What explains the diversity of literary movements of the 19th century. Major literary movements

The beginning of the 19th century was a unique time for Russian literature. In literary salons, on the pages of magazines, there was a struggle between supporters of various literary trends: classicism and sentimentalism, the educational trend and the emerging romanticism.

In the first years of the 19th century, the dominant position in Russian literature was occupied by sentimentalism, inextricably linked with the names of Karamzin and his followers. And in 1803, a book was published entitled “Discourses on the old and new style of the Russian language”, the author of which A.S. Shishkov subjected the “new style” of sentimentalists to very strong criticism. Followers of the Karamzin reform literary language give the classicist Shishkov a sharp rebuke. A long controversy begins, in which all the literary forces of that time were involved to one degree or another.

Why did the controversy on a special literary issue acquire such social significance? First of all, because behind the discussions about style there were more global problems: how to portray a person of the new time, who should be a positive and who should be a negative hero, what is freedom and what is patriotism. After all, these are not just words - this is an understanding of life, and therefore its reflection in literature.

Classicists with their very clear principles and rules, they brought into the literary process such important qualities of the hero as honor, dignity, patriotism, without blurring space and time, thereby bringing the hero closer to reality. They showed it in a "truthful language", conveying a sublime civil content. These features will remain in the literature of the 19th century, despite the fact that classicism itself will leave the stage of literary life. When you read "Woe from Wit" by A. S. Griboyedov, see for yourself.

close to the classicists enlighteners, for which political and philosophical themes, of course, were leading, most often turned to the ode genre. But under their pen, the ode from the classic genre turned into a lyrical one. Because the most important task of the poet-educator is to show his civic position, to express the feelings that take possession of him. In the 19th century, the poetry of the Romantic Decembrists will be inextricably linked with educational ideas.

There seemed to be a certain affinity between enlighteners and sentimentalists. However, this was not the case. Enlighteners also reproach the sentimentalists with "feigned sensitivity", "false compassion", "sighs of love", "passionate exclamations", as the classicists did.

sentimentalists, despite excessive (from a modern point of view) melancholy and sensitivity, they show a sincere interest in a person’s personality, his character. They begin to be interested in an ordinary, simple person, his inner world. A new hero appears - a real person, interesting to others. And with it, ordinary, everyday life comes to the pages of works of art. It was Karamzin who first made an attempt to reveal this topic. His novel A Knight of Our Time opens a gallery of such heroes.

romantic lyrics- it's basically the lyrics of moods. Romantics deny the vulgar everyday life, they are interested in the spiritual and emotional nature of the personality, its aspiration to the mysterious infinity of a vague ideal. The innovation of the romantics in the artistic knowledge of reality consisted in a polemic with the fundamental ideas of enlightenment aesthetics, the assertion that art is an imitation of nature. Romantics defended the thesis of the transformative role of art. The romantic poet thinks of himself as a creator creating his own new world because the old way of life does not suit him. Reality, full of insoluble contradictions, was subjected to the most severe criticism by the romantics. The world of spiritual unrest is seen by the poets as enigmatic and mysterious, expressing the dream of the ideal of beauty, of moral and ethical harmony.

In Russia, romanticism acquires a pronounced national identity. Remember the romantic poems and poems of A. S. Pushkin and M. Yu. Lermontov, the early works of N. V. Gogol.

Romanticism in Russia is not only a new literary trend. Romantic writers not only create works, they are the "creators" of their own biography, which will eventually become their "moral history". In the future, in Russian culture, the idea of ​​the inseparable connection between art and self-education, the way of life of the artist and his work, will become stronger and more established. Gogol will reflect on this on the pages of his romantic story "Portrait".

See how intricately intertwined styles and views, artistic means, philosophical ideas and life ...

As a result of the interaction of all these areas in Russia, a realism as a new stage in the knowledge of man and his life in literature. A. S. Pushkin is considered to be the ancestor of this trend. It can be said that the beginning of the 19th century was the era of the birth and formation of two leading literary methods in Russia: romanticism and realism.

The literature of this period had another peculiarity. This is the unconditional predominance of poetry over prose.

Once Pushkin, while still a young poet, admired the poems of one young man and showed them to his friend and teacher K. N. Batyushkov. He read and returned the manuscript to Pushkin, indifferently remarking: "But who does not write smooth poetry now!"

This story speaks volumes. The ability to write poetry was then a necessary part of the noble culture. And against this background, the appearance of Pushkin was not accidental, it was prepared by a general high level of culture, including poetry.

Pushkin had predecessors who prepared his poetry, and contemporary poets - friends and rivals. All of them represented the golden age of Russian poetry, as they call the 10-30s of the 19th century. Pushkin- starting point. Around him, we distinguish three generations of Russian poets - the older, the middle (to which Alexander Sergeevich himself belonged) and the younger. The division is conditional, and of course simplifies the real picture.

Let's start with the older generation. Ivan Andreevich Krylov(1769-1844) by birth and upbringing belonged to the 18th century. However, he began to write the fables that glorified him only in the 19th century, and although his talent manifested itself only in this genre, Krylov became the harbinger of new poetry, accessible to the reader by language, which opened the world to him folk wisdom. I. A. Krylov stood at the origins of Russian realism.

It should be noted that the main problem of poetry at all times, and at the beginning of the 19th century too, is the problem of language. The content of poetry is unchanged, but the form... Revolutions and reforms in poetry are always linguistic. Such a "revolution" took place in the work of Pushkin's poetic teachers - V. A. Zhukovsky and K. N. Batyushkov.
With works Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky(1783-1852) you have already met. You probably remember his "The Tale of Tsar Berendey ...", the ballad "Svetlana", but perhaps you do not know that many works of foreign poetry you read were translated by this lyricist. Zhukovsky is a great translator. He "got used" to the text he translated so much that the result was an original work. This happened with many of the ballads he translated. However, the poet's own poetic work was of great importance in Russian literature. He abandoned the ponderous, outdated, pompous language of 18th century poetry, immersed the reader in the world of emotional experiences, created new image a poet who subtly feels the beauty of nature, melancholic, prone to tender sadness and reflections on the transience of human life.

Zhukovsky is the founder of Russian romanticism, one of the founders of the so-called "light poetry". "Light" not in the sense of frivolous, but in contrast to the former, solemn poetry, created as if for the palace halls. Zhukovsky's favorite genres are elegy and song addressed to a close circle of friends, created in silence and solitude. Their content is deeply personal dreams and memories. Instead of grandiloquent thunder - melodiousness, the musical sound of the verse, which expresses the feelings of the poet more strongly than written words. No wonder Pushkin in his famous poem "I remember a wonderful moment ..." used the image created by Zhukovsky - "the genius of pure beauty."

Another poet of the older generation of the golden age of poetry - Konstantin Nikolaevich Batyushkov(1787-1855). His favorite genre is the friendly message, which celebrates the simple joys of life.

Pushkin highly valued the lyrics of the legendary Denis Vasilyevich Davydov(1784-1839) - hero Patriotic War 1812, organizer of partisan detachments. In the poems of this author, the romance of military life, hussar life is sung. Not considering himself a true poet, Davydov neglected poetic conventions, and from this his poems only benefited in liveliness and immediacy.

As for the middle generation, in it Pushkin valued above others Evgeny Abramovich Baratynsky(Boratynsky) (1800-1844). He called his work "the poetry of thought." it philosophical lyrics. The hero of Baratynsky's poems is disappointed in life, sees in it a chain of senseless suffering, and even love does not become salvation.

Lyceum friend of Pushkin Delvig gained popularity with songs "in the Russian spirit" (his romance "The Nightingale" to the music of A. Alyabyev is widely known). languages became known for his image of a student - a merry fellow and a freethinker, a kind of Russian vagant. Vyazemsky possessed a merciless irony that permeated his mundane on the topic and at the same time deep in thought poems.

At the same time, another tradition of Russian poetry continued to exist and develop - the civil one. She was associated with names Kondraty Fedorovich Ryleev (1795—1826), Alexander Alexandrovich Bestuzhev (1797—1837), Wilhelm Karlovich Kuchelbecker(years of life - 1797-1846) and many other poets. They saw in poetry a means of fighting for political freedom, and in the poet - not a "pet of the muses", a "son of laziness", avoiding public life, but a stern citizen calling for a battle for the bright ideals of justice.

The words of these poets did not differ from their deeds: all of them were participants in the uprising on Senate Square in 1825, they were convicted (and Ryleev was executed) in the “December 14 case”. “Bitter is the fate of the poets of all tribes; Fate is executing Russia the hardest of all ... ”- this is how V.K. Kuchelbecker began his poem. It was the last one he wrote with his own hand: the years of prison deprived him of his sight.

Meanwhile, a new generation of poets was taking shape. The first poems were written by a young Lermontov. A society arose in Moscow wisdom— lovers of philosophy who interpreted German philosophy in the Russian manner. These were the future founders of Slavophilism Stepan Petrovich Shevyrev (1806—1861), Alexey Stepanovich Khomyakov(1804-1860) and others. The most gifted poet of this circle was the early deceased Dmitry Vladimirovich Venevitinov(1805—1827).

And another interesting phenomenon of this period. Many of the poets we named, in one way or another, turned to folk poetic traditions, to folklore. But since they were nobles, their works "in the Russian spirit" were nevertheless perceived as a stylization, as something secondary in comparison with the main line of their poetry. And in the 30s of the 19th century, a poet appeared who, both by origin and by the spirit of his work, was a representative of the people. it Alexey Vasilievich Koltsov(1809-1842). He spoke in the voice of a Russian peasant, and there was no artificiality, no play in it, it was his own voice, suddenly standing out from the nameless choir of Russian folk poetry.
Russian literature of the first half of the 19th century was so multifaceted.

The 19th century gave rise to a large number of talented Russian prose writers and poets. Their works quickly broke into and took their rightful place in it. The work of many authors around the world was influenced by them. The general characteristics of Russian literature of the 19th century became the subject of a separate section in literary criticism. Undoubtedly, events in political and social life served as prerequisites for such a rapid cultural take-off.

Story

The main trends in art and literature are formed under the influence of historical events. If in the 18th century Russia was relatively measured, then the next century included many important ups and downs that influenced not only further development society and politics, but also on the formation of new trends and trends in literature.

The striking historical milestones of this period were the war with Turkey, the invasion of the Napoleonic army, the execution of oppositionists, the abolition of serfdom and many other events. All of them are reflected in art and culture. A general description of Russian literature of the 19th century cannot do without mentioning the creation of new stylistic norms. The genius of the art of the word was A. S. Pushkin. This great century begins with his work.

Literary language

The main merit of the brilliant Russian poet was the creation of new poetic forms, stylistic devices and unique, previously unused plots. Pushkin managed to achieve this thanks to the comprehensive development and excellent education. Once he set himself the goal of achieving all the heights in education. And he reached it by his thirty-seven years. Pushkin's heroes became atypical and new for that time. The image of Tatyana Larina combines beauty, intelligence and features of the Russian soul. This literary type had no analogues in our literature before.

Answering the question: “What is the general characteristic of Russian literature of the 19th century?”, A person who has at least basic philological knowledge will remember such names as Pushkin, Chekhov, Dostoevsky. But it was the author of "Eugene Onegin" who made a revolution in Russian literature.

Romanticism

This concept originates from the Western medieval epic. But to XIX century it has acquired new shades. Having originated in Germany, romanticism also penetrated the work of Russian authors. In prose, this direction is characterized by the desire for mystical motives and folk legends. In poetry, there is a desire to transform life for the better and chanting folk heroes. The opposition and their tragic end have become fertile ground for poetic creativity.

The general characteristic of Russian literature of the 19th century is marked by romantic moods in the lyrics, which were quite common in the poems of Pushkin and other poets of his galaxy.

As for prose, new forms of the story appeared here, among which important place occupies the fantasy genre. Vivid examples of romantic prose are the early works of Nikolai Gogol.

Sentimentalism

With the development of this direction, Russian literature of the 19th century begins. General prose is about sensuality and an emphasis on the reader's perception. Sentimentalism penetrated into Russian literature at the end of the 18th century. Karamzin became the founder of the Russian tradition in this genre. In the 19th century, he had a number of followers.

satirical prose

It was at this time that satirical and journalistic works appeared. This trend can be traced primarily in the work of Gogol. Starting his creative path with a description of his small homeland, this author later moved on to all-Russian social topics. It is difficult to imagine today what Russian literature of the 19th century would be without this master of satire. The general characterization of his prose in this genre is reduced not only to a critical look at the stupidity and parasitism of the landowners. The satirist writer "walked" through almost all sectors of society.

The masterpiece of satirical prose was the novel "Lord Golovlev", dedicated to the theme of the poor spiritual world of the landowners. Subsequently, the work of Saltykov-Shchedrin, like the books of many other satirical writers, became the starting point for the emergence

realistic novel

In the second half of the century, the development of realistic prose takes place. Romantic ideals proved untenable. There was a need to show the world as it really is. Dostoevsky's prose is an integral part of such a thing as Russian literature of the 19th century. The general characteristic is briefly a list important features this period and the prerequisites for the emergence of certain phenomena. As for the realistic prose of Dostoevsky, it can be characterized as follows: the stories and novels of this author were a reaction to the moods that prevailed in society in those years. Depicting in his works the prototypes of people he knew, he sought to consider and solve the most pressing issues of the society in which he moved.

In the first decades, Mikhail Kutuzov was glorified in the country, then the romantic Decembrists. This is clearly evidenced by Russian literature of the early 19th century. A general description of the end of the century fits in a couple of words. This is a revaluation of values. It was not the fate of the whole people that came to the fore, but of its individual representatives. Hence the appearance in prose of the image of the “superfluous person”.

folk poem

In the years when the realistic novel took the leading position, poetry faded into the background. A general description of the development of Russian literature in the 19th century allows us to trace a long path from dreamy poetry to a true novel. In this atmosphere, Nekrasov creates his brilliant work. But his work can hardly be attributed to one of the leading genres of the mentioned period. The author combined several genres in his poem: peasant, heroic, revolutionary.

End of the century

At the end of the 19th century, Chekhov became one of the most widely read authors. Despite the fact that at the beginning creative way critics accused the writer of coldness to current social topics, his works received undeniable public recognition. Continuing to develop the image little man”, created by Pushkin, Chekhov studied the Russian soul. Various philosophical and political ideas that were developed at the end of the 19th century could not but affect the lives of individuals.

Revolutionary sentiments prevailed in late 19th-century literature. Among the authors whose work was at the turn of the century, one of the most prominent personalities was Maxim Gorky.

The general characteristics of the 19th century deserve closer attention. Each major representative of this period created his own art world, whose heroes dreamed of the unrealizable, struggled with social evil or experienced their own little tragedy. And the main task of their authors was to reflect the realities of the century, rich in social and political events.

The 19th century is one of the most significant in Russian literature. It was this era that gave the world the names of the great classics, who influenced not only Russian, but also world culture. The main ideas inherent in the literature of this time are the growth of the human soul, the struggle between good and evil, the triumph of morality and purity.

Difference from the previous century

Giving general characteristics Russian literature of the 19th century, it can be noted that the previous century was distinguished by a very calm development. Throughout the previous century, poets and writers sang of the dignity of man, tried to instill high moral ideals. And only at the end of the century more daring and bold works began to appear - the authors began to focus on human psychology, his experiences and feelings.

Reasons for flourishing

In the process of working on homework or a report on the topic “General characteristics of Russian literature of the 19th century”, the student may experience legitimate question: what caused these changes, why literature was able to achieve such high level development? The reason for this was social events - this is the war with Turkey, and the invasion of Napoleonic troops, and the abolition of serfdom, and public reprisals against oppositionists. All this led to the fact that completely new stylistic devices began to be applied in literature. Working on a general description of Russian literature of the 19th century, it is worth mentioning that this era rightfully went down in history as the "Golden Age".

Orientation of literature

Russian literature of that time was distinguished by a very bold formulation of questions about the meaning of human existence, about the most pressing socio-political, moral and ethical problems. The significance of these questions she deduces far beyond the limits of her historical epoch. When preparing a general description of Russian literature of the 19th century, one must remember that it became one of the most powerful means of influencing both Russian and foreign readers, gaining fame as an influential force in the development of education.

Epoch phenomenon

If it is necessary to give a brief general description of Russian literature of the 19th century, it can be noted that the common feature of this era was such a phenomenon as “literary centrism”. This means that literature has become a way of conveying ideas and opinions in political disputes. It has become a powerful tool for expressing ideology, defining value orientations and ideals.

It is impossible to say unequivocally whether this is good or bad. Of course, giving a general description of Russian literature of the 19th century, one can reproach the literature of that time for being too "preaching", "mentoring". Indeed, it is often said that the desire to become a prophet can lead to inappropriate guardianship. And this is fraught with the development of intolerance towards dissent of any kind. Of course, there is some truth in such reasoning, however, when giving a general description of Russian literature of the 19th century, it is necessary to take into account the historical realities in which writers, poets, and critics of that time lived. AI Herzen, when he found himself in exile, described this phenomenon as follows: "For a people who have been deprived of freedom of speech and self-expression, literature remains almost the only outlet."

The role of literature in society

Almost the same thing was said by N. G. Chernyshevsky: “Literature in our country still concentrates the entire mental life of the people.” Pay attention to the word "yet" here. Chernyshevsky, who argued that literature is a textbook of life, still recognized that the mental life of the people should not be constantly concentrated in it. However, "for now", in those conditions of Russian reality, it was she who took on this function.

Modern society should be grateful to those writers and poets who, in the most difficult social conditions, despite persecution (it is worth remembering the same N. G. Chernyshevsky, F. M. Dostoevsky and others), with the help of their works contributed to the awakening of a bright man, spirituality, adherence to principles, active opposition to evil, honesty and mercy. Considering all this, we can agree with the opinion expressed by N. A. Nekrasov in his message to Leo Tolstoy in 1856: “The role of a writer in our country, first of all, is the role of a teacher.”

Common and different in the representatives of the "Golden Age"

When preparing materials on the topic “General characteristics of Russian classical literature of the 19th century”, it is worth saying that all representatives of the “Golden Age” were different, their world was unique and peculiar. Writers of that time are difficult to sum up under any one general image. After all, every true artist (this word means a poet, a composer, and a painter) creates his own world, guided by personal principles. For example, the world of Leo Tolstoy is not similar to the world of Dostoevsky. Saltykov-Shchedrin perceived and transformed reality differently than, for example, Goncharov. However, representatives of the "Golden Age" and common feature- this is a responsibility to the reader, a talent, a high idea of ​​the role that literature plays in a person's life.

General characteristics of Russian literature of the 19th century: table

The "Golden Age" is the time of writers of completely different literary movements. First, let's look at them in pivot table, after which each of the directions will be considered in more detail.

Russian literature of this era was a reflection of the leap that was made in the previous century. The "Golden Age" began mainly with the flowering of two currents - sentimentalism and romanticism. Since the middle of the century, the direction of realism has been gaining more and more power. Such is the general characteristic of Russian literature of the 19th century. The tablet will help the student to navigate the main trends and representatives of the "Golden Age". In the process of preparing for the lesson, it should be mentioned that the further socio-political situation in the country is becoming more and more tense, contradictions are growing between the oppressed classes and the common people. This leads to the fact that in the middle of the century the development of poetry somewhat calms down. And the end of an era is accompanied by revolutionary sentiments.

Classicism

This direction is worth mentioning, giving a general description of Russian literature of the early 19th century. After all, classicism, which arose a century ago before the beginning of the "Golden Age", primarily refers to its beginning. This term is translated from Latin means "exemplary" and is directly related to the imitation of classical images. This direction arose in France in the 17th century. At its core, it was associated with absolute monarchy and the establishment of the nobility. It is characterized by ideas of high civic topics, strict observance of the norms of creativity, established rules. Classicism reflects real life in ideal images that gravitate towards a particular model. This direction strictly adheres to the hierarchy of genres - the highest place among them is occupied by tragedy, ode and epic. It is they who illuminate the most important problems for society, are designed to reflect the highest, heroic manifestations of human nature. As a rule, "high" genres were opposed to "low" ones - fables, comedies, satirical and other works that also reflected reality.

Sentimentalism

Giving a general description of the development of Russian literature of the 19th century, one cannot fail to mention such a direction as sentimentalism. In him big role plays the voice of the narrator. This direction, as indicated in the table, is characterized by increased attention to the experiences of a person, to his inner world. This is the innovation of sentimentalism. In Russian literature special place among the works of sentimentalism is "Poor Liza" Karamzin.

Noteworthy are the words of the writer, which can characterize this direction: "And peasant women know how to love." Many argued that an ordinary person, a commoner and a peasant, is morally superior in many respects to a nobleman or a representative of high society. Landscape plays an important role in sentimentalism. This is not just a description of nature, but a reflection of the inner experiences of the characters.

Romanticism

This is one of the most controversial phenomena of Russian literature of the Golden Age. For more than a century and a half, there have been disputes about what lies at its basis, and no one has yet given any recognized definition of this trend. The representatives of this trend themselves emphasized the originality of the literature of each individual people. One cannot but agree with this opinion - in every country romanticism acquires its own features. Also, giving a general description of the development of Russian literature in the 19th century, it is worth noting that almost all representatives of romanticism stood up for social ideals, but they did it in different ways.

Representatives of this movement dreamed not of improving life in its particular manifestations, but of the complete resolution of all contradictions. Many romantics in their works are dominated by the mood of fighting evil, protesting against the injustice reigning in the world. Romantics also tend to turn to the mythological, fantasy, folk tales. In contrast to the direction of classicism, a serious influence is given to the inner world of a person.

Realism

The purpose of this direction is a truthful description of the surrounding reality. It is realism that matures on the soil of a tense political situation. Writers begin to turn to social problems, to objective reality. The three main realists of this era are Dostoevsky, Tolstoy and Turgenev. The main theme of this direction is life, customs, events from life ordinary people from the lower classes.

In the minds of people - readers and critics - of the 19th century, literature was endowed with an important role in public life. Reading was not entertainment, not a form of leisure, but a way of knowing reality. For the writer, creativity became an act of spiritual and civic service to society, he believed in the effective power of the artistic word, in the ability to elevate the human soul with its help, educate the mind and influence the socio-political situation.

From this faith was born the pathos of the struggle for one or another idea of ​​the transformation of the country, one way or another for the development of Russian life and literature. The 19th century was the heyday of Russian critical thought. The printed speeches of the best critics entered the golden fund of Russian culture and confirmed the high rank of criticism as a special kind of literature.

Slavophiles and Westernizers

In the 1840s, two public currents- Slavophiles (A.S. Khomyakov, brothers K.S. and I.S. Aksakov, brothers I.V. and P.V. Kireevsky) and Westerners (V.G. Belinsky, A.I. Herzen, N. P. Ogaryov, N.A. Nekrasov). Westerners saw in the reforms of Peter I the beginning of the historical development of Russia, and in following European traditions - its right path. They were skeptical about pre-Petrine Russia, considering the lack of a rich ancient history advantage of Russia: the key to the rapid assimilation of the progressive ideas of Western Europe.

During these years, among the Westerners, a radical movement was born, based on the teachings of the French utopian socialists - Saint-Simon and Fourier. At the apartment of M.V. Butashevich-Petrashevsky gathers a political circle, which includes young people who are passionate about socialist ideas. These meetings are also attended by writers, many of whom will later reconsider their attitude towards the Petrashevites - F.M. Dostoevsky, A.N. Maikov, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin and others.

Utopian socialists saw the main social evil in inequality, in a distorted social order. The way out, in their opinion, was to re-educate the ruling class. The most radical part of this movement considered revolution as the only possible way of social transformation.

The Slavophile program of reforming Russia was based on the ideas of an independent path of development of the country, independent of the West, with a history no less rich than that of Europe. “Inherited from the Orthodox East and rooted in the deep layers of national life, a special, far from similar to the Western, integral type of thinking, the Slavophiles considered the indisputable advantage of Russian culture, requiring its development and improvement,” writes the modern scientist Yu.V. Lebedev. The Slavophils accepted the assimilation of the achievements of Western civilization only to the extent that this did not contradict the foundations of Russian culture. And if the West directs concern for human life to improve external circumstances, then Orthodox Russia calls first of all to the moral perfection of man. European civilization, according to the Slavophiles, suffers from a spiritual disease of unbelief, individualism, deification of a person and disappointment in spiritual values.

The divergence in views on the fate of Russia between Westerners and Slavophiles was also expressed in those different assessments that were given by representatives of both philosophical currents to the work of N.V. Gogol. Westerners saw in this writer the ancestor of the socio-critical trend in Russian literature, while Slavophiles emphasized a special element of the author’s artistic worldview “ dead souls”- epic fullness and high prophetic pathos. However, both of them recognized Gogol's fruitful influence on the development of Russian literature as indisputable.

"Natural School"

In the 1840s, a galaxy of word artists grew up, creatively developing the achievements of an older contemporary. The group of writers who rallied around Belinsky was called the "natural school". The main object of the image in their work was the "unprivileged" estates (janitors, artisans, coachmen, beggars, peasants, etc.). The writers sought not only to give the word "humiliated and insulted", to reflect their way of life and customs, but also to show the whole vast Russia from a social point of view. At this time, the genre of “physiological essay” became popular, in which various social strata are described with scientific rigor, thoroughness and factual accuracy. Russian society(The best essays were written by N.A. Nekrasov, V.I. Dahl, I.I. Panaev, D.V. Grigorovich, I.S. Turgenev, G.I. Uspensky, F.M. Reshetnikov and others.) .

Revolutionary Democrats

By the beginning of the 1860s, the confrontation between Westernizers and Slavophiles had almost exhausted itself: by this time, the ideologist of Westernism V. G. Belinsky and the Slavophiles A.S. Khomyakov and P.V. Kireevsky. However, there was still no unity in the views of the Russian intelligentsia on the main issues of Russian life. In the context of a changing historical situation (rapid development of cities, industry, improvement of the education system), new forces come to literature - raznochintsy, people from different social strata (clergy, merchants, petty bourgeoisie, peasantry, bureaucracy and the impoverished nobility), who received education and broke away from the former its environment. In criticism and literature, the revolutionary democratic ideas laid down by Belinsky are being developed. Representatives of this trend put acute socio-political issues at the center of creativity.

The main tribune of the revolutionary-democratic wing of Russian criticism was the journals Sovremennik, Otechestvennye Zapiski, and Russkoye Slovo. The philosophical foundations of a critical approach to works of art were laid in the master's thesis by N.G. Chernyshevsky Aesthetic Relations of Art to Reality. The revolutionary democrats considered literature from the point of view of political and social significance, they treated the literary text as a reproduction of life, and on the basis of analysis artistic image passed a harsh judgment on reality. This method of analysis is a young talented critic N.A. Dobrolyubov called "real criticism."

"Aesthetic Criticism" and "Organic Criticism"

Didacticism in the perception of artistic creativity was not accepted by representatives of “aesthetic criticism” (V.P. Botkin, P.V. Annenkov, A.V. Druzhinin), who proclaimed the inherent value of art, its independence from social problems and utility tasks.

To overcome the limitations of "pure art", solving exclusively aesthetic problems, and social determinism (the subordination of creativity to political ideas, public interests), "organic criticism" sought. According to its principles developed by A.A. Grigoriev, and then N.N. Strakhov, true art is born, not “made”, it is the fruit not only of the mind, but also of the soul of the artist, his “thought of the heart”, all aspects of human existence are reflected in it.

Soilers and nihilists

These ideas were close to the socio-philosophical movement, which was called "pochvennichestvo". Its representatives (A.A. Grigoriev, P.P. Strakhov, F.M. Dostoevsky, N.Ya. Danilevsky), developing the views of the Slavophiles, warned against the danger of being carried away by social ideas in isolation from reality, traditions, people, and history. Thinkers urged to understand Russian life, to comprehend the ideal embedded in the people's consciousness, in order to derive the principles of the country's organic development. On the pages of the magazines "Vremya" and then "Epoch", the "soilers" criticized the self-confident rationalism of revolutionary-minded opponents, and the viability of philosophy and art was determined by the connection with folk life, Russian culture and history.

Soil scientists saw one of the main dangers in contemporary reality in nihilism (from Latin nihil - nothing). This phenomenon became widespread among young raznochintsy in the 1860s and was expressed in the denial of established norms of behavior, art, religion, historical traditions, cultural values, recognized authorities and the dominant worldview. Moral categories were replaced by the concepts of "benefit" and "pleasure".

The complex of spiritual, moral and socio-social problems associated with nihilism is reflected in the novel by I.S. Turgenev "Fathers and Sons" (1861), which caused a heated discussion in the press. Main character novel by Turgenev, Bazarov, who denies love, compassion, art and harmony, was enthusiastically received by D.I. Pisarev, the leading critic of the revolutionary-democratic journal Russkoye Slovo and the main ideologist of nihilism. In the proclamation of the “godless freedom” of man, in the destructive passion of a new phenomenon, many thinkers saw serious danger For Russia. In the literature of that time, a special genre of the “anti-nihilistic novel” was developing (I.A. Goncharov, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.F. Pisemsky, N.S. Leskov). An irreconcilable position in relation to the nihilist revolutionaries was occupied by the conservative journal Russky Vestnik, published by M.N. Katkov.

Development of the novel genre

In general, the literary process of the second half of XIX century was marked by the development of the genre of the novel in all its diversity: the epic novel (“War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy), the political novel (“What is to be done?” by N.G. Chernyshevsky), the social novel (“Lord Golovlyovs” by M. .E. Saltykov-Shchedrin), a psychological novel (“Crime and Punishment” and other works by F.M. Dostoevsky). The novel became the central epic genre of the era, most relevant to the most important task, which time put before the artist: to explore the complex interactions of man and the surrounding life.

Poetry of the 2nd half of the 19th century

After the golden age, having lost its dominant role as the ruler of thoughts and feelings, poetry continued to develop powerfully and pave the way for new ups and downs and discoveries. In the 1850s, poetry experienced a short but bright period of prosperity. The lyrics of "pure art" (A.A. Fet, Ya.P. Polonsky, A.N. Maikov) are gaining recognition and fame.

Attention to folk life, history, folklore, characteristic of literature in general, was also reflected in poetry. Main key points national history received poetic comprehension in the work of A.N. Maykova, A.K. Tolstoy, L.A. May. Folk legends, epics, songs determine the stylistic searches of these authors. The other wing of Russian poetry of the 1950s and 1960s (the work of the populists M.L. Mikhailov, D.D. Minaev, and V.S. Kurochkin) was called "civilian" and was associated with revolutionary democratic ideas. The undisputed authority for the poets of this trend was N.A. Nekrasov.

In the last third of the 19th century, the work of peasant poets I.Z. Surikova, L.N. Trefoleva, S.D. Drozhzhin, who continued the traditions of Koltsov and Nekrasov.

The poetry of the 1880s is characterized, on the one hand, by the development and enrichment of romantic traditions, and, on the other hand, by the enormous influence of Russian prose, the novels of Tolstoy and Dostoevsky with their deep and subtle psychological analysis of human character.

Dramaturgy of the 2nd half of the 19th century

The second half of the 19th century was the era of the formation of original national drama. Widespread use of folklore, attention to merchant and peasant life, folk language, interest in national history, social and moral issues, expansion and complication of the traditional genre range, a complex combination of romanticism and realism - such is general character works of Russian playwrights of the second half of the 19th century - A.N. Ostrovsky, A.K. Tolstoy, L.V. Sukhovo-Kobylin.

The variety of artistic forms and styles of drama in the 2nd half of the 19th century largely predetermined the emergence at the end of the century of such innovative phenomena as the dramaturgy of L.N. Tolstoy and A.P. Chekhov.