown".

And the manager must know the answer to the questions:

How to convert accounting data into the form that is needed to make effective management decisions?

How to get information about the demand curve for products from your company?

What to do if such information is not available?

The situation of discrepancy between the “proper” and the “real” is also typical for economics. Where complete clarity reigns in theory, uncertainty often reigns in practice. But the manager acts precisely in the real world and cannot build his activities in accordance with what should be, and not with what actually exists. So, in any basic course of microeconomics ONLY FOR INFORMATION www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com one of the varieties of oligopoly is considered - a cartel. The description of a number of negative features of cartels usually ends with information about their legal prohibition in most countries, including Russia. There is no doubt that this is quite enough for a theoretical acquaintance with cartels. But in the real economy, cartels exist despite the prohibitions.

Therefore, the manager inevitably has questions:

How should he make his will in the market if he feels that his suppliers are united by an unspoken cartel and are pursuing a concerted policy against him, or how should he react if his firm itself receives an offer to join a legal (or semi-legal) cartel agreement?

The authors have made it a rule not to evade such questions. In a number of cases, we describe in sufficient detail the practical aspects of applying the theory. In other situations, we only outline the general direction of solving the problem, referring the reader to special disciplines for details. By the way, these references seem to us very important for practitioners. The mastery of economic theory is to no small extent useful for them precisely because it helps to understand “where and what lies” about the totality of economic sciences that has grown to an almost incomprehensible size. Finally, even in those "uncomfortable" cases, when beautiful microeconomic theory for some reason is poorly applicable in practice, we do not hush up the difficulties, but explicitly indicate their causes.

In this regard, we cannot fail to thank the staff of the Chelyabinsk branch of the Ural Academy of Public Administration for the opportunity to test the first version of this course in the fall of 2002 as part of the Morozov Project presidential program.

Working with a demanding audience of young but experienced entrepreneurs and managers convinced us that:

The course of microeconomics, aimed at the needs of managers, is in great demand in practice. The usual ice in the relationship between the lecturer, who talks about theory, and the listeners-managers, who are primarily interested in practice, melted after the first lessons in new program. Once again, the old truth has been confirmed that there is nothing more practical than a good theory, if, of course, it is taught to practitioners in the form in which they are ready to accept it;

The "ideology" of the course can be conveyed even with a very compressed curriculum (in reality, we had 32 lecture hours). Of course, such a reduction in the exchange rate was not without loss. But the main goal was nevertheless achieved: the audience formed an attitude to microeconomics not as an abstract doctrine, but as a general theoretical basis for practical activity in a market economy.

The third feature of the textbook is that, compared with the standard textbooks of microeconomics, it significantly expands the sections of the theory that make it possible to realistically describe the functioning of the firm.

In particular:

1) when describing perfect competition, an unrealistic assumption is usually made about the sameness of all those operating in the industry

FOR INTRODUCTION ONLY

www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com companies. We do not stop at this abstract stage of the analysis, but, on the contrary, we give a model of pure competition, which takes into account the existence of differences between firms;

2) it is customary to write off the process of achieving maximum profit in relation to a company that produces an all-in-one product. But every manager knows that assortment management, i.e., launching several products and establishing the right proportions between them, is a good half of success in practical business. We couldn't help but include in the textbook a description of how profit maximization theory generalizes to the multi-product firm;

3) this also applies to the replacement of the equally traditional consideration of the firm's activity in a single market, the transition to a more realistic picture of the work in several markets at once;

4) it seemed very important to us to take into account the limitations of markets. Authors of textbooks (including ours), of course, will never refuse to use simple models with coordinate axes going to infinity, as if it were a mathematical abstraction. But in reality, neither the size of the market nor the financial capacity of the firm is ever infinitely large. In our book, therefore, we make special reservations about the changes that this circumstance introduces into the theoretical picture;

5) an equally significant point is the limited information. Many sections of the theory in the standard textbooks of microeconomics are presented in such a way that the SAOWNO company has not only complete information, but also the gift of vision, t Ochnoznana, what surprises await her in the future. In our book, the problems of lack of information and the activities of a manager in conditions of uncertainty are constantly discussed;

6) in most textbooks, the firm is treated as a single entity striving to maximize profits. If this were true, it would hardly be necessary to create such a discipline as management. Everyone - from the worker to the director, from the engineer to the owner - would unanimously strive only to increase profits. But a manager can only dream of such an idyll. Therefore, in our textbook, it is predominant to look at the firm as an organization within which there are different, and often mutually conflicting interests.

Finally, the fourth, last in order, but not least, feature of the textbook is our desire to instill in the student-practitioner a general entrepreneurial philosophy of doing business.

Indeed, there are no major and minor components in a theory. Any of its links is equally important, because without any of them, a single logic falls apart. The situation is different in practice. From the general arsenal of elements of the theory, in different circumstances, first one element, then another acquires decisive importance.

Let us make a simple comparison. Theoretically, all the elements of the periodic table are completely equal. But any biochemist will immediately say that without carbon, with its special properties, life in the forms known to us today is impossible. That is, of all equal elements, from a human point of view, one carbon is clearly “more equally right” than all the others.

The same is true in economics.

Two of the most important tools of modern economic theory have had the greatest impact on the actual practice of doing business:

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1) a method of comparing marginal revenue and marginal costs as a universal recipe for achieving maximum profits in the short term and

2) the discounting method as a universal way of maximizing profits in the implementation of investment projects, i.e. in all those cases where the investment of funds and the receipt of returns from them are separated by a significant period of time.

Almost any course in microeconomics introduces students to both methods. However, this is done, as a rule, in an abstract-theoretical manner without being tied to the practical needs of managing a firm. As a result, it is veiled, and if we call things by their proper names, then their general significance in the formation of a business philosophy is simply hidden from the student.

The comparison of marginal revenue and marginal cost, for example, is used only as a way of determining the optimal output for a single-product firm. If we imagine the “ideal” manager from a microeconomics course, we will see a boring pedant whose only concern is calculating whether to produce 1345 or 1347 units of goods per day.

No practitioner will ever believe that the solution of this one simple (and usually not the most important) task will provide his company with the maximum profit. After all, a real manager himself has to set not only the volume of production, but also prices and the assortment of goods produced (as we have already said, single-product firms exist only in textbooks). He also needs to decide in which markets to sell goods, determine the optimal volume of their advertising support, etc. In addition, he does not have to do this under the conditions provided for by the textbook of absolutely complete and accurate information about the state of the market.

It is not surprising that practitioners sometimes do not like economic wisdom too much. And s r me! Many of them would certainly be very surprised to know that the whole complex of the problems listed above (prices, assortment, market coverage, advertising volume) and much more are actually solved using the method of comparing marginal revenue and marginal cost, i.e. , the very instrument of theory, which seemed to them unsuitable for real life.

That is why our textbook pays close attention to both of the most important theoretical tools for practice, and the authors consistently focus on how these tools are applied in different situations.

We hope that our textbook will help solve one of the eternal problems of education - bringing theory closer to the needs of practice.

Sometimes it even seems that textbooks specifically seek to obscure the logic of business decisions. For example, two manifestations of the same principle of profit maximization in the short run are presented as different rules (MR ≈ MC and MRP = MRO), depending on whether it is applied to the choice of the optimal production volume or to the optimization of resource purchases.

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FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com n about m production, distribution and consumption.

At the same time, the famous brief definition of the subject of political economy as the science of the wealth of people appeared. Today, this interpretation of the subject in Yeloma has been preserved by the Marxist school of political economy. Political economy, according to Marks, is the science of production relations in their relationship with the productive forces. Let us note that Marxists consider property relations to be the core of production relations, i.e., the same wealth is at the center of attention.

At the end of the XIX - the beginning of the XX century, the subject and name of economic theory are again being revised. The rapid development of the economy, caused by the industrial revolution and the maturation of the market institutions, caused significant changes.

First, the early market, where the seller dictated the rules, has gradually evolved into a mature market in which the sovereign decisions of the buyer play a decisive role. This led to the need to take into account the importance of the consumer and the economy. Secondly, the possibility of an additional increase in resources - land, labor, capital - has significantly decreased. The question arose about finding ways to more rationally and effectively use the available funds.

It was at this time that representatives of the so-called marginal school formed a modern approach to microeconomics - the science of the behavior of business entities, first a range of firms and households. English economist Alfred Marshall in his work ((Principles of Economics" (1890) gave a scientific the name is "economics" ("economy"). This word, often quoted in Russian without translation, is closest in meaning to the neutral term "economic theory". It is characteristic that there is no "state accent" in it, the presence of your former n a z v a n i i.

A little later, within the framework of the Keynesian school, the foundations of modern macroeconomics were laid - the science of the principles of the functioning of the national economy in the city. The English economist John Maynard Keynes, in his work “The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money” (1936), presented his version t vennoy policy of macroeconomic regulation. This policy was then actively and successfully applied in a number of countries for decades.

The complete dominance of the ideas of state and governmental regulation of the economy in the middle of the 20th century changed with a return to the traditions of economic liberalism in the 1970s. For several decades, monetarism has won the main positions in the world economic theory. The head of the monetarists, the American economist Milton Friedman and other representatives of this scientific school, recommended limiting the state interference st in the economy, to pursue the so-called policy of deregulation. To a large extent, this policy was implemented in the cabinet of M. Thatcher in England (the policy of "Thatcherism") and a dministration R. Reagan in the USA (the policy of “Reaganomics”). In Russia, under the strong influence of monetarist concepts was a full of the first reformist governments - the cabinet of E. Gaidar.

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FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com Fig. 1.5.

Increasing the security of the bank's activities reduces profits

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FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com natural sciences the empirical method relies on experiments. Under strictly controlled conditions, scientists study some phenomenon. For example, they change the temperature in the reactor in order to understand what its effect on crystal growth is. At the same time, all other conditions (for example, the composition of the solution) are maintained unchanged. If the same result is repeated from experience to experience (crystallization begins at a certain temperature), it becomes possible to talk about some regularity Both of these moments: the control of parameters and the repeatability of the outcome are critically important in order to draw some conclusions based on the experiment. Otherwise, it is easy to get an unreliable result.

In economics, for obvious reasons, it is very difficult to conduct experiments, especially on a national scale. It is impossible, say, to repeat the devaluation of the ruble in 1998 several times with the need to choose the optimal percentage of the depreciation of the currency for the country. Therefore, in economics, the empirical method in its observational variety is usually used. That is, economists record events that occurred by themselves, and not by the will of the experimenter, but as a result of e m trying to understand their meaning.

At the same time, it is extremely difficult for the economy to comply with the principle of controllability of conditions (in life and the state of the economic environment is constantly changing), so is the principle of repeatability of the result (twice, not to mention the multiplicity, many economic events simply do not occur). The more difficult becomes the problem of interpretation of observations. In a material that is not completely homogeneous, differing in specific features and material, an economist needs to be able to single out identical and recurring features.

More than once we encounter this problem in this book and we. Encountering in the text the clause “ceteris paribus”, the reader should understand that we are talking about the requirement to comply with the same conditions. For example, the phrase "an increase in the yen, other things being equal, a decrease in the volume of demand" means that, except for the yen, all other the parameters are unchanged. That is, the quality of the goods does not improve, advertising does not increase, buyers' incomes do not grow, etc.

On the other hand, as we have to make sure, it is managers, more than any other economists, who can rely on on direct experiments. The fact is that the firm is able to consciously change both the internal organization of its work (for example, introduce new remuneration schemes, a new management accounting system), and in relation to the outside world (for example, to regulate prices to l a m n u th politics). In fact, by changing the parameters of the firm's activities (say, by changing the means mass media, in which advertising is mixed), the manager experiments to find the optimal scheme for doing business.

However, observations also occupy a significant place in the work of a manager. So, comparing the dynamics of sales that spontaneously developed with his company in different regions, and the methods of product promotion used there, he can establish the reasons for the successes and failures of the firm, and then extend the best experience to all branches of the company.

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FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com international recognition national currency. In this case, recognition should be understood not as some kind of international agreement, but as a real willingness of the subjects of the world economy (foreign firms, banks, states) to accept this money as a means of payment.

When full-fledged money was used, the function of world money was performed by the gold contained in it (after crossing the border, it was not the face value of the money that mattered, but the weight of the precious metal contained in it). After the transition of all countries of the world to incomplete money, the functions of world money began to be performed by the so-called freely convertible currencies (this term is used in relation to national monetary units that can be exchanged without any restrictions for the most stable foreign currencies: the dollar, the Swiss franc , yen, etc.), as well as collective currencies (international units such as the European currency euro), The proportion of the exchange of one currency for another or the yen of one currency expressed in another is called the exchange rate. As for the yen of any commodity in a market economy, the exchange rate depends on the ratio of demand for a given currency and its supply.

If the state does not fix the exchange rate at a certain level (there are a number of countries whose currencies are "pegged" to the most powerful world currencies - the dollar, the euro, the yen), then it is subject to constant fluctuations. Distinguish between the regime of a freely floating currency, when the change in its exchange rate is not limited in any way, and the regime of the currency corridor, when the state keeps exchange rate fluctuations within known boundaries. A sharp decrease in the exchange rate is called a devaluation, and an increase is called a revaluation.

The modern Russian ruble is a partially convertible currency. This means that its exchange is possible, but is associated with a number of restrictions. In addition, exchanging the ruble for other currencies outside of Russia and the CIS is extremely difficult. The ruble is practically not used as world money.

At the same time, the ruble exchange rate has a significant impact on the subjects of our economy, since with its change the value of all cost indicators, one way or another involved in foreign economic activity.

For example, the devaluation that took place in 1998:

For consumers, it turned first of all into an increase in prices for imported goods, and then (and to a lesser extent) for domestic ones;

For domestic producers, it made it possible to expand production at the expense of foreign competitors being forced out of the market;

For debtors who made loans abroad, it became the hardest test. To cover their debt to foreigners, they had to find many times larger sums in rubles than they expected when taking out a loan.

Accordingly, the strengthening of the ruble in subsequent years caused (but not in such a sharp form) reverse processes in the economy.

From the manager's point of view, the money economy is the environment of his firm, to which it must be perfectly adapted. Moreover, it is necessary not only to be able to conduct business with ONLY FOR INFORMATION www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com with normal circulation of money, but also to survive in conditions of its disorder. Thus, many Russian enterprises would not have survived if they had not made barter transactions. With all the shortcomings of barter described above, it was the only salvation in the conditions of hyperinflation, when money depreciated by 30-40% every month, or in the situation of a total shortage of money from enterprises that followed. However, after the normalization of money circulation, moving away from barter became an important way to improve the economic efficiency of firms. Problems of money circulation are studied by the discipline “Money circulation and credit”.

STATE IN MARKET ECONOMICS, SOCIAL PROBLEMS OF THE MARKET

The role of the state in a market economy can partly be explained by a number of political and social reasons. However, more important is the fact that the market mechanism alone can not perform all economic functions.

Let's make a special reservation: in the market system, the role of the state is limited, the state does not assume the functions of managing all economic entities, otherwise the market mechanism of self-regulation is destroyed - the main advantage this system. However, limited does not necessarily mean weak. By using this term, economists mean that the basic economic questions are: what, how, for whom to produce? - the market economy is mainly responsible for itself.

Nevertheless, there are problems in society, the solution of which is beyond the power of the market because of its inherent limitations. In the economic literature, failures in the operation of the market mechanism are called differently: shortcomings, imperfections, fiascos, limitations, and so on.

Most scholars agree that the main constraints on the self-regulation of a market system are:

Inability to solve non-commercial tasks (i.e., to produce public goods - from justice and defense of the country to solving environmental problems);

v the inability to distribute income among different segments of the population in accordance with the goals of a democratic society;

Elements of inefficiency due to market imperfections;

Elements of instability of the macroeconomic system, expressed in the absence of full employment of the population and the instability of the yen level.

Let's consider these restrictions sequentially.

A good is public if it is consumed collectively - by all citizens - on a non-commercial basis (ie, regardless of payment). National defence, public safety, environmental protection, lighthouse installations are public goods.

Public goods are characterized by non-competitive consumption, which means that their consumption by one person does not reduce the possibilities of consumption by other people. For example, when an army defends a country from an external threat, the preservation of the personal security of one person in no way interferes with the preservation of the security of his family, relatives, neighbors, people who do not know him at all. Even if a foreign tourist comes to this country, the army will automatically ensure his safety. The night illumination of the streets will also not become less for a given person if other people go out (and, therefore, use the light).

Another feature of public goods is their accessibility: if such goods exist, then it is impossible to exclude someone from the number of consumers. In both of the above examples, it is impossible for some reason to limit the access of a person to public goods. So, even if a citizen has not paid taxes, the army cannot physically stop his personal protection, as long as it continues to provide protection for the entire country. In the same way, visiting foreigners cannot be prohibited from using the night lighting of the city, although they do not pay for it in any form.

The properties of non-competitiveness and general availability of consumption lead to the fact that public goods and services, unlike most other goods (the latter are called private goods), cannot be provided to consumers through the market system, by concluding transactions between individual consumers and producers. The market system makes it possible to take into account only individual needs, and not most of the social, collective needs. In some cases, the market does not cope with such tasks at all, in others it functions inefficiently.

Assuming, for example, that a market was formed for the organization of national defense, it is not difficult to predict that citizens would not have the proper incentives to acquire "their share of the defense potential." It would be tempting for everyone to wait until someone else pays for national defense. After all, protection from an external threat, due to the general availability of this good, would also extend to the defaulter, and since the desire to use the results of the efforts of others for free would become universal under these conditions, no one would pay for national defense. And it would eventually fall apart. The only way out in this and similar situations is in the "non-market", state provision of public goods.

Another extensive field of state activity is the social sphere. Competition serves as a counterbalance to the individualism of the market economy in the sense that it forces the entrepreneur to direct his efforts not to realize his fantasies, but to satisfy the real needs of society. But competition by no means prevents the successful capitalist from getting rich, sometimes even from over-riching, if he correctly grasps the demands of the market. This creates the strongest motivation for entrepreneurial activity and serves the progress of the economy. But in this way the market system also encourages the social polarization of society.

Economic power is concentrated in the hands of resource owners and entrepreneurs. A significant part of the population FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com is deprived of the right to own production resources (land, capital), which gives rise to economic dependence of this part of the population. It is no coincidence that owners and entrepreneurs act as employers, but most of of the population - as hired workers (many European languages ​​even have the words "employee", "employee"). There is a differentiation of incomes, property stratification. In other words, automatically, by itself, the market system does not ensure social justice, on the contrary, many of its mechanisms operate in the opposite direction. south side.

That is why the problems of social inequality have played and are playing a huge role in the fate of countries developing under market conditions. It is necessary to exceed some critical measure of social inequality, and mass strikes, unrest begin, and in the most acute cases, revolutions occur.

It is no coincidence that it was precisely under the conditions of the dominance of market forces that such a scientific and ideological trend as Marxism arose, considering the history of mankind through the prism of the struggle of classes, defending their material interests in an irreconcilable battle. Historical experience shows that the stronger the social injustice in a country, the stronger the positions of Marxism and related teachings in it. In a market economy, where material success is one of the highest values, the protest of the disadvantaged strata inevitably takes radical forms.

Because of this, in modern developed market societies, a number of institutions have been formed that limit the degree of social inequality. Especially great in social sphere the role of the state 1. Thus, in most countries (except Russia) there is a system of progressive taxation that forces the rich to pay substantially more than the poor pay. State expenditures to a greater extent bring benefits to the socially unprotected segments of the population.

In the implementation of various social programs that exist in developed countries, leading role played by government funding. Pensions, health insurance, unemployment benefits, basic free education, and more guarantee a minimum consumption that ensures a decent existence even for the poor.

There are dozens of such programs in the USA, Germany, Great Britain and France. powerful social democratic movement. Then, including under the influence of the experience of the USSR, social protection systems became widespread in most developed countries.

They have now become a permanent social security mechanism that protects man from cradle to grave.

Except state in smoothing social problems Trade unions, consumer societies, and charitable foundations play an important role.

FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com melts goods. The government also borrows money in the financial markets by selling its bonds there, and then repays the debt by buying them back with interest.

In addition, within the framework of its social functions, the state makes a number of social payments. Domestic farms receive pensions, stipends, various types of subsidies from the state (for example, for rent), and public sector workers receive salaries. In s e e t and payments are called transfers.

Enterprises whose activities deserve to be stimulated from the point of view of the interests of the whole society also receive transfers from the state in the form of subsidies and tax breaks.

Let us pay attention to an important feature of the participation of the state in the round turnover of the product and capital. A significant part of his actions are non-economic in nature. So, taxes, as is known, are collected in a forced way, regardless of the will of the taxpayer. Public goods, subsidies, and other transfers are provided by the state free of charge. In order to solve the problem of public goods production and financing, a country must find some way to mutually agree on how much to spend, for example, on defense, what benefits to provide to pensioners, and how much for all this. o r o collect taxes. The economic side of democracy (the organization of elections, the work of the parliament, etc.) consists primarily in the creation of mechanisms for making such collective decisions.

BUSINESS PROBLEM: RUSSIA'S TRANSITIONAL ECONOMY AND THE MANAGER

Transition economy of the traditional type In addition to the three main types of economic systems (traditional, socialist and market) there are intermediate forms. So, in the process of formation of a market economic system, the so-called transitional economy arises. In this economy, the main features of the market are formed, the general laws of the functioning of a market economy are already manifested in it, but there is an incomplete development of market institutions.

The process of formation of a market economy usually follows the gradual transformation of a traditional society. Institutions of patriarchal economy coexist for a long time with the insti- tutes of the market economy in the transition period (elements of feudal, or tribal system).

Accordingly, those countries that are moving towards a traditional market civilization are classified as transitional economies of the traditional type.

The modern developed countries of Europe went through the stage of transitional economy and the traditional type in the 16th-18th centuries, the USA and Japan - in the 19th century. A relatively small group of developing countries (South Korea, Taiwan, Mexico, Chile and other so-called newly industrialized countries) have become developed markets FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com night states in recent decades XX century. Most of the Third World countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America still continue the transition to a market economy in a relatively slow, mainly evolutionary way.

The new New transitional or post-socialist economy and transitional economy is usually called the economy of countries that are moving towards a market-economic economic system not from the traditional, but from the socialist.

Russia and I also belong to the post-socialist type of countries, which in many respects differ from the usual transitional economy. In recent years, two major reforms have been carried out in our country, which have led to the transformation of the socialist economy into a market economy. First, privatization was carried out. Vatization is the process of transferring or selling state property to private parties. As a result, state property that dominated under socialism was replaced by private property typical of a market economy. Secondly, the reforms led to the fact that the institutions of central planning were dismantled, their place was taken by free market forces.

Two main features of the post-socialist economy can be distinguished: 1) a relatively high level of economic development and 2) the immature nature of market institutions.

Potential Indeed, in the transitional economy of a new type, even in the transitional and realistic era, many elements of the highly developed economy of the twisted economy were laid. M&: we mean the existence of large enterprises with high technology, a highly skilled workforce, a powerful scientific potential, high standards in the social sphere, and much more. Such a high basic, fundamental potential does not exist either in the traditional economy or in the transitional economy of the old type until they achieve great success in market transformations. It can be said that the resource base of the post-Soviet countries is very strong. In Russia, however, the powerful man-made potential is additionally enhanced by the wealth of natural resources. Therefore, after the completion of the painful transition to the market, the post-socialist countries are highly likely to expect an economic miracle, a rapid promotion to the ranks of world leaders. By the way, without putting on rose-colored glasses, every manager should be psychologically prepared for this future breakthrough. International experience shows that firms that quickly responded to the beginning of the economic miracle, radically expanded their business at this favorable time, could lay the foundations for their prosperity for decades to come.

Institutions In contrast to countries with developed market economies, the post-transitional socialist countries have not yet created many market-economy institutions. More often there is a situation where market institutions exist in a transitional economy, but are very different from their counterparts in a developed market.

Table 2.2 briefly summarizes the manifestations of the incomplete maturity of market institutions in the Russian economy.

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FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com is effectively protected by law. This is especially evident in the example of privatized enterprises. Ownership rights in them are "blurred" among three main groups of subjects: 1) employees of enterprises; 2) management of the same enterprises; 3) the so-called external owners (shareholders), which most often are private firms and banks. Between these and the subjects there is often a struggle for the possession of the whole bunch of rights or the main ones.

In the language of economic categories, we can say that in Russia a general transfer of ownership to private hands has occurred, and their specification is still in the process of becoming e n and i. Added to this is the fact that, only as an exception, the property passed to its current owners without any violations or illegal actions. That is, the legitimacy of property rights in many cases can be challenged.

For a manager, this situation means the need to take into account the constant danger of redistribution of property or individual components of rights to it.

Experiences of the most scandalous transfers of property from hand to hand show that the attacking side almost always used fuzzy t s pe c i f i k a t i c and property rights:

Directors or external managers (in the course of the bankruptcy procedure) “taken away” assets to the side, usurping the right of the owners to dispose of them;

Large owners (the so-called major shareholders) deprived the small ones of the right to income (it was done in such a way that there were no officially declared profits, and hidden profits were distributed only among “their own”) and (or) deprived them of their right to a share in the property of fi r m s;

Smaller owners (or minority shareholders) occasionally usurped the right of large owners to manage the firm (special o st and provisions on the meeting of shareholders to seize power in the firm) ;

Lenders, with the help of directors, dispossessed the firm's owners through artificial bankruptcy, and so on.

With the development of market relations in Russia, specifications should enter a new phase, when, as a result of the redistribution of a bundle of property rights (resales, partial in mutual concessions, bankruptcies of poorly managed firms) they will be consolidated and transferred to the most efficient owners and m, able to rationally use these rights and at the same time protect us from usurpers. One of the most important ways to get to this state of affairs is to increase the degree of transparency as a structure of financial rm s, and its financial statements. A firm open to external control is more shielded from fraudulent national property rights, “Fuzziness” of property rights In fact, the lack of genuine control over the implementation of legislation leads to the flourishing of the shadow economy in post-socialist countries. It is inherently informal and based on the violation of legal property rights, and therefore violates the rules of the game of the market households.

FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com

It is possible to single out at least two fields of its existence:

1) gray, or illegal, market, i.e. in principle permitted but not officially recorded economic transactions;

2) black, or criminal, market, i.e. activities prohibited by law.

Gray transactions are most often carried out for tax or other similar reasons. Enterprises produce products, provide services, but do not document their activities, thereby avoiding paying taxes.

Using gray schemes in the supply of products, payment of wages, import of foreign goods and in other situations, the manager significantly increases the profit of his firm. Moreover, in a number of cases, a firm in a transitional economy can only survive with the help of the gray market. But by embarking on this path, the manager comes into conflict with the law. This is one reason why well-performing firms tend to have very strong legal divisions: by exploiting loopholes and legal perks, lawyers are often able to achieve the manager's goals but break the law.

Clearly criminal businesses such as racketeering, drug dealing, or pimping thrive on the black market. About the shadow markets are in contact and intertwined. Very often, it is the gray business that falls under the control of criminal groups, since its owners themselves operate illegally and therefore do not dare to resort to the protection of the law.

The scale of the shadow economy in Russia is not fully known. According to the Russian State Statistics Committee, the shadow sector produces 25% of goods and services produced in the country. According to indirect data, the shadow economy is even larger (usually they give the figure of 40%).

In all cases, it is large enough to seriously undermine the operation of market mechanisms.

Subjects The main subjects of the transitional economy are the same as the subjects of the transitional economy and the market economy: enterprises (firms), households of the economy and the state. But their behavior has not yet acquired a market character. For example, the former state-owned factories, for the most part, have not yet learned to live according to the laws of the market, have not turned into real firms. Therefore, there is the release of non-competitive products, wasteful use of resources, poor knowledge of the market. And what is perhaps worst of all is the incomplete awareness of these problems.

A particular problem is that Russian enterprises have low contractual discipline. Obligations assumed (signed contracts) are often fulfilled untimely, with violation of quality parameters and other conditions of delivery, delays in payments. At the same time, it has been in operation since March 1998.

The insolvency (bankruptcy) law was so strict that it created the possibility of initiating bankruptcy proceedings against most domestic enterprises. It was only at the end of 2002 that a new Law on Insolvency (Bankruptcy) appeared, preventing the use of the bankruptcy procedure for the purposes of the illegal transfer of property.

FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com First of all, let's pay attention to the fact that, according to tradition, in economic theory (unlike other sciences), it is customary to plot the value of an independent variable along the vertical axis, and the value of the dependent variable is along the horizontal axis.

Line D in fig. 3.1 is called the demand curve.

It shows how much of the product (Q) buyers are willing to buy:

1) at each given level of yen (P);

2) in a specific period of time;

3) with other factors unchanged.

In other words, movement along the demand curve (from one point to another) reflects a change in the demand for a good that occurs as a result of one and only one cause - a change in the yen of the good. The inverse relationship between the level of yen and the amount of purchased products in the graphical interpretation is manifested in the lowering of the demand curve with increasing Q.

Let's make an important methodological clarification that applies not only to the demand curve, but also to other graphs, of which, starting from this chapter, there will be a lot in our textbook. In most cases, for educational purposes, it is sufficient to know the general form of the curves, and not their exact trajectory. Therefore, the reader should not be confused, for example, by the fact that the demand curve is often called a line that looks like a straight line on the chart. Or that in some cases a certain quantity is transposed in a slightly curved curve, and in others in a straight line. In fact, in almost all cases, real graphs would look like curves, and rather complex irregular shapes. In the textbook, each time, such simple lines are depicted, which in this case most clearly convey the essence of the phenomenon (we already said in Chapter 1 that reasonable simplification is a prerequisite for compiling any model).

Of special note are those cases where out of several theoretically possible forms of graphs in the real economy, one particular one predominates. Moreover, this feature of the curves can be essential for management practice. In such situations, we will definitely make adjustments to the general theoretical analysis that are dictated by the facts of real business.

Graphical interpretation is very convenient for its clarity, therefore, it is most often used for educational purposes. By tracking the dynamics of the curve (and often many curves) with the eye, you can immediately understand what, for example, the main indicators will be activities of the company as the volume of sales of products grows.

But graphs are good not only in textbooks. Trying to understand the interconnection of several simultaneous market processes, the manager also usually draws the corresponding graphs.

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FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com Now let's take a closer look at some of the listed non-yen factors in demand.

Usually, the richer the population, the greater the demand for goods and services, i.e., the income of the population and the amount of accumulated property are related to demand. with o m direct dependence. Let us emphasize, however, that this is the case in most, but not in all, cases. In economic theory, it is customary to distinguish between normal and abnormal goods.

The latter are usually products that are perceived in comparison with others as a worse alternative, but this does not apply: as incomes rise, demand for them falls. And when income falls, it grows.

It is well known, for example, that in the region of low-income people there is a large share of bread, potatoes, pasta and a low share of meat and dairy products and fruits. This does not mean that such is the food prejudice of the poor, they simply do not have enough money to eat differently. Therefore, with the growth of incomes of the population, we should expect a drop in demand for bread, potatoes, pasta and switching consumers to other products.

A manager working in the segment of the market of anomalous goods must necessarily take this phenomenon into account when forecasting demand for the products of his company or make efforts to about the product has passed into the category of normal. Thus, the demand for expensive and high-quality varieties of pasta is not abnormal. The consumer perceives elite pasta as a delicacy and expands, rather than reduces, their consumption as income rises. This circumstance is already widely used by a number of Russian firms, which are gradually restructuring their pasta production on the expensive m e n t of the market.

FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com Obviously, being the sum of individual surveys, market demand is also subject to the law of demand, those. the market demand curve has a negative slope. Nothing else can be expected. After all, let's say, a low yen increases the amount of goods purchased by each buyer, and therefore by all buyers. Similarly, shifts in the market demand curve produce the same factors that affect individual demand, such as changes in the yen for substitute goods, changes in income, u s o v, fashion.

However, unlike individual demand, market demand reflects the regularity and behavior of not only an individual consumer, but also a set of consumers. Thus, autonomous (ie not related to changes in yen) fluctuations in the number of consumers affect market demand. Let's say that the demand for baby carriages is directly related to current birth rates, and for school books - from the birth rate 7-17 years ago (depending on for which grade of school they are intended). In addition, it is in the market, and not in individual demand, that the structure of the totality of all consumers manifests itself, for example, the degree of differentiation of incomes of the population and I. Suppose it becomes fashionable winter holidays in Mallorca, then not only its attractiveness for an individual Russian is important, but also the attitude of our fellow citizens, who can afford it.

Among other things, considering market demand only as a sum of individual demands is permissible only under the condition of independent behavior of consumers. However, in real life, the individual demand of each person is also influenced by the behavior of the surrounding people. Such an influence is described in economic theory as the result of three effects;

1) the effect of joining the majority;

2) effect;

3) the effect of demonstrative behavior.

The effect of joining the majority (effect of craze) is manifested when consumer behavior is dictated by desire m to keep up in consumption from others. The action of this effect leads to an increase in individual demand after the achievement of a certain critical consumer coverage point by market demand (all our acquaintances have already been in Antalya, and we we won't get together!) * The snob effect, on the contrary, takes place in those cases when the consumer is driven by the desire not to be like others.

The desire to stand out from the crowd leads to the fact that the individual demand of some people falls when the market demand increases.

FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com The effect of demonstrative behavior (or, after the name of his American scientist, the Veblen effect) occurs, when an individual buys goods that are not available for yen to others, which makes these goods prestigious and emphasizes the social status of their owner.

The listed effects have different significance for different markets and do not always manifest themselves. But skilfully taking them into account is the responsibility of the manager. Let's say, with the growth of the popularity of the product, you should be ready for a sharp jump in demand for it at the moment when the e the effect of joining the majority. Otherwise, a favorable conjuncture may be lost without a refund. Similarly, knowledge of the implementation of the snob effect requires the manager to keep in the assortment of his company's offer 1-2 positions for people who do not want to look like everyone else, For example, along with a rich selection of fashionable shoes (with some square or, conversely, exaggeratedly elongated noses) it is reasonable to keep a few parklassic style in the store. And the manufacturer of goods, which are objects of conspicuous behavior, must be very careful when easing the availability of your product. It is worth lowering the entry fee or simplifying the rules for admission to an elite club, and the best clients will scatter from the blue.

Another important point, from the point of view of a manager-practice, is a derivative character, which in many cases is in demand. Thus, the demand for air tickets to resort destinations (for example, Moscow - Sochi) is not independent, but depends on the demand for summer holidays in this place. It is very important that not only the demand for some consumer goods is arbitrary, as in the above example, but also the demand for all arbitrary goods.

If a firm produces goods of derivative demand, then in order to plan its behavior in the market, it is obligatory for it to study the factors of demand for final products, h a part of which are its products. That is, let's say, a manufacturer of wool yarn will act wisely if he regularly monitors the dynamics and trends in demand for jerseys, even if he does not produce them with a m. And sometimes it is useful to analyze not one, but two or three links in the technological chain. A nickel producer should be interested not only in the situation in ferrous metallurgy, where nickel is used as an additive to steel, but also in in the automotive industry, which is a major consumer of alloyed steel. And having learned, for example, about the increase in customs duties on foreign brands, the manufacturer can safely raise prices for nickel, since demand for it as a result growth in the output of domestic cars will inevitably increase.

An analysis of the logic of the buyer's behavior, which affects the market situation through demand and its changes, must be supplemented by consideration of the logic of behavior the seller, which is reflected in the patterns inherent in the proposal. And since you can only sell on a systematic basis what is produced so systematically by someone, then in the field on The attention inevitably comes to the manufacturer (by the way, often acting as a seller himself).

FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com Line (5) in fig. 3.3 is called the supply curve. It shows how much of a good producers are willing to sell at any given level of yen in a particular time period.

The movement along the supply creep reflects changes in the volume of supply caused only by the change in the yen, i.e., while other conditions remain unchanged.

In analytical form, the proposal can be presented in General view as a kind of function

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FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com Equations (3.9) and (EVIL) are executed simultaneously at the equilibrium point, i.e. form a system of equations.

FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com The equilibrium yen, formed as a result of the action of market competitive forces, performs the most important functions in the economy:

tire information - its value serves as a guideline for all subjects of the market economy;

I normalize - it normalizes the distribution of goods, giving a signal to the consumer about whether this product is available to him and how he can calculate the volume of consumption of the goods at a given level of income. At the same time, it affects the manufacturer, showing whether he can recoup his costs or he should be held back. well and t with me from production. Thus, the producer's demand for resources is normalized;

Stimulative, because it forces the manufacturer to expand or reduce production, change technology and assortment, so that the costs "fit" into the yen and remain have some profit.

It is obvious that selling (actual market) yens do not always coincide with equal weight ones, i.e. the market is not always in a state of equilibrium. However, the economy gravitates toward the state of equilibrium. And l and, otherwise, the state market equilibrium tends to be sustainable. To substantiate this statement, let's look at what happens in the event of a market imbalance.

FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com In other words, both possible deviations of the yen from the equilibrium are unstable. At the same time, internal market forces arise, striving to return the Situation to a state of equilibrium.

The explanation of the establishment of equilibrium due to fluctuations in u n, during which their increase or decrease leads the market to a state of equilibrium, belongs to the Schzeyiar economist L. Walras.

FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com Both approaches reflect market realities, and the action of each of them is better manifested in a very specific time interval period. Feeling a shortage of his own products, the manager in most cases raises the yen, sensing overstocking (an increase in the volume of unsold finished products), reduces them. Indeed, when goods have already been produced in a certain quantity, the only way to adjust the quantity supplied to the quantity demanded is by changing the yen. In other words, the size of production is given in the short run, and the variables are the yen.

Changes in the volume of supply (the mechanism for achieving equilibrium by A. Marshall), on the contrary, come to the fore in a long period. After all, having time, it is possible to build production capacities to satisfy any, even the largest volume of demand. The main thing is that this should bring profit And under such conditions, it is the yen that becomes the main reference point. Depending on how attractive it is, production is either increased or reduced. In other words, the yen acts as a given, and the supply of goods as a variable.

The models of establishing market equilibrium that we have considered are not the only approach to explaining the mechanism of formation of the equilibrium yen.

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FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com An example of elastic demand is the demand for luxury goods: jewelry, furs, caviar, etc. This is also typical for fairly expensive commodities such as cars, televisions, washing machines, audio and video equipment, personal computers. Demand is inelastic for essential goods with relatively low yen - bread, potatoes, clothes, shoes, underwear, travel by public transport, etc.

Giving a graphical interpretation of elasticity (Fig. 3.11), let us pay attention to the fact that, in the first approximation, the more In the strict sense, this is true only for graphs presented in the so-called double logarithmic axes. For our purposes, it is enough to understand that if through If two straight lines pass through a point, the straight line that looks more flat will be more elastic in the immediate vicinity of it. For simplicity, we will use such graphs in what follows.

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FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com my yen change. However, in order to carry out the corresponding calculations, it is necessary that the demand function be known.

The manager usually does not know this formula, nor does he know the demand curve. Instead, he has empirical data about the magnitude of demand for the firm's product at some discrete price levels. Suppose, as in our examples from the previous paragraph, he knows that if the yen is 30 rubles. demand with leaves 150 od. goods per week, and at a price of 40 rubles. - only 100 l.

About what the magnitude of demand would be, say, with a yen of 32 rubles.

52 kopecks, one can only guess.

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FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com Knowledge of cross elasticity is important for a manager for two reasons. First, cross elasticity shows the yen response of competing products.

FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com It is important for a producer of a certain type of wine, for example, to know whether (and if so, to what extent) the demand for its product while reducing the level and ene of other wines. Or does the unique taste and reputation of its wine make it unacceptable to competitors' yen. N and I elasticity exists not only in relation to others, but also in relation to their own products.

The latter, for example, is observed when a company produces a whole line of products (for example, televisions of several models). model, the manager must understand that this step will affect not only the demand for it, but also the sales volume of other models. It is quite possible, for example, that by lowering the yen for an expensive model, the firm will achieve not an increase in the overall demand for its products, but a simple redistribution of demand from one product to another.

Secondly, the value of cross elasticity allows you to clearly delineate the range of competing products. This is by no means a simple problem. The fact is that, speaking of complementarity, interchangeability and indifference of goods, we mean their economic, and not physical characteristics. For example, an apartment and a car in physical terms are not substitutes for them and, it seems, should not s compete. However, having spent money on a car, the consumer, quite possibly, will not find funds for the simultaneous expansion of living space. The other consumer, who is saving money for an apartment, will remain indifferent to any cars, not because he is not at all interested in us, but because everything since the money is not enough. That is, in the economic sense, the interchangeability of both goods is obvious: they are clearly "fighting" for the consumer. Correspondingly, the indicator of interchangeability will be a positive value of the coefficient o c r o ss e lasticity of both goods. Note that this is not an abstract theory. Russian sales of foreign cars are constantly seeing a decrease in demand for their products when profitable offers appear on the real estate market.

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FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com Variables vary drastically in different regions For example, if different advertising campaigns are run in different regions.

However, structural analysis is also not perfect.

The most obvious shortcoming is the incomparability of data across regions. After all, in addition to the variables being compared, the regions differ in the mass of parameters, including elusive ones. How to take into account, say, the impact on the demand for this refrigerator model of the sophistication of the capital's Muscovites, the intelligence of the inhabitants of Tomsk, the industrial mentality of Chelyabinsk residents and the seaside spirit of the population of Vladivostok? And this influence cannot be ignored either. It is quite possible that advertising that was effective in Moscow did not work in Tomsk, not because it was not intensive enough there (as the figures in the table show, for example), but because it seemed vulgar to Tomsk residents and pushed them away from buying the product.

The theory of data processing and interpretation that underlies passive methods of collecting information is studied in detail in the course of economic statistics.

Active methods of information gathering involve special efforts of the firm to obtain the necessary information, for example, firms conduct market research through direct contact with consumers through surveys, observations, surveys. Most commonly used: a) laboratory experiment; b) interviews, or surveys; c) market experiment.

In a laboratory experiment, an artificial choice situation is created for a certain group of potential consumers of a product. For example, everyone is given a certain amount of money and is allowed to spend it on the purchase of the product under study or competing products. By changing the price of the product, the amount of money given out, the social group of consumers involved in the experiment, and many other parameters, it is possible track how the demand for the product reacts to these changes.

Interviews, or surveys, involve asking actual or potential consumers of a given product certain questions. For example, you can ask all the customers in a store who have purchased beer from a competing brand about the reasons for this choice. And then ask them to what level it would be necessary to lower the yen for your company's beer in order for them to change their mind. You can ask customers who have already bought the product under study how much they would increase their consumption in the event of a 10% price reduction, and so on.

A market experiment involves changing the actual conditions of sale in limited (or better, isolated) market segments. For example, you can agree with the manager of a store that is remote from other outlets that the yen for the company's goods will be slightly higher or lower than the usual level. You can also start intensive advertising directed at any one group of consumers. Suppose, for a test, to show it not on the national, but on the cable television of the urban area. At the same time, it is necessary to organize the collection of information about the change in the level of demand by the consumers covered by the experiment.

The advantages of active methods of information collection lie primarily in their experimental nature. The manager can READ ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com and repeat the study many times, changing some of its parameters (say, the level of yen); may specify additional conditions (for example, offer a product in different packaging), may focus on different groups clients. Therefore, the information obtained by active methods is usually very valuable.

A common drawback of all active methods is the high cost of their application. Such studies involve the hiring of special personnel or distraction from the main duties of employees of the company, encouraging clients for agreeing to participate in the experiment, concluding agreements with trade organizations on its conduct, etc. For laboratory experiments and interviews, a special problem is their isolation from reality. The client spends specially issued money in a completely different way than his own, and the answers to questions do not always correspond to real behavior. Market experiments are carried out in an environment close to normal business conditions. But such experiments are especially difficult to organize: not every firm works with isolated groups of consumers, most often the market cannot be divided into parts where the experiment is carried out and ordinary commerce takes place. In addition, market experiments tend to become known to competitors, which provokes countermeasures.

The principles of active information collection are studied in detail in the marketing course, and the methods for correctly setting up experiments (conducting surveys) and processing the data obtained are studied in the course of economic statistics. Based on the collected data, the manager needs to choose the type of equations to describe the demand curve of interest to the firm. This is achieved by an approximate comparison of the values ​​of the independent variables and the volumes of demand corresponding to them. If this relationship is approximately linear (say, each doubling of advertising intensity increases the level of demand by 2.5-3 times), then the equation will look like The choice of such a function is justified when the data shows that an increase in, say, advertising intensity leads not just to an increase in the volume of demand, but to its accelerating growth.

Practice shows that demand modeling using linear equations usually gives fairly accurate results and there is no need to resort to more complex nonlinear models. After the stage of choosing a model, the stage of its analysis follows. To build a demand curve, the so-called regression analysis is used, by means of which the dependence of a certain indicator (in our case, the demand value) on several independent variables (regressors) is clarified. Most of the calculations regress ONLY FOR INFORMATION www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com language such a line is called a trend line). The statistical method used to find the trend line is called the least squares method and is used in the analysis of most regressions, including non-linear ones, and taking into account not one, but many variables.

The vertical distance between the points shown on the graph and the straight line are called deviations, or spreads. Obviously, the less accurately the trend line is drawn through the points, the greater the deviations will be. The least squares method assumes that the optimal trend line will be such a straight line, for which the deviations will be minimal. There is a math Based on the resulting equation, the manager can predict that the sales volume of refrigerators at a yen of 10 thousand rubles.

will be equal to 20 thousand pieces. in a year. This prediction will be rather arbitrary, since the demand for refrigerators that the manager is interested in depends not only on the yen, but also on other factors. To further refine the forecast, a regression equation is needed that allows one to take into account their influence.

If a certain parameter is affected by more than one independent variable, then the multiple regression method is used to construct the equation, within which the least squares method is also applied. Multiple linear regression requires a set of observations for all variables that affect the demand for refrigerators (for example, fully completed tables such as tables 3.4 and/or 3.5). Suppose that by entering the available data into a computer and using a program for regression analysis, we obtain an equation. Substituting the expected values ​​​​of independent variables (yen, household income, advertising spending) into this equation, a manager can forecast the demand for refrigerators, taking into account the actual the effects of all the factors present in the equation. It can "lose" on the model and different scenarios. For example, to establish how it is more profitable for a company to attract consumers - by reducing the yen. More precisely, the coefficients are selected so that the sum of squared deviations is minimal. By the way, this is where the name of the method comes from, FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com In these situations, a relatively modest improvement in quality or expansion of the sales network can also have a decisive impact on demand.

But it also happens, of course, that the consumer reacts almost exclusively to the level of the yen. The manager must know the elasticity of demand for all the controlled variables of his firm and use those that, at equal costs, give the greatest increase in demand 1.

Uncontrolled variables include variables that describe the behavior of competitors, consumers, the state, and the effect of other external factors. Thus, the firm's efforts are directly opposed by four strategic variables already familiar to us (yen, product quality, advertising efforts, density and geography of the sales network), but which are not at its disposal, but are subject to competing firms. The influence of this group of factors is similar to the effect of the yen of competing goods (substitute goods) that we have already described in the course of the analysis of cross elasticity.

The actions of competitors are deliberately directed against the firm.

However, just as the position of a firm depends on the behavior of its competitors, the well-being of the latter can be destroyed as a result of the actions of this firm. This creates a kind of system of checks and balances. For example, a firm's threat to respond to a competitor's price cuts with even sharper price cuts may deter competitors from yen aggression. In the same way, a St. Petersburg milk producer planning an invasion of the Moscow market (expansion of the distribution network - Op) must understand that Muscovites may well open a “second front” in St. Petersburg itself in response. Therefore, almost all strategic variables at the disposal of competitors (yen, advertising activity, distribution network density and geography, but not the development of a new product - this is too long and creative process to be influenced from outside) are partly variables that can be influenced by a given firm.

The behavior of consumers, the state, and the influence of other factors (for example, the exchange rate or the weather) are not specifically directed against this firm. External shifts can be both favorable and unfavorable for the firm. But almost always these factors are not amenable to influence on her part 2.

For example, a firm is in no way able to influence the level of income of the population of the country or a summer drought.

The general principle of demand management is to:

It is optimal to use four controllable strategic variables to achieve its desired volume;

Instead of elasticity of demand in these fields, one can also use the estimated regression coefficients discussed in the previous paragraph.

The exception is the tastes and preferences of consumers, which can be influenced to some extent with the help of advertising and marketing tools.

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Strive to influence variables that are partially amenable to influence in such a way as to prevent them from changing in an undesirable direction for the company, and if this is not possible, at least to foresee the dynamics of these variables and take appropriate protective measures. measures;

Predict the development of other uncontrolled variables and build the company's policy in accordance with the forecast.

We still have to talk in detail about the manager's use of advertising and product characteristics in order to manage demand (see Chapters 6 and 7) and, of course, discuss the effect of pricing policy on the level of demand many times (see Chapters 6, 9 and 10).

Now it is important to understand the general principle of managing demand with the help of yen. More precisely, to discuss the problem of demand response to changes in the yen by one firm, and not by the entire industry.

Factors that determine the size and price elasticity of industry-wide demand are extremely important for the practical activity of any firm, since they characterize the market in which it does business. In other words, the patterns of industry-wide demand make it possible to understand the characteristics of the environment in which both a given firm and its competitors exist simultaneously. Nevertheless, the manager must take into account that industry demand and demand for the products of a particular company are far from the same. Consider, as an example, the situation that develops with some well-known product, say, with aspirin (acetyl salicylic acid). The overall demand for this well-known analgesic and antipyretic agent is certainly relatively inelastic. To verify this, it suffices to evaluate the previously mentioned elasticity factors for a given product. It is easy to see that all major factors force the consumer to buy aspirin, even if the yen for it is high or rising rapidly (many people need this drug; there is no exact replacement for it; buying a package does not go broke; illness does not bark to postpone the purchase until later). That is, industry demand for acetylsalicylic acid should indeed be inelastic.

Turning to the analysis of the elasticity of demand for products manufactured by a particular manufacturer, however, we will encounter a fundamentally different situation. In the pharmaceutical market of Russia, for example, there are constantly at least a dozen domestic variants of acetylsalicylic acid, a number of relatively cheap foreign analogues of the same drug, a significantly more expensive upsarin (trademark of acetylsalicylic acid from the UPSA company) and aspirin itself (this trademark is owned by Bayer). In other words, the buyer usually faces the question not of whether to buy acetylsalicylic acid at all, but of which of its varieties to choose.

And here comes to the fore the joint with competitors or, on the contrary, the unilateral nature of price changes by the firm.

If all the aspirin manufacturers, for some reason, raise the yen (for example, due to the imposition of a new tax), then each of them will experience only a small change in demand for their products:

the low elasticity of demand for a common pain will affect ONLY FOR INFORMATION www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com And only outside the segment AB, when the yen of the second product approaches the yen for a better (or, on the contrary, worse) product, substitution processes will begin actively, and cross elasticity will again come to the fore. When approaching the yen P 3, the second product will quickly lose its adherence, which, for the same money, will prefer to choose a better product. And if the yen drops to a level close to RI, the number of buyers of the second product will be sharply replenished by those who before that could only afford the product N-T. defectors" and from the group of consumers of the best quality product No. 3. They may be tempted by the unusual cheapness of product No. 2 and for the sake of this give up their usually high quality requirements, As a result, the demand curve for a differentiated product with a unilateral change in its yen acquires a characteristic zigzag shape: on the central segment AB, changes in yen cause moderate changes in demand (the elasticity is small ), but at the edges (outside the segment AB), the reaction of demand to a change in yen will be very sharp (high elasticity).

In addition to qualitative (in the narrow sense of the word) and price differences between goods, consumer loyalty to a particular product can be ensured by its properties. So, many buyers prefer the Zhiguli station wagon (“four”) to other VAZ cars, not because this car is cheaper or better than others, but because it has a more spacious body.

12B FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com namely to sharply raise the yen for basalt fiber and thereby significantly increase your income?

The paradox is resolved if one takes into account the predominance of either total or cross elasticity at different levels of yen. Figure 3.24 gives a graphical interpretation of the situation.

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SECTION II

MANAGER

AS A MANUFACTURER:

PRICE OPTIMIZATION

AND OUTPUT VOLUME

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FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com to conduct business economically. That is, the task of minimizing accounting costs comes to the fore.

And yet, opportunity costs should not be forgotten either.

The equipment of the flax mill makes it possible to produce several rolls of end products. On which of them is it more profitable to stay?

Or in what proportions should several types of goods be produced? In seeking answers to such questions, the problem of economic costs comes forward again.

Thus, in the practical activities of a manager, accounting and economic methods constantly change and refine each other, ultimately allowing you to make the most reasonable commercial decisions. .

We emphasize in particular that both the concept of accounting costs and the concept of opportunity costs are equally applicable to both transformation (production) and transaction costs. In the examples cited earlier, more was said about production costs, but all that has been said fully applies to transacionic costs as well.

Let's say that advertising costs (typical tran sac and ion costs) can also be estimated in terms of fees per impression. commercials on television (accounting approach), and by comparing with the commercial results of other ways of using resources. For example, you can estimate the lost income that would have occurred if the money had not been spent on advertising, but was spent on improving the quality of the product (alternative approach).

An analysis of the nature of costs gives us the key to determining profit (traditionally denoted by the Greek letter p o y p).

In general, profit is the difference between total revenue (TR)1 from product sales and total costs (TC). If resource costs are estimated using the accounting method, then the difference between revenue and accounting costs is about a z u e t accounting profit:

The letter designation is an abbreviation of the English words “total return *.

The letter designation is an abbreviation of the English words "total costs *.

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At zero volume of production, gross total costs are equal to the value of fixed costs. Further, when increasing the volume of production, gross costs increase by the sum of variable costs at the corresponding point.

We see that the TC curve repeats the configuration of the TVC curve, but is located above the latter by the amount of fixed costs (Fig. 4.5).

In fact, the gross cost graph is obtained by vertically summing the TFC line and the TVC curve. This technique - vertical summation - we will subsequently use repeatedly in the graphical interpretation of many economic processes. Vertical alignment (summation of data) is used whenever certain cost parameters refer to the same product units.

So, in our case, to produce 100 units of goods, you need to incur both fixed and variable costs. It is clear that the total costs will be added from their sum.

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FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com any maintenance or misuse. This form is not related to the release of products and can be classified as a fixed cost.

Physical wear and tear of the first kind is a normal and economically justified phenomenon. In contrast, the second kind of wear and tear, although absolutely inevitable in some proportions, is in general an example of an inefficient use of resources. After all, the costs in this case are not associated with any useful result.

The task of the manager, in principle, is to reduce, and even better - to avoid physical wear and tear of the second kind. And in those cases when it is associated with elementary mismanagement (improper storage, violation of operating rules, etc.), taking measures to prevent it is a direct responsibility of the company's management. But often the prevention of wear costs itself requires significant costs. For example, reducing the wear and tear of cars in the winter involves the cost of building (and then maintaining) a heated garage.

In such cases, the manager will have to decide which costs are lower:

on physical depreciation of the second kind or on its prevention.

We will talk about how the quantities are compared in Chapter 11, but for now let's just notice that this is another alternative choice problem.

The decrease in the value of capital goods may not be connected with the loss of their functional characteristics. In this case, we are dealing with obsolescence. Traditionally, there are two kinds. Moral obsolescence of the first kind is due to the increase in the efficiency of the production of capital goods. It is caused by the emergence of similar but cheaper capital goods. For example, if your firm bought Pentium IV computers a year ago, but due to unexpected problems with renting a room, it could not install them and kept them brand new in stock, now the yen of this type of computer has still decreased. During this time, I learned how to more efficiently produce Pentium IV processors, and it became possible to buy exactly the same computers as yours much cheaper.

Obsolescence of the second kind is associated with the emergence of new capital goods that perform similar functions, but are more perfect and productive. As a result, the value of old capital goods decreases. So, with the advent of a more productive Pentium V, the yen of other Pentiums fell.

Obsolescence is very widespread in the modern economy. He can comprehend virtually any long-lived economic benefits, including even intangible assets. Under intangible assets are understood the exclusive rights of the company to intellectual property. These objects include such results of intellectual activity as inventions, industrial designs and models, computer programs and databases, know-how and secret formulas, as well as scientific and commercial experience. It is clear that the physical deterioration of, say, the formula of a drug is impossible. But it can become obsolete and lose value due to this. In most cases, it is even possible to predict, for www.moimirknig.com ONLY FOR INFORMATION, for www.mirknig.com, how many years, for example, one generation of AI will be replaced by another.

In addition to the results of intellectual activity, the firm's intangible assets own exclusive rights to the trademark, trade names, and a positive business relationship. e p u t a i i i f i r m y. Oddly enough, and they are subject to obsolescence. For example, a certain shoe brand will go out of fashion, becoming associated not with high quality, but with the style of clothing of the past decade. The rate of depreciation of intangible assets of this kind, however, is very uncertain, one brand lasts for decades, the other "dies" in a few years.

Ultimately, any obsolescence, no matter how long-term goods it occurs, can be considered as a decrease in their market yen, not caused by these capital goods themselves losing their original use properties. Both forms of obsolescence are the result of technical progress. From the point of view of the entire economy, they are justified and even necessary, since as a result of the replacement of morally obsolete goods, the old equipment, technologies, brands, and so on are replaced by more progressive ones. As a result, the overall efficiency of production increases. At the same time, for a particular firm, this positive phenomenon has no negative features: it turns into an increase in costs.

Moral obsolescence is not a consequence of a change in the volume of production, so it should be classified as a fixed cost. Physical wear and tear, as we remember, is partly related to the scale of output (the first form), and partly not (the second form ). Figure 4.6 summarizes the relationship between different forms of depreciation and the main types of costs.

In economic literature, the term "depreciation" is used in two senses. This is how depreciation itself is called (the phrase “the degree of depreciation of equipment at the plant reaches 60%” means that it is worn out by 60%), and the accumulation of funds in order to compensate for depreciation in depreciation and aeration about m fund.

The features of depreciation also predetermine a specific way of reimbursing the costs of capital resources or their reproduction.

Capital goods last more than one year, their value is transferred to manufactured products gradually, as they wear out. It is obvious that the costs of financial money for the purchase of machinery, equipment, facilities, etc. (often millions and even billions

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FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com depreciation deductions determines the amount of the taxable income tax base. Depreciation (especially moral) is difficult to objectively account for. In addition, as already noted, the entire period of service of a capital good, it has the character of internal costs - in the current period, the company does not need to make any payments due to incomplete depreciation. In the absence of rules for the implementation of depreciation deductions, nothing prevents the company from overestimating the amount of depreciation on paper. Accordingly, the costs of the firm will increase, and profits (again, on paper; it may not remain at all. To prevent firms from engaging in such abuses, the state introduces certain rules for calculating depreciation rates.

The principles of establishing depreciation rates are as follows.

1. First of all, the range of depreciation objects is determined. For example, in Russia, in accordance with the current Tax Code, depreciable property includes fixed assets with a useful life of more than 12 months and a value of more than 10,000 rubles, as well as intangible assets accounted for for tax purposes.

2. Next, the service life of the assets is set. In our country, 10 depreciation groups are distinguished depending on the typical useful life of the respective assets. At the same time, for each object, the company determines this period independently, but taking into account the Classification of fixed assets included in depreciation groups approved by the Government of the Russian Federation.

3. Finally, formulas for calculating depreciation deductions are legally fixed. In accordance with the Tax Code of the Russian Federation, a firm has the right to choose one of two depreciation methods.

1. Linear method. The essence of this method is to evenly distribute the amount of deductions over the entire life of the equipment or other capital goods. Using

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FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com which, in principle, would have to be postponed for the future replacement of a hundred night fleet, may well be used to pay off debts for electricity. However, the fact that depreciation charges are practically indistinguishable from funds of a different origin when a firm spends its money on certain needs does not mean that their special nature does not matter.

Depreciation should be at least sufficient to replace worn-out equipment and other capital goods. Compliance with this principle is crucial for the successful functioning of an economic entity. If the firm does not renew capital resources in a timely manner and depreciation funds are used for other purposes, i.e. not for the reproduction of worn-out capital goods (but for example, for the payment of wages, replenishment of raw materials, repayment of accounts payable), then the capital base of the company narrows, or lezinvestirovanie.

Such a policy affects the long-term aspects of the firm's activities. Since there is no money to buy new equipment to replace worn-out equipment, a reduction in the scale of production becomes inevitable. Often there is a deterioration in the current financial condition of the company. Of course, due to depreciation deductions, it is possible (and even necessary!) to repay a “burning” bank loan or pay taxes in a timely manner, thereby avoiding bankruptcy today. Similar phenomena have been repeatedly observed in Russian practice in recent years. But already tomorrow, outdated, often breaking equipment will become a bottleneck in production. The low quality of manufactured products, the increased consumption of energy and materials, the high percentage of rejects, the irregularity of production due to breakdowns will be retribution for the misappropriation of depreciation funds. In other words, variable resources replenished at the expense of depreciation funds, combined with worn-out (and therefore inefficient!) fixed resources, also do not give the proper return, are used inefficiently.

The result is an increase in variable costs. Therefore, even having spent depreciation funds for other purposes, the company in the future, as soon as possible, must find money to restore depreciation savings. replacement of depreciated capital goods.

It can be said that the depreciation fund that is not formed in the accounting department must necessarily exist in the head of the manager.

Otherwise, the company will have a bad future.

At the same time, not allocating accumulated depreciation charges to a separate account is not a whim of accountants. The renewal of worn-out equipment is not an end in itself, but part of the company's overall investment policy. Worn-out machines should be replaced with the same ones, but with new ones, or more productive machines should be purchased, i.e. not just to compensate for the disposal of equipment, but to create a basis for expanding production? Or maybe it's better to switch to a new production technology that will require fundamentally different equipment ONLY FOR INTRODUCTION www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com? Or, finally, is it most expedient to take advantage of the failure of existing machines to painlessly stop the production of a natural product and switch to a different assortment and make investments for a new product?

Summarizing, we can say that in practice the replacement of worn-out equipment is inseparable from the acquisition of a machine park for the expansion of production, as well as from its technological restructuring. The use of investment deductions to compensate for depreciation from this point of view should be considered as an investment project and, in this capacity, compete with other investment projects for the right to be implemented5.

4.4. AVERAGE AND MARGINAL COSTS

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FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com Marginal Cost Dynamics

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FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com a year. This position of the weights is displayed by the curve of short-term average costs of ATC], corresponding to a given scale of production (Fig. 4.12). What happens, however, when demand increases?

When deciding on a plant expansion option, the manager will take into account two main factors: the amount of demand and the value of the costs at which the required volume of production can be produced. It is necessary to choose the scale of production that will ensure the satisfaction of demand at the minimum cost per unit of output.

Here, points and intersections of neighboring curves of short-term average costs are of fundamental importance (points A and B in Fig. 4.1-2). Comparison of the volumes of production corresponding to these points and the magnitude of demand determine the need to increase the scale of production. In our example, if the demand does not exceed 120 thousand cars per year (i.e., does not reach point A), it is advisable to carry out production at the scale described by the ATC\ curve, i.e. at existing facilities. In this case, the average cost is minimal.

If demand grows stronger, then there is no point in “holding on” to existing capacities: with large output values, the ATC] curve grows very quickly. At the same time, if demand has grown to less than 280,000 vehicles per year, a plant with a production scale described by the ATC2 curve will be the most suitable. If the demand exceeds 280,000 cars a year, it will be necessary to expand the scale of production to the size described by the ATC3 curve.

In the long run, there will be enough time to implement any possible investment project. Therefore, in our example, the long-run average cost curve will consist of successive segments of the short-run average cost curves up to the points of their intersection with the next such curve (the thick wavy line in Fig. 4.12).

Thus, the LATC long-run cost curve defines the dynamics of the minimum achievable cost per unit of production with the growth of production in the long run (ie, taking into account the possibility of changing the scale of arbitrariness).

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FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com costs (AFC). A monotonous decrease along a hyperbola will be periodically interrupted by abrupt returns to more high levels. Thus, many types of costs, traditionally perceived as fixed, in practice often show their variable nature.

At the same time, some of the variable costs in real situations can exhibit pronounced features of constancy. For example, the wages of the personnel of a trade enterprise as a whole should be classified as variable costs, as they change with the growth of production (trade turnover). But by hiring one more salesman in the grocery department, the entrepreneur actually incurs fixed costs. After all, a worker's wages are fixed, no matter how much pasta or rice he sells in a day.

The gross variable and average variable cost curves (TVC and AVQ, therefore, also become discontinuous, as shown in Fig. 4.17. They have the familiar form of smooth curves only when viewed in general, so to speak, from a bird's eye view (On the graph, these generalized trend lines are shown as blurry bars.) A more detailed structure of gross variable costs (TVQ is a system of “mini-targets” on which they are constant.

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In particular, we will make sure that in a number of cases the correct distribution of the costs incurred between jointly manufactured goods is achieved through the optimization of the production of all these goods. to a single whole, and not by calculating the costs for each product separately.

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1) the intervals between measurements cannot be regarded as extremely small. In connection with this, the obtained value of MC should be interpreted as a certain average for the corresponding interval. Here, the manager may be trapped by the incompatibility of costs arising from changes in yens related to different periods*. To overcome this difficulty, it is useful to recalculate all costs as if the yen were not changing (say, they were at the current level all the time).

Such approximately estimated marginal costs are called gradient or incremental costs. We still have to actively use the last term (see paragraph 6.3), in connection with which we already now enter in the table the corresponding letter designation - 1C.

FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com (in the table and on the graph, we did not accidentally place the data on the size of the MC between the points of real measurements of average costs);

2) measurements are usually extremely unevenly distributed. They often occur in a certain range of capacity utilization (in our example, between 2000 units and 4000 units) and much less frequently beyond it. Accordingly, rare, fragmentary information is not always reliable.

Nevertheless, estimates obtained by the described method are quite suitable for practical application. For example, if the firm earns 4 rubles from the sale of each unit of production, then it is clear that increasing output beyond 2600-2700 units. (see the graph in Fig. 4.18) is clearly inappropriate. After all, the marginal cost of the output of additional goods after exceeding these volumes will be more than 4 rubles. and their production, therefore, will bring nothing but losses to the firm (the logic of making such decisions is discussed in more detail in Chapters 5 and 6).

What does the marginal cost curve usually look like for real firms? Numerous statistical studies conducted in developed countries around the world (there is no such information for Russia, but there are no reasons for the general pattern to be violated in our country) show that in the operating range of production capacity utilization (i.e. close to to the technological optimum), the value of marginal costs is constant and approximately equal to the value of average variable costs, or for

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FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com Market competition is the struggle for limited consumer demand, waged between firms in parts (segments) of the market accessible to them. In a market economy, competition performs an important function a counterbalance to the individualism of market participants and, at the same time, its addition. It is especially important that competition is restrained by the egoism of producers. It forces them to take into account the interests of the consumer, and hence the interests of society in the realm.

Indeed, formally, a manufacturer can release an arbitrarily bad product (say, to save on costs). However, the consumer, comparing the set of competing goods, will select from them only those that are most attractive to him. It is their manufacturers who will be able to sell their products. Other goods will remain unclaimed, and the firms that released them, instead of the expected savings, will receive losses.

In other words, if there were no competitive environment in a market economy, an individual (for example, a manufacturer) would have the opportunity to satisfy his own interests, regardless of others. In the conditions of competition, the only way to realize one's own interest is to take into account the interests of others.

In essence, the competition of competing firms is conducted for the best satisfaction of other people's needs.

Thus, the essence of competitive relations is closely connected with two circumstances.

First, with the competition of economic agents for the possession of some limited resource. Most often, limited effective demand acts as such a resource. And as a means of competition - giving the product attractive characteristics (price and non-price), ensuring the choice of this particular product by the consumer.

Secondly, with the thawing of economic power. When it is absent, the consumer has no choice and is forced either to fully agree to the conditions dictated by the manufacturer, or to be completely left without the good he needs. On the contrary, when economic power is split and the consumer deals with many suppliers of similar goods, he becomes able to choose the one which best suits his needs and financial capabilities.

According to the degree of development of competition in economic theory, four main types of market are distinguished:

1) the market of perfect competition;

2) the market of imperfect competition, which, in turn, is divided into:

a) monopolistic competition

b) an oligopoly;

c) a monopoly.

In a market of perfect competition, the splitting of economic power is maximal and the mechanisms of competition operate in full force. There are many manufacturers operating here, deprived of any leverage to impose their will on consumers. With imperfect competition, the splitting of economic power is weaker or non-existent. Therefore, the manufacturer acquires a certain degree of influence on the market.

FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com The degree of runk imperfection depends on the type of imperfect competition. In conditions of monopolistic competition, it is small and is associated only with the ability of the manufacturer to produce special varieties of goods that differ from those of competitors. Under an oligopoly, the imperfection of the market is significant and is dictated by the small number of firms operating on it.

Finally, monopoly means that only one producer dominates the market. The four main types of market can not only be classified as markets of perfect or imperfect competition, but also polypolistic and oligopolistic markets can be distinguished among them. With this approach, the central attention is paid to whether there are a lot of economic entities operating on the market (in this case they speak of polypoly markets) or a limited number of them (in this case they are called oligopolistic markets).

The first type includes perfect and monopolistic competition, as well as "broad" (with a relatively large number of participants) oligopoly. The mechanisms of the functioning of the market in a polypoly are determined to a decisive extent by the competition of participants, although this competition is not necessarily perfect. The second type - oligopoly in the broad sense - includes most of the varieties of oligopolistic markets proper, as well as monopoly. Here, it is not so much competition that comes to the fore, but rather the coordination of the actions of the participants up to their complete collusion, or the sole decision-making by the only (or dominant in the market) firm.

The described classification is of particular importance for state regulation of the economy. More precisely, the state usually refrains from intervening in the functioning of polypoly markets and necessarily regulates oligopolistic markets in one way or another.

As we can see, the classification of markets focuses on one side of competition - the degree of splitting of economic power. It is this emphasis that will be made in the next few chapters of our textbook. This will make it possible to understand in what environment the firm and its management have to operate in each of these markets.

The second side of the competition - the competition of participants - for the time being will remain in the shadows. We will return to it when considering the problems of the firm. The emphasis in the analysis will then shift to the principles of entrepreneurship (and, accordingly, to the activities of managers who perform the functions of an entrepreneur).

Now we will consider in detail the situation that develops in the market of perfect competition.

Perfect competition is a theoretical model of a certain ideal market in which numerous economic agents, strictly rationally pursuing their own selfish interests (them and only them!) And not having any restrictions in their activities. Essentially, this model explains how, in a market without central planning or any other form of conscious coordination between producers and consumers, the main problems of the firm are solved. FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com Two principal ways of increasing profits are particularly clearly visible.

This can be achieved:

9 boosting average profit An, i.e. the amount of profit contained in each commodity sold, or

By increasing the implementation size, i.e. the number of goods sold.

–  –  –

FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com therefore it is depicted as realistically as possible, exactly as it usually looks in practice: in a certain range of production volumes (from QA to QB), the level of variable costs is kept at almost constant and close to to the minimum level. And then, when approaching full capacity utilization, 5 goes up sharply.

Pay attention to the fact that the position of the first critical point depends more on average constants, while the second - on average variable costs. Indeed, the graph clearly shows that in the region of the first point, the contribution of variable costs to the total value of average total costs is small. Faculty of Sociology, SU-HSE Kozhevnikova Evgeniya Social...»

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1 RECOMMENDATION LIST of educational literature for students of the 1st year of the master's program in the direction of "Management" for the 2012/2013 academic year in the disciplines: 1. MODERN PROBLEMS OF THE NATIONAL ECONOMY - National economy: Textbook / Ed. R.M. Nureeva .- M .: INFRA-M, THEORY OF ECONOMY AND LAW - Economic Law: Textbook / VZFEI; A.G. Chepurnoy and others - M.: Vuzovsky textbook: INFRA-M, FOREIGN BUSINESS LANGUAGE English - Krylova I.P., Krylova E.V. Practical Grammar of the English Language: Textbook. 2nd ed. Revised M.: Chero. Yurayt, 2000, 2001,2002, Raitskaya L. (Raitskaya L.K.). Macmillan Guide to Economics + CD-ROM / Raitskaya L. (Raitskaya L.K.). Edelvives: B.I., MATHEMATICAL METHODS IN MANAGEMENT - Garmash A.N., Orlova I.V. Mathematical methods in management: Textbook / VZFEI .- M .: High school textbook: INFRA-M, Orlova I.V. Economic-Mathematical Methods and Models: Computer Modeling: Study Guide / I.V. Orlova, V.A. Polovnikov; VZFEI. - M .: Vuzovsky textbook, 2011, (Vuzovsky textbook). 5. METHODS OF COMPUTER FORMATION OF MANAGEMENT DECISIONS - Information systems in economics: Textbook / VZFEI; Ed. A.N. Romanova, B.E. Odintsova. - 2nd ed. - M.: Vuzovsky textbook, Odintsov B.E. Back calculations in formation economic solution: Textbook .- M .: Finance and statistics, MANAGEMENT ECONOMY - Microeconomics: a practical approach: (Managerial Economics): Textbook / ed. A.G. Gryaznova, A.Yu. Yudanov. - M.: KnoRus, THEORY OF ORGANIZATION AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR - Lapygin Yu.N. Organization Theory and Organizational Behavior: Textbook / VZFEI.- M .: INFRA-M, CORPORATE FINANCE

2 RECOMMENDATION LIST of textbooks for 1st year students Master's program in "Economics" for the 2012/2013 academic year in the disciplines: 1. MODERN PROBLEMS OF NATIONAL ECONOMY - National Economics: Textbook / Ed. R.M. Nureeva .- M .: INFRA-M, THEORY OF ECONOMY AND LAW - Economic Law: Textbook / VZFEI; A.G. Chepurnoy and others - M.: Vuzovsky textbook: INFRA-M, FOREIGN BUSINESS LANGUAGE English - Krylova I.P., Krylova E.V. Practical Grammar of the English Language: Textbook. - 2nd ed., revised. - M.: Chero. Yurayt, 2000, 2001, Raitskaya L. (Raitskaya L.K.). Macmillan Guide to Economics + CD-ROM / Raitskaya L. (Raitskaya L.K.). - Edelvives: B.I., MATHEMATICAL METHODS IN ECONOMY - Garmash A.N., Orlova I.V. Mathematical methods in management: Textbook / VZFEI .- M .: High school textbook: INFRA-M, Orlova I.V. Economic-Mathematical Methods and Models: Computer Modeling: Study Guide / I.V. Orlova, V.A. Polovnikov; VZFEI. - M .: Vuzovsky textbook, 2011, (Vuzovsky textbook). 5. METHODS OF COMPUTER FORMATION OF ECONOMIC DECISIONS - Information systems in economics: Textbook / VZFEI; Ed. A.N. Romanova, B.E. Odintsova. - 2nd ed. - M .: High school textbook, - Odintsov B.E. Reverse calculations in the formation of economic decisions: Textbook. - M.: Finance and statistics, (scientific fund) 6. MACROECONOMICS - Mankiw N. Gregory. Principles of macroeconomics: Textbook. - 4th ed. - St. Petersburg: Peter, MICROECONOMICS - Cheremnykh Yu.N. Microeconomics. Advanced level: Textbook. - M.: INFRA-M, Mankiw N. Gregory. Principles of microeconomics: Principles of microeconomics: Textbook for universities. Per. from English - 4th ed. - St. Petersburg: Peter, ECONOMETRIKA

3 - Multivariate statistical analysis in economic problems: computer modeling in SPSS: Textbook / VZFEI; Ed. I.V. Orlova.- M.: Vuzovsky textbook, 2009, Orlova I.V. Economic-Mathematical Methods and Models: Computer Modeling: Study Guide / I.V. Orlova, V.A. Polovnikov; VZFEI. - M .: Vuzovsky textbook, 2011, (Vuzovsky textbook).

4 LIST OF MANDATORY educational literature for 2nd year students in the direction of "Management" master's program "Financial Management" for the 2012/2013 academic year in the disciplines: 1. RESEARCH METHODS IN MANAGEMENT - Ignatieva A.V. Study of control systems: Textbook / VZFEI. - 2nd ed.; revised and add. - M.: UNITI, MODERN STRATEGIC ANALYSIS Literature is not available 3. FINANCIAL INVESTMENTS - Lukasevich I.Ya. Investments / VZFEI .- M .: Vuzovsky textbook: INFRA - M, EVALUATION AND MANAGEMENT OF THE COST OF BUSINESS 5. INFORMATION RESOURCES AND TECHNOLOGIES IN FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT - Information systems and management technologies: Textbook / VZFEI; Ed. G.A. Titorenko. - 3rd ed. - M.: UNITI, 2010, Information systems in economics: Textbook / VZFEI; Ed. G.A. Titorenko. - M.: UNITI, 2006, Aliev V.S. Information technology and financial management systems: Textbook.- M.: FORUM: INFRA-M, Aliyev V.S. Workshop on business planning using the Project Expert program: Textbook .- M .: FORUM: INFRA-M, FINANCIAL MATHEMATICS - Financial mathematics: Math modeling financial market: Textbook / VZFEI; Ed. V.A. Polovnikova, Pilipenko A.I. - M.: Vuzovsky textbook, Orlova I.V. Economic-Mathematical Methods and Models: Computer Modeling: Study Guide / I.V. Orlova, V.A. Polovnikov; VZFEI. - M.: Vuzovsky textbook, 2011, Financial mathematics. - 2nd edition - (in press) 7. SHORT-TERM FINANCIAL POLICY - Likhacheva O.N. Long-term and short-term financial policy of the enterprise: Textbook / O.N. Likhacheva, S.A. Shchurov; VZFEI;

5 Ed. AND I. Lukasevich.- M.: Vuzovsky textbook, p.- (Vuzovsky textbook). 8. MANAGEMENT OF INVESTMENT PROJECTS - Lukasevich I.Ya. Investments / VZFEI. - M .: Vuzovsky textbook: INFRA M, INTERNATIONAL FINANCIAL REPORTING STANDARDS (optional disciplines) - Vakhrushina M.A. International Financial Reporting Standards: Textbook / VZFEI. - 4th ed.; revised and additional - M .: Reed Group, 2011.

6 LIST OF MANDATORY educational literature for 2nd year students in the direction of "Economics" master's program "Accounting, analysis, audit" for the 2012/2013 academic year in the disciplines: 1. SYSTEM OF INTERNATIONAL ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL REPORTING STANDARDS (advanced level) - Vakhrushina M .BUT. International Financial Reporting Standards: Textbook / VZFEI. - 4th ed.; revised and additional. - M.: Reed Group, MODERN CONCEPTS OF ACCOUNTING AND REPORTING - Vakhrushina M.A. Accounting management accounting: Textbook / VZFEI .- M .: CJSC .: Finstatinform, 2005, 2006, Babaev Yu.A. Accounting: Textbook / VZFEI; Yu.A. Babaev, L.A. Melnikov; Ed. Yu.A. Babaeva. - 3rd ed.; revised and additional - M .: Prospekt, Vakhrushina M.A. International Financial Reporting Standards: Textbook / VZFEI. - 4th ed.; revised and additional - M.: Reed Group, COMPREHENSIVE ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES - Comprehensive economic analysis of economic activity: Textbook / VZFEI; Ed. M.A. Vakhrushina.- M.: University textbook, LABORATORY WORKSHOP ON ACCOUNTING - Ponomareva L.V. Laboratory workshop on accounting (cross-cutting task): Textbook /L.V. Ponomarev; VZFEI.- M.: Vuzovsky textbook, STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND ANALYSIS - Vakhrushina M.A. Strategic Management Accounting: Full course MBA / M.A. Vakhrushina, M.I. Sidorova, L.I. Borisov; VZFEI .- M .: Reed Group, ACCOUNTING AND AUDIT IN THE SERVICE SECTOR - Accounting in the service sector: Textbook / Ed. M.A. Vakhrushina.- M.: Reed Group, (National economic Education) 7. FORENSIC ACCOUNTING EXAMINATION

7 - Kevorkova Zh.A., Savin A.A. Forensic accounting expertise: Workshop: Textbook / VZFEI.- M.: UNITI, Forensic accounting expertise: Textbook / VZFEI; Ed. E.S. Rossinskaya, N.D. Eriashvili, Zh.A. Kevorkova.- 3rd ed.- M.: UNITY, ACCOUNTING - Klimova M.A. Accounting: Textbook / M.A. Klimova.- M.: INFRA-M, ACCOUNTING AND CONTROL IN STATE INSTITUTIONS - Sosnauskene O.I. Budget accounting in a new way: a practical guide for an accountant. - M .: Reed Group, (Accounting step by step).

LIST of educational literature for students of the 1st year of the master's program in the direction 38.04.02 "Management" (master's program "Business Management") in the disciplines: 1. MODERN PROBLEMS OF THE NATIONAL ECONOMY

Educational literature for students of the 3rd year of specialty 0604 "Finance and Credit" for the 2012/2013 academic year 1. BUSINESS COMMUNICATION - Psychology and ethics of business communication: Textbook / Ed. Lavrinenko V.N. M.:

Specialties 0611 "Management of the organization" of the specialization "Production management" 1. ANTI-CRISIS MANAGEMENT - Antonova O.V. Crisis Management of an Organization (Enterprise): Textbook

LIST of educational literature for 6th year students 080109.65 Accounting, analysis and audit (specialization "Accounting, analysis and audit in commercial organizations") in the disciplines: 1. PHYSICAL

LIST OF MANDATORY educational literature for 4th year students of the specialty "Finance and Credit (06.04) for the 2013/2014 academic year in the disciplines: SOCIOLOGY - Sociology: Textbook / Ed. Lavrinenko V.N.-

LIST OF MANDATORY educational literature for 1st year students bachelor 080200 "Management" for the 2012/2013 academic year in the disciplines: 1. FOREIGN LANGUAGE English - Krylova I.P., Krylova E.V. Practical

N p / p Name of the subject, discipline (module) in accordance with curriculum Providing educational program 080100.68 "Economics" profile "Accounting, analysis and audit" Code and name

Economics of the organization General professional disciplines. 1 Economics of the organization (enterprise): Textbook for cf. specialist. educational institutions/ ON THE. Safronov. - 2nd ed., with rev. - M.: Master: NIC Infra-M, 2013.

Ministry of Agriculture Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education "Novosibirsk State Agrarian University" INTERDISCIPLINARY INTRODUCTION PROGRAM

The program of entrance examinations in the direction 38.04.02 "MANAGEMENT" DISCIPLINE "FUNDAMENTALS OF MANAGEMENT" 1. Approaches to the definition of the concept of "management". The essence and content of management as a science and art

Dagestan state institute National Economy Ashurbekova Zainab Narimanovna Department "Finance and Credit-1" List of literature for extracurricular independent work of students 3

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF RUSSIA Federal State Educational Budgetary Institution of Higher Education Financial University under the Government of the Russian Federation (Financial University) Yaroslavl Branch

Information support of the educational process with educational literature in the specialty 080118 "Insurance business" p / p Name of the cycle / discipline Basic educational literature Available General humanitarian

Program entrance test to the master's program "State and municipal management" Approved at the meeting of the Academic Council of the PVGUS "August 31, 2016". 1. Municipality as a socio-economic

April 2014 tutorial/ ed. B.E. Odintsova, A.N. Romanova. - M.: Vuzovsky textbook: - M.: INFRA-M, 2013. - 478s. 6.2ya73

FEDERAL AGENCY OF RAILWAY TRANSPORT Federal state budgetary educational institution of higher professional education "MOSCOW STATE UNIVERSITY OF COMMUNICATIONS"

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Transbaikal State University"

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION FEDERAL STATE AUTONOMOUS EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION "National Research Nuclear University

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Siberian State Industrial University"

MANAGEMENT Practicum For teaching university students in the field of study 100100.62 Service (bachelor), 080200.62 Management (bachelor) Under the general editorship of A.A. Larionova Moscow 2015 UDC 65.0(075.8)

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Pacific State University"

Federal State Educational Budgetary Institution of Higher Education "FINANCIAL UNIVERSITY UNDER THE GOVERNMENT OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION" (Financial University)

FEDERAL RAILWAY TRANSPORT AGENCY

FSBEI HPE "Mari State University" Institute of Economics, Management and Finance APPROVED Director of the Institute /_I.A. Lebedev_/ (signature/ Full name) 201_ WORKING PROGRAM Academic discipline

CONTENTS 1. PASSPORT OF THE WORKING PROGRAM OF THE EDUCATIONAL DISCIPLINE 2. STRUCTURE AND CONTENT OF THE EDUCATIONAL DISCIPLINE 3. CONDITIONS FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE WORKING PROGRAM OF THE EDUCATIONAL DISCIPLINE 4. CONTROL AND EVALUATION OF THE RESULTS OF MASTERING

Basic disciplines in the direction of Economics Foreign language Philosophy History Professional ethics and work etiquette Psychology Sociology Russian language and culture of speech History of the Kuban Linear algebra

BULLETIN OF NEW RECEIPT FOR DECEMBER 2015 Jurisprudence Syrykh V.M. History and methodology of legal science: textbook. - M.: Norma: INFRA-M, 2014. - 464 p. Kabashov S.Yu. Anti-corruption expertise

2 1. Contents of sections and topics academic discipline 1. The concept of management as a science, art of management and type of activity. 2. The purpose and objectives of the organization's management. Management principles. 3. Control functions

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERAL STATE BUDGET EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION “BELGOROD STATE TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY named after V.I. V.G. SHUKHOV"

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Murmansk State Humanitarian University"

1. Goals and objectives of the discipline: The purpose of studying the discipline "Managerial Accounting" is to form future masters of theoretical knowledge on building a management accounting system

Title page working curriculum F SO PSU 7.18.3/30 Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Kazakhstan Pavlodar State University named after. S. Toraigyrova Department of Mathematics WORKING

SUMMARY TO THE WORKING PROGRAM OF THE PROFESSIONAL MODULE PM.03 Organization of the activities of the production unit for the specialty 13.02.11

Thematic recruitment plan for the 2017-2018 academic year Life safety, textbook and workshop for free software, Yurayt, 2017. 2 Kazakevich T.A. Documentary

Information on methodological and other documents developed for the educational process in the direction 080500.62 "Business Informatics" 1. Educational and methodological support for independent work of students

Direction of training "Applied Informatics" way to the world of information and information technologies "Who owns information, owns the world" Nathan Rothschild DEPARTMENT "Information technologies" HEAD

I GENERAL PROVISIONS The program is intended for graduates of undergraduate and specialist programs. The main goal of implementing programs in the direction of "Economics" is the development of students' personal

Methodological and other documents developed by teachers to ensure the educational process Direction of preparation: 38.03.01 Economics Name of textbooks, educational and methodical, methodical

Ministry of Economic Development and Trade of the Russian Federation State University - Higher School of Economics Nizhny Novgorod Branch Faculty of Economics Department of Financial Management Program

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION State educational institution of higher professional education "Murmansk State University for the Humanities" (MGGU)

APPROVED Vice-Rector for scientific work Belarusian State University (name of the institution of higher education) A.V. Danilchenko (signature) (date of approval) (I.O. Surname) Registration UD-

PRIVATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION "MINSK INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT" APPROVED by the Rector of the Minsk Institute of Management NV Susha 2009 Registration UD-/base. ECONOMIC COMPUTER SCIENCE Curriculum for the specialty

LIBRARY FUNDS: As of 01/01/2015, the total book fund is 122.736 By types of publications, the fund is distributed as follows: educational literature 55.5%, educational and methodical 21%, scientific 13%, reference

The program of the certification exam "Economics" Direction 09.03.03 Applied Informatics Profile Applied Informatics in Economics (graduation 2016/2016 7 academic year) In the discipline "Macroeconomics" 1. Gross

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF RUSSIA Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Nizhny Novgorod State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering" (NNGASU)

Federal Agency for Education Glazov Institute of Engineering and Economics (branch) of the State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Izhevsk State Technical

Qualification (degree) - bachelor Term of study - years Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education

Faculty of Banking Department of Banking Yudina IN Banking system in developing economies: Experience of formation, development and crises: monograph. / I. N. Yudina. - M.: RIOR; INFRA-M, 2013.

The Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

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References 1. Ardatova, M.M. Logistics in questions and answers: a guide / M.M. Ardatov. M. : Prospekt, 2005. 269 p. : tab. 2. Afanasenko, I.D. Supply logistics: [textbook for universities] / I.D.

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education "Kuban State Technological University" A.E. Arutyunova,

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Vladivostok Branch of the Russian Customs Academy

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