Proverbs about the family direct and figurative meaning. The emergence of proverbs, their direct and figurative meaning

EDUCATIONAL AND METHODOLOGICAL AID

FOR WORKING WITH PROVERBS

Developed by Isaeva Valentina Viktorovna

For successful work on proverbs, I used such a form of work as developing five minutes.

Lesson outline plan No. 1.

Proverbs: What goes around comes around; As it comes around, it will respond; If you wish well, do well.

Tasks:

1) introduce students to proverbs and consolidate knowledge,

2) to acquaint students with the presence of direct and figurative meaning in proverbs,

3) improve the ability to determine the direct meaning and figurative meaning,

5) foster a sense of camaraderie.

Equipment:

1. Dictionary.

2. Portrait of Leo Tolstoy.

The course of the developing five-minute:

A) Introduction:

Who can say what is written on the blackboard? (proverb)

Let's read them.

• What goes around comes around.
• As it comes around, so it will respond.
• If you wish well, do well.

How did you guess that proverbs are in front of you?

What is a proverb?

Proverb - This is a short (in 1 sentence) folk saying with a moralizing character.

What is moralizing? Pick up single words.

moralizing - teaching, suggestion of moral rules.

Proverbs are an oral small genre of folklore, that is folk art. What does oral mean? (not written, word of mouth)

B) Work on proverbs:

Now I will read you a fable written by L.N. Tolstoy, "The Ant and the Dove." Listen to her:

ANT AND DOVE

The ant went down to the stream: he wanted to get drunk. A wave swept over him and nearly drowned him. Dove carried a branch; she saw that the ant was drowning, and threw a branch into the stream for him. An ant sat on a branch and escaped. Then the hunter set the net on the dove and wanted to slam it shut. The ant crawled up to the hunter and bit him on the leg; the hunter groaned and dropped the net. The dove fluttered and flew away.

Which of these proverbs do you think fit the fable?

A proverb can have a direct meaning and figurative. What is the direct meaning of the proverbAs it comes around, it will respond»?

In what situation can we use it in the literal sense?

Does this proverb fit the fable?

Do we use it literally or figuratively in this case?

How do you understand the meaning of the proverb?What goes around comes around»?

You wish well - do well)

Does it have a direct and figurative meaning? (straight only)

Give the direct meaning of the proverb.

B) Summing up:

From this day on, there will be an innovation in our class. This is a box folk wisdom. Probably, you have already guessed what we will collect in it?

In it we will collect proverbs. We will get to know some of them in class. They will be written in black. But each of you can fill it yourself. If you find a proverb, then we will write it in our box in blue.

I hope that together we will find many wonderful and wise proverbs.

This lesson was held in the form of a developing five-minute. The concept of proverbs, literal and figurative sense was formed. Students successfully tried to independently determine the direct and figurative meaning of the proposed proverbs. Thus, a skill was formed by the ability to determine the presence of a direct and (or) figurative meaning.

In order to make the lesson interesting and students gain new knowledge, I tried to use various techniques, such as proverbs, Leo Tolstoy's fable "The Ant and the Dove". Particularly interesting was the work with the fable. The children were fascinated, as the material interested them, and they independently determined whether the proposed proverbs fit the fable, what the figurative meaning of the proverbs is.

The work with the “Body of Folk Wisdom” was also interesting, as some students were able to immediately recall several proverbs (basically, these were proverbs about friendship from school curriculum). And the rest of the students determined their direct and, if any, figurative meaning. Questions, especially of a problematic nature, were not left without attention, they forced students to think and thereby intensified their work in the lesson.

Abstract plan No. 2

Proverbs: A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush;

Tasks:

4) develop vocabulary students

5) to cultivate courage, endurance.

Equipment:

1.Dictionary.

The course of the developing five-minute:

A) Introduction:

Read the sentences on the board. What's in front of us?

• A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.
• Burnt child dreads the fire.

How do you understand their meaning? What are the proverbs about?

B) Work on proverbs:

Let's try to compare them. To compare means to determine what these proverbs have in common and how they differ.

What do these proverbs have in common?

What is the difference?

Now I will read you the figurative meaning of one of these proverbs, and you will say, the figurative meaning of which proverb I read.

One who has experienced many misfortunes becomes overly cautious and is afraid even of that which is not fraught with danger.

What do you think, the figurative meaning of which proverb I read? ()

Does this proverb have a direct meaning?

In what situation do we use this proverb in the literal sense?

And now let's work with the first proverb "Better a titmouse in the hands than a crane in the sky." Does it have a direct meaning?

Does the proverb have a figurative meaning? That is, can we say "shy crow" about a person? About what? In what situation?

C) Creative work:

Let's summarize the figurative meaning of the proverb "Better a titmouse in the hands than a crane in the sky." Let's create a model for this:

IT IS BETTER SOMETHING (SOMEONE) GOOD NEAR (NOW) THAN VERY GOOD FAR AWAY (IMPACTABLE).

Try to make your own proverb according to this model.

The session contributed to the achievement of the set goals. The students consolidated their knowledge of proverbs, learned interesting information associated with their origin. The guys also consolidated their knowledge of the Russian language, the proverb helped to make a smooth transition in the topic of the lesson. The children worked actively at the lesson due to the fact that it was quite interesting for them.

Particularly interesting was the work with the model. The students tried to make up their own proverbs. As a result, we got the following proverbs “Better cookies in hands than gingerbread in a store”, “Better a violet in a vase than a rose in the garden”. The teacher's story was preceded by questions aimed at enhancing the students' own knowledge. They allowed not only to update knowledge, but also to generalize and systematize it.

Outline plan No. 3

Proverbs: To be afraid of wolves - do not go into the forest; Burnt child dreads the fire; Fear has big eyes.

Tasks:

1) to consolidate students' knowledge of the literal and figurative meaning of proverbs,

2) improve the ability to determine the direct meaning and figurative meaning,

3) improve the ability to compare proverbs,

4) develop memory, speech,

5) educate willpower.

Equipment:

1.Dictionary.

2. Cards with the words of proverbs.

The course of the developing five-minute:

A) Introduction:

• be afraid of the wolves of the forest do not walk in– .
• crow and afraid of the Bush Scared.
• The fear of the eye is great.

• To be afraid of wolves - do not go into the forest.
• Burnt child dreads the fire.
• Fear has big eyes.

B) Work on proverbs:

What do all proverbs have in common?

What is the difference?

Listen to the poem:

The crow flew

Sat on a bush

Thinking that the bush

Safe and empty.

But in this bush

hid furtively

brave hunter

With a terrible slingshot.

He silently took aim

Bach! - And from the bush

The crow took off

Already without a tail.

What happened to the crow?

Another conversation

But very skittish

Raven ever since.

What proverb can we relate to this poem? (Burnt child dreads the fire) In what sense do we use it then? What is the figurative meaning of the proverb? (He who has experienced many misfortunes becomes overly cautious and is afraid even of what is not fraught with danger)

What is the direct meaning of the proverbTo be afraid of wolves - do not go into the forest"? What is the figurative meaning? (I got down to business, do not be afraid of difficulties)

Read the third proverb. (Fear has big eyes). Does it have a direct meaning? (Not)

What is the figurative meaning of the proverb? (A person seized with fear sees danger where there is none.)

C) Creative work:

In what situation can we use the proverb "To be afraid of wolves - do not go into the forest"? Let's figure it out together?

Outline plan No. 4

Proverbs: Do not be brave on the stove, but be brave on the field; He spoke day to evening, but there was nothing to listen to; Do not hurry with your tongue - hurry with your deeds.

Tasks:

1) to consolidate students' knowledge of the literal and figurative meaning of proverbs,

2) improve the ability to determine the direct meaning and figurative meaning,

3) improve the ability to compare proverbs,

4) develop monologue speech,

5) educate careful attitude to their native language, to their speech.

Equipment:

1.Dictionary.

2. Cards with parts of proverbs.

The course of the developing five-minute:

A) Introduction:

Proverbs are written on the board, but it seems to me that they are written incorrectly.

DON'T HAVE COURAGE ON THE FURNACE, AND THERE IS NOTHING TO LISTEN TO.

SPOKEN DAY TO EVENING - HURRY UP.

DO NOT HURRY WITH YOUR LANGUAGE, BUT HAVE COURAGE ON THE FIELD.

How do proverbs actually sound?

• Don't be brave on the stove, be brave on the field.
• He talked day and night, but there was nothing to listen to.
• Do not rush with my tongue - hurry up with business.

B) Work on proverbs:

What do proverbs have in common? What is the difference?

How do you understand the first proverb?Don't be brave on the stove, be brave on the field»?

What is its direct meaning? Do we use it?

Can the proverb be used today, because almost no one heats the house with a stove? In what sense are we then using the proverb? What is the figurative meaning of the proverb “Do not be brave on the stove, but be brave on the field”? (Don't be lazy and don't talk in vain)

He spoke day to evening, but there was nothing to listen to»?

What is the proverb about? To whom can we tell it? Does the proverb have a figurative meaning?

What do the first and second proverbs have in common?

How do you understand the last proverb?Don't hurry with your tongue - hurry up with your deeds»?

In what sense do we use it?

What is common between this proverb and the first?

What do the proverbs that we met today teach?

C) Creative work:

Let's draw two verbal pictures to the proverb "Do not be brave on the stove, but be brave on the field." The first will reflect the direct meaning, and the second figurative.

Analyzing this lesson, we can say: the main goals were achieved. Students learned about new proverbs and their figurative meaning. The students completed the given assignment correctly. In order for the lesson to be interesting and the students to gain new knowledge, I tried to use various techniques: illustrations, storytelling. Questions, especially of a problematic nature, were not left without attention, they forced students to think and thereby intensified their work in the classroom.

Abstract plan No. 5

Proverbs: Take care of the dress again, and honor from a young age; Good fame lies, and bad fame runs far.

Tasks:

1) to consolidate students' knowledge of the literal and figurative meaning of proverbs,

2) improve the ability to determine the direct meaning and figurative meaning,

3) improve the ability to compare proverbs,

4) enrich and activate the vocabulary of students,

5) cultivate honesty in thoughts and actions.

Equipment:

1.Dictionary.

The course of the developing five-minute:

A) Introduction:

Fill in the missing letters and read the sentences.

B_r_g_ dress sn_v_, and honor sm_l_d_.

The good sl_v_ lies, and the bad sl_k_ runs.

What's in front of us? (proverb)

How did you guess?

B) Work on proverbs:

Please note that proverbs often consist of two parts.

Name the first part of the first proverb. (Take care of the dress again)

Name the second part. (and honor from a young age).

Which part is more important?

What is honor?

AT explanatory dictionary S.I. Ozhegov indicated four definitions of "honor". Listen to them carefully and choose the most appropriate to the proverb "Take care of the dress again, and honor from a young age."

Honour - these are the moral qualities of a person worthy of respect and pride, his corresponding principles.

Honour - a good, spotless reputation, a good name. (!)

Honour - chastity, innocence.

Honour - honor, respect.

Who and to whom could say the words "Take care of the dress again, and honor from a young age»?

How do you understand the proverb? (FROM young years be careful in your actions and honest in your actions.)

Read the second proverbGood fame lies, and bad fame runs far". Are there two parts here too? Name the first one? Second?

How do you understand the meaning of this proverb? (Words of bad deeds travel faster than good deeds.)

What do these proverbs have in common?

What determines the glory and honor of a person?

C) Creative work:

Let's come up with a situation, the name of which is "Take care of the dress again, and honor from a young age."

On the whole, the session contributed to the achievement of the set goal. The students consolidated their knowledge of proverbs. Particularly interesting was the work with inventing the situation. The children were fascinated as the tasks interested them. Big role Questions played a role in updating the knowledge already available to children. The lesson was of great educational value.

Abstract plan No. 6

Proverbs: To live with wolves - howl like a wolf; The apple never falls far from the tree; What a tree, such is the wedge;

What is the father, such is the son.

Tasks:

1) to consolidate students' knowledge of the literal and figurative meaning of proverbs,

2) improve the ability to determine the direct meaning and figurative meaning,

3) improve the ability to compare proverbs,

4) develop students' vocabulary,

5) cultivate friendliness.

Equipment:

1.Dictionary.

The course of the developing five-minute:

A) Introduction:

Read the proverbs:

• To live with wolves is to howl like a wolf.
• What a tree, such is the wedge; What is the father, such is the son.
• The apple never falls far from the tree.

How do you understand the first proverb? Second? Third?

B) Work on proverbs:

Does the first proverb have "To live with wolves - howl like a wolf" figurative sense? (The need to adapt to others)

When can we use it?

What a tree, such is the wedge; what is the father, such is the son”) Who is this dad?

Batko - father, father, father.

What is a wedge?

Wedge - a piece of wood or metal tapering to its pointed end; the simplest tool of this form.

Who is the tree being compared to? Why?

Why is the son compared to a wedge?

What is the meaning of this proverb? (What are the parents, such are the children)

Read the third proverb. ("The apple never falls far from the tree»)

What is this proverb about, how do you understand it? What is its direct meaning?

What is meant by apple and apple tree? Portable? (Children often inherit the traits of their parents, especially their shortcomings and vices)

Which of these three proverbs are similar? How?

C) Creative work:

Remember fairy tales and others literary genres. About which of the heroes can we say "The apple does not fall far from the tree"?

Divide the sheet in half. Above, inscribe the proverb "The apple does not fall far from the tree." On the left side, write "direct meaning" and draw an illustration for it. On the right side, write "figurative meaning" and draw an illustration for it.

Analyzing this lesson, we can say: the main goals were achieved. Students consolidated knowledge about proverbs, about the reasons people use proverbs. In order to make the lesson interesting and students gain new knowledge, I tried to use various techniques: storytelling, illustrations. Questions, especially of a problematic nature, were not left without attention. The result of the five-minute session was especially successful, in which the teacher asked the students to remember literary works, to whose characters the proverb “An apple does not fall far from an apple tree” fits. The illustrations were also interesting. The students were asked to draw illustrations for the direct and figurative meaning of the proverb.

Abstract plan No. 7

Proverbs: You can’t throw a scarf over each mouth;

Someone else's mouth is not your own gate, you won't close it;

Whose field, that and will.

Tasks:

1) to consolidate students' knowledge of the literal and figurative meaning of proverbs,

2) improve the ability to determine the direct meaning and figurative meaning,

3) improve the ability to compare proverbs,

4) develop and enrich the vocabulary of students,

5) to cultivate respect for people, for the opinions and convictions of others.

Equipment:

1.Dictionary.

2. Reproduction of the painting by B.M. Kustodiev "Shrovetide"

The course of the developing five-minute:

A) Introduction:

The words in the proverbs are mixed up. Return them to their places and restore the desired shape.

Rotok handkerchief not to throw each On.

mouth - do not close someone else's gate, not your own.

and that field, Whose will.

What proverbs are written here?

• You can’t put a scarf on every mouth.
• Someone else's mouth is not your own gate, you can't close it.
• Whose field, that and will.

How do you understand the meaning of the first proverb? Second? Third?

B) Work on proverbs:

What is a mouthpiece?

Why in the proverbYou can’t put a scarf on every mouthIs this form of the word used?

Does the proverb have a figurative meaning? Which?(it is impossible to silence everyone)

Does the proverb have a direct meaning?

How do you understand the second proverb?Someone else's mouth is not your own gate, you won't close it»?

How is it similar to the first one?

How do you understand the meaning of the third proverb? Compare the proverbWhose field, that and will» with the previous ones.

What do these proverbs teach?

Remember the proverb: "Good fame lies, and bad fame runs far." What is common between those proverbs that we learned today and this one?

C) Creative work:

Imagine a noisy and cheerful bazaar on Maslenitsa. What could happen on it if Arkhip said to Prokhor in the end: “You can’t put a scarf on every mouth.”

Analyzing this lesson, we can say that the main objectives of the lesson were achieved. In order for the lesson to be interesting and the students to gain new knowledge, I tried to use various techniques: storytelling, illustrations. Questions, especially of a problematic nature, were not left without attention, they forced students to think and thereby intensified their work in the lesson.

Abstract plan No. 8

Proverbs: Do not dig a hole for another, you yourself will fall into it;

Tasks:

1) to consolidate students' knowledge of the literal and figurative meaning of proverbs,

2) improve the ability to determine the direct meaning and figurative meaning,

3) improve the ability to compare proverbs,

4) enrich and systematize the vocabulary of students,

5) cultivate respect for the environment.

Equipment:

1.Dictionary.

2. Illustration of a caravan in the desert.

The course of the developing five-minute:

A) Introduction:

They forgot to leave gaps between some words, and that's what happened. Fill in the gaps correctly.

NONE OTHERS, YOU WILL GET INTO IT YOURSELF.

DON'T SPIT IN THE WELL - YOU WILL USE THE WATER TO DRINK.

What proverbs are written here?

• Don't dig a hole for someone else, you'll fall into it yourself.
• Do not spit in the well - you will need water to drink.

How do you understand the meaning of the first proverb? Second?

B) Work on proverbs:

Read the first proverb. (Do not dig a hole for another, you will fall into it yourself)

Listen to the poem and think in what sense this proverb can be attributed to it.

Digging a hole villain

On the forest road

So that at night

Passerby fell off.

Here is the finished hole.

He got out.

Wait!

Passerby after all

Get out too!

Two more days

The robber was sweating.

The earth flew out of the pit.

Tried to get out

But failed.

Then he chuckled.

Good.

In what sense should the proverb be used in order for it to fit this poem? (in direct)

Does the proverb have a figurative meaning? What is he? (Trouble often happens to the one who prepares it for another)

Read the second proverb. ("»)

How do you understand it? When can we use it literally? Does it have a figurative meaning? (Do not spoil the thing, you might still need it)

Let's compare proverbs. What do they have in common? What is the difference?

C) Creative work:

Imagine the sands of the Sahara Desert. A caravan is slowly moving along them. Young Hati rides in it. Come up with a continuation of the story so that the proverb “Do not spit in the well - you will need to drink water».

In general, the training session contributed to the achievement of the set goal. The students consolidated their knowledge of proverbs. The poem used in the lesson made it possible to attract and hold the attention of students. Questions played an important role in updating the knowledge already available to children. Most of the questions were exploratory in nature. The children were interested, they listened with pleasure, and then vividly discussed the knowledge gained. The answers to the questions were quite competent and complete.

These techniques are used to study the features of thinking of its level, purposefulness and criticality.

1. Meaningful interpretation of metaphors and proverbs. The subject is called several frequently used metaphors and proverbs (see the material for this method) and is asked to explain their abstract, figurative meaning. You can invite the subject to give relevant examples from his life or from what he has read. The literal interpretation of a proverb or metaphor indicates the insufficiency of the level of generalization. If the subject correctly explains the figurative meaning of the proverb, this does not mean that his thinking is completely unimpaired, since when explaining proverbs, the subject reproduces his knowledge - in this case, generalization of new material is not required.

· Skillful fingers. - A real craftsman, a master, what to look for.

Iron character. - A strong-willed, persistent person in his convictions.

· Heart of stone. - Insensitive, incapable of compassion.

· Silent night. - Quiet, dark impenetrable night.

· Not knowing the ford, do not poke your head into the water. - If you don't know the job, don't take it.

· If you hurry, you will make people laugh. - Excessive haste, fuss always harm the cause.

· Business before pleasure. - If you did a good job, you can rest.

· Seven times measure cut once. - Before you do something, think carefully.

2. Comparison of proverbs. Using this technique, the process of generalizing new material is studied. The subject is given cards on which specially selected proverbs are written, and they are asked to group similar ones in meaning. At the same time, the subjects reveal not only an understanding of the figurative meaning of individual proverbs; comparing them, they separate the essential features from the secondary, random ones. The results of the study using this version of the methodology to a certain extent testify to the features of associative relationships, in particular, they contribute to the identification of associations based on a "weak" attribute.

· What goes around comes around. - As it comes around, it will respond. What is the pop, such is the arrival.

· Do not sit in your sleigh. - Chop the tree by yourself. According to Senka and a hat. Every cricket know your hearth.

· Being a guest is good, but being at home is better. - On someone else's side, I'm happy with my little funnel. In a foreign land, the native land is dreaming in a dream. Houses and straw are edible.

3. Assigning phrases to proverbs. The variant was proposed by B.V. Zeigarnik. The subject is offered a series of tablets on which proverbs or metaphors are written, and a significantly larger number of cards with phrases. Among phrases, there are those that correspond to the figurative meaning of proverbs, and those that are similar only in a formal lexical sense. First, they make sure that the subject understands the figurative meaning of the proverbs, and then he is asked to select a phrase corresponding in meaning to each proverb. For example, to the proverb “Forge the iron while it’s hot”, three phrases are given to choose from: “Gold is heavier than iron”, “The blacksmith forges iron”, “Do not put things off indefinitely”. The difficulty lies not so much in the interpretation of the figurative meaning of the proverb, but in the possibility of "slipping" into an approximate meaning. Performing this task, the subject first understands the figurative meaning of the proverb, and then compares it with phrases, and thus, as it were, transfers the learned principle of work to the material containing the new. This assignment requires more high level generalizations than just an explanation of the figurative meaning of proverbs and metaphors.

Not all that glitters is gold. - And the copper bracelet shines like gold. Not always external brilliance is combined with good quality. "Forests clad in crimson and gold."

· Do not count your chickens before they are hatched. - The results of labor are sometimes not immediately visible. Chickens get stronger and grow up by autumn. Having planted a garden, do not rush to rejoice - wait for the fruits.

· There is nothing to blame on the mirror, if the face is crooked. - The image in the mirror depends on the quality of the glass. Don't rely on circumstances if it's about you. The mirror hangs crooked - needs to be fixed.

· If you like to ride - love to carry sleds. - We are on a sled with a friend from the hill rushing with the breeze. When going on a hike, remember that you will carry your backpack yourself. He worked, played, scattered everything around - immediately quickly - one, two, three - clean up after yourself.

THE PROVERB IS NOT FOR FREE SAYS

BUSINESS BEFORE PLEASURE.
Handwritten postscript of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich (1629 - 1676) to the collection of rules falconry, a favorite pastime of the time. It is usually said as a reminder to a person who, having fun, forgets about the matter.

TWO DEATHS CANNOT BE, AND ONE WILL NOT PASS.
The inevitable will happen anyway, whether you risk it or not. It speaks of the determination to do something associated with risk, danger, and at the same time with the hope that the danger can still be avoided.

FIRST PANCAKE Lump.
It often happens that the hostess does not succeed with the first pancake (it is poorly removed from the pan, burns), but the hostess determines from it whether the dough is well mixed, whether the pan has warmed up, whether it is necessary to add oil. It is said to justify the unsuccessful start of a new, difficult business.
CHASE FOR TWO HARES - YOU WILL NOT CATCH ANYONE.
It is said when someone takes on several (usually profitable) cases at once and therefore cannot do a single one well or bring it to the end.

GRANDMA SAID FOR TWO.
In two (simple) - indefinitely, with the ability to understand one way or another. It is not known whether what is supposed to come true; It is still unknown how it will be: one way or another. They say when they doubt the implementation of what they assume.

FOR ONE BEAT, TWO UNBEATEN GIVES.
They say when they understand that the punishment for the mistakes made is for the benefit of a person, because in this way he gains experience.

AN OLD FRIEND IS BETTER THAN TWO NEW ONES.
It is said when they want to emphasize the loyalty, devotion and indispensability of an old friend.

ONE HEAD IT'S GOOD, BUT TWO BETTER.
It is said when, when solving an issue, they turn to someone for advice, when they solve a case together

GET LOST IN TWO PINE TREES.
Not being able to figure out something simple, uncomplicated, not being able to find a way out of the simplest difficulty.

FROM THE POT THREE TOP.
Very short, short, small.

PROMISED WITH THREE BOXES.
A lot (say, promise, lie, etc.).

PROMISED THREE YEARS WAITING.
They speak jokingly when they do not believe in the speedy fulfillment of promises made by someone or when the fulfillment of what is promised is delayed for an indefinite time.

CRY IN THREE STREAMS.
That is very bitter to cry.

THE FIFTH WHEEL IN THE CART.
Superfluous, unnecessary person in any business.

SEVEN ARE NOT WAITING FOR ONE.
So they say when they start some business without someone who was late, or with a reproach to someone who makes many (not necessarily seven) wait for themselves.

SEVEN TROUBLES - ONE ANSWER.
Let's risk it again, and if we have to answer, then for everything at once, at the same time. It speaks of the determination to do something else risky, dangerous in addition to what has already been done.

SEVEN TIMES MEASURE CUT ONCE.
Before you do anything serious, think carefully about everything, foresee everything. Spoken as advice to think things through possible options actions before doing something.

TOO MANY COOKS SPOIL THE BROTH.
Without an eye (obsolete) - without supervision, without supervision. The work is done poorly, unsatisfactorily, when several people are responsible for it at once. It is said when several people (or even organizations) responsible for a case rely on each other and each individually treats his duties in bad faith.

ALL TRIN IS GRASS.
The mysterious "tryn-grass" is not at all some kind of herbal medicine that is drunk so as not to worry. At first it was called "tyn-grass", and tyn is a fence. It turned out "fence grass", that is, a weed that no one needs, indifferent to everyone.

FILL ON THE FIRST NUMBER.
Believe it or not, in the old school, students were flogged every week, regardless of who was right and who was wrong. And if the "mentor" overdoes it, then such a spanking was enough for a long time, until the first day of the next month.

GOAL LIKE A FALCON.
Terribly poor, beggar. Usually they think that we are talking about a falcon bird. But she's not here. In fact, the "falcon" is an old military battering ram. It was a completely smooth ("bare") cast-iron ingot, mounted on chains. Nothing extra!

SIROTA OF KAZAN.
So they say about a person who pretends to be unhappy, offended, helpless in order to pity someone. But why is the orphan specifically "Kazan"? It turns out that this phraseological unit arose after the conquest of Kazan by Ivan the Terrible. Mirzas (Tatar princes), being subjects of the Russian Tsar, tried to beg him for all sorts of indulgences, complaining about their orphanhood and bitter fate.

INSIDE OUT.
Now it seems to be quite a harmless expression. And once it was associated with a shameful punishment. During the time of Ivan the Terrible, a guilty boyar was put back to front on a horse in clothes turned inside out and in this form, disgraced, was driven around the city to the whistle and ridicule of the street crowd.

LEAD BY THE NOSE.
To deceive, promising and not fulfilling the promise. This expression was associated with fairground entertainment. The gypsies led the bears by wearing a nose ring. And they forced them, the poor fellows, to do various tricks, deceiving them with the promise of handouts.

SCAPEGOAT.
This is the name of a person who is blamed for someone else's fault. The history of this expression is as follows: the ancient Jews had a rite of absolution. The priest laid both hands on the head of a live goat, thereby, as it were, shifting the sins of the whole people onto him. After that, the goat was driven out into the wilderness. Many, many years have passed, and the rite no longer exists, but the expression lives on.

SHARPEN LYASY.
Lyasy (balusters) are chiseled curly columns of railings at the porch. Only one could make such beauty real master. Probably, at first, "sharpening balusters" meant having an elegant, bizarre, ornate (like balusters) conversation. But craftsmen to conduct such a conversation by our time became less and less. So this expression began to denote empty chatter.

GRATED KALAC.
In the old days there really was such a kind of bread - "grated kalach". The dough for it was kneaded, kneaded, "rubbed" for a very long time, which made the kalach unusually lush. And there was also a proverb - "do not grate, do not mint, there will be no kalach." That is, a person is taught by trials and tribulations. The expression comes from this proverb.

NICK DOWN.
If you think about it, the meaning of this expression seems cruel - you must admit, it is not very pleasant to imagine an ax next to your own nose. In fact, everything is not so sad. In this expression, the word "nose" has nothing to do with the organ of smell. "Nose" was called a commemorative plaque, or a tag for records. In the distant past, illiterate people always carried with them such boards and sticks, with the help of which all kinds of notes or notches were made as a keepsake.

AFTER THE RAIN ON THURSDAY.
Rusichi - ancient ancestors Russians - honored among their gods the main god - the god of thunder and lightning Perun. One of the days of the week, Thursday, was dedicated to him (it is interesting that among the ancient Romans, Thursday was also dedicated to the Latin Perun - Jupiter). Perun offered prayers for rain in a drought. It was believed that he should be especially willing to fulfill requests on "his day" - Thursday. And since these prayers often remained in vain, the saying "After the rain on Thursday" began to be applied to everything that is not known when it will be fulfilled.

BREAK A LEG.
This expression arose among hunters and was based on the superstitious idea that with a direct wish (both down and feather), the results of the hunt can be jinxed. Feather in the language of hunters means a bird, fluff - animals. In ancient times, a hunter going on a hunt received this parting word, the "translation" of which looks something like this: "Let your arrows fly past the target, let the snares and traps you set remain empty, just like the hunting pit!" To which the miner, in order not to jinx it, also replied: "To hell!". And both were sure that the evil spirits, invisibly present at this dialogue, would be satisfied and leave behind, would not plot during the hunt.

BEAT BUCKLES.
What are "backcloths", who and when "beats" them? For a long time handicraftsmen have been making spoons, cups and other utensils from wood. To cut a spoon, it was necessary to chip off a chock - a baklusha - from a log. Apprentices were entrusted with preparing buckwheat: it was an easy, trifling matter that did not require special skills. Cooking such chocks was called "baklushi to beat." From here, from the ridicule of the masters over the auxiliary workers - "bottlenecks", our saying went.

RUBBING GLASSES.
How can glasses be "rubbed"? Where and why? Such a picture would look very ridiculous. And the absurdity occurs because we are not talking about glasses at all, which serve to correct vision. There is another meaning of the word "glasses": red and black marks on playing cards. There is even a gambling card game, so called - "point". Since the cards exist, there have been dishonest players, cheaters in the world. They, in order to deceive a partner, indulged in all sorts of tricks. They were able, among other things, to quietly "rub glasses" - to turn a seven into a six or a four into a five, on the go, during the game, sticking a "point" or covering it with a special white powder. And the expression "rubbing glasses" began to mean "cheating", hence other words were born: "fraud", "fraudster" - a trickster who knows how to embellish his work, pass off bad as very good.

ON ANGRY (OFFENDED) WATER IS CARRIED.
This saying can be said to a person who is angry and angry in vain. The roots of the saying come from the old colloquial speech. Then the word "angry" meant diligent, zealous, diligent. It was these diligent and diligent horses that were chosen for hard work - they carried water in barrels from the river. Thus, the most "angry" (that is, diligent) got the most thankless hard work.

THE WORD IS NOT A SPARROW - YOU CAN'T FLY OUT.
The proverb teaches - before you say anything, you need to think carefully. After all, it’s easy to say a word, but no matter how you later regret what was said ...

FEAR HAS BIG EYES...
A person who is seized with fear and frightened very often exaggerates the danger and sees it where it actually does not exist.

THE MOUNTAIN BORN A MOUSE.
The ancient Greek legend of the pregnant Mount Olympus is considered the primary source of this proverb. The god Zeus, afraid that the birth of this mountain would cause major upheavals in the camp of the gods, made the mountain ... give birth to a mouse. The proverb "The mountain gave birth to a mouse" is used in a situation where significant and gigantic efforts eventually bring an insignificant result.

KEEP HONOR FROM YOUNG.
From youth, adv. - from a young age young age. Advice to young people from their youth to cherish their honor, good name (as well as to save clothes again, that is, while they are new). Spoken as a guide young man at the beginning of his life.

WITHOUT WORK YOU WILL NOT MAKE (you will not pull out) a FISH FROM THE POND.
Every business requires effort; without effort, diligence, nothing can be done. It is said when a lot of work, hard work is required to obtain any result.

DO NOT COUNT YOUR CHICKENS BEFORE THEY ARE HATCHED.
In autumn (simple) - in autumn. Not all chickens born in the summer survive on farms until autumn. Birds of prey will carry someone away, the weak simply will not survive, which is why they say that chickens should be counted in the fall, when it is clear how many of them survived. You have to judge something by the end results. It is said when someone prematurely expresses joy at a possible success, although the final results are still far away and much can change.

SMALL SPOOL BUT PRECIOUS.
The spool is an old Russian measure of weight, equal to 4.26 grams. It fell into disuse after 1917, when the country introduced the metric system of measures, which was based on the meter (a measure of length) and the kilogram (a measure of weight). Prior to this, the main measures of weight were the pood (16 kg) and the pound (400 g), in which there were 96 spools. The spool was the smallest measure of weight and was used mainly when weighing gold and silver. Yes, opposed. union - a, but, however. Roads - kr. form m. from dear. Small in size, but valuable in its qualities. It is said about someone who is small in stature, but has many virtues, positive qualities, as well as something small in size, but very important in essence.

HERE FOR YOU, GRANDMA, AND YURIEV'S DAY.
The saying reflects one of the episodes in the history of the Russian people associated with the enslavement of the peasants. The emergence of serfdom, that is, the legally fixed right of the landowner (feudal lord) to the person, forced labor and property of the peasant, dates back to the time Kievan Rus(IX-XII centuries). The peasants, although they were considered free (free), did not have the right to move from one owner to another during the year: the custom demanded that they leave only after all field work was completed, at the beginning of winter, when the grain had already been harvested. In the middle of the 15th century, peasants were allowed to move from one owner to another once a year - a week before St. George's Day and a week after it (St. George's Day, that is, the day of St. George, in Russian, Yuri, the patron saint of farmers, was celebrated November 26, according to the old style, chronology). At the end of the 16th century, the transition of peasants was also prohibited on St. George's Day. Thus, the peasants were attached to the land and had to stay with their landowner for life. The peasants, who were waiting for St. George's Day as the only opportunity to change their master and try to improve their lives, had their last hope of changing their situation taken away. So there was a saying expressing regret for unfulfilled hopes.
They say it when they want to express extreme surprise or grief at something that happened unexpectedly, which they just learned about and that took away hope, deceived expectations.

WHERE OURS HAVE NOT GONE or WHERE OURS HAVE NOT GONE.
Let's take a risk and try. It is said in a desperate determination to do something, taking risks.

EYES ARE AFRAID (fear), AND HANDS DO.
Starting a big job, you are afraid that you will not cope, and when you start it, you calm down, you understand that you are able to overcome all difficulties.
It is said to cheer up before starting a big or unfamiliar job, or pronounced with joy when such work is done.

WHERE IT IS THIN, THERE IT TEARS.
Trouble, misfortune usually happens where something is unreliable, fragile. They say when trouble happens, a nuisance, although before that it was already bad.

HUNGER NOT Auntie.
Initially: hunger is not an aunt, she will not slip a pie. It is said when the feeling of hunger makes you eat even what you do not like, or do things that you would not do under other circumstances.

LEOPARD CHANGE HIS SPOTS.
The ingrained flaws or oddities of a person cannot be corrected. It is said when there is a conviction that a person will not change.

NEED TO FIND OUT CLICK.
Goli, goli, f., collected. (obsolete) - beggars, poor. Hitra - kr. form w. R. from cunning, here (obsolete): resourceful, skillful in something. The lack, the absence of something, forces one to be inventive, to use what is available, what is at hand. It is said with approval or satisfaction when, due to a lack of something necessary, they come up with something original and, as a rule, cheap.

BUCKWHEAT PRAISE ITSELF.
Buckwheat - made from buckwheat grains. Buckwheat - herbaceous plant, from the seeds of which cereals and flour are made. Buckwheat porridge is one of the favorite dishes of Russians. Buckwheat porridge is so good, so tasty, its virtues are so obvious to everyone that it does not need to be praised. It is spoken with mocking condemnation of an immodest person, when he praises himself, speaks of his merits.

PREPARE THE SLED IN THE SUMMER AND THE CARRIAGE IN THE WINTER.
Sleigh, sleigh, only many - a winter wagon on two skids for driving in the snow. A cart is a four-wheeled summer cart for transporting goods. A horse is harnessed to the sleigh and cart. Get ready for everything in advance. It is said as advice to prepare in advance everything that will be needed in the future.

THUNDER DOES NOT RING, THE MAN WILL NOT CROSS.
Rumble (1 and 2 liters. Not used), owls - suddenly rumble, rattle. A peasant (obsolete) is a peasant.
Cross yourself, - I am baptized, - I am baptized, owl - make a sign of the cross on yourself with your hand: attach three fingers folded together (thumb, index and middle) right hand sequentially to the forehead, to the chest, to one and the other shoulder. People who believed in God, professed the Christian religion, were baptized in many cases Everyday life. It was an obligatory ritual during prayer (at home and in church), before eating, at the entrance to the hut (they were baptized, looking at the icons in the corner), etc. They baptized their mouths during yawning, baptized loved ones who left or went far and for a long time, they were baptized from fear at the sound of thunder, etc. In the old days, believers were afraid of thunderstorms as inexplicable phenomenon nature. When thunder rumbled, it was believed that thunder (not lightning) could bring misfortune (kill, cause a fire). Therefore, in order to avert misfortune, to avoid misfortune from a thunderstorm, people were baptized precisely during thunder, as if thunder warned of a possible misfortune.
Until trouble or trouble happens, a careless person does not remember them and does not take measures to prevent them. It is said when they do at the last moment what should have been done in advance.

GIVE YOUR WORD, HOLD ON.
Either be true to your word, or don't promise. It is spoken as a reminder of a promise made or as a reproach for an unfulfilled promise, and also as a warning, advice to refrain from promises if there is no certainty that you can fulfill them.

THEY DO NOT LOOK AT A GIVEN HORSE'S TEETH.
Gifted (colloquial) - donated, received as a gift. A horse's teeth are examined when they want to determine its age. An old horse has worn out teeth, so when buying a horse, be sure to look at its teeth so as not to buy an old one. The gift is not discussed, they accept what they give. They say when they receive as a gift some thing that they don’t like and that they themselves would not choose.

BUSINESS IS GOING ON, THE OFFICE WRITES.
It is said jokingly about someone's vigorous activity, which is not influenced by any external circumstances.

BUSINESS IS WHITE SOOT.
Soot - black particles from incomplete combustion of fuel, settling on internal surfaces stoves and chimneys. Soot is a symbol of the blackest color, there is no white soot, and the playful comparison "white as soot" essentially characterizes a black object. The word "black" in a figurative sense means "gloomy, heavy." Bela - kr. form w. R. from white. Usually said in response to the question "How are you?" when things are going badly or when they do not want to answer specifically and are limited to this vague answer (the answer implies an unsatisfactory state of affairs).

THE CHILD DOES NOT CRY, THE MOTHER DOES NOT UNDERSTAND.
Understand, naughty. (obsolete) - to understand something, to guess about something. If you do not tell yourself what you need, no one will guess about it and therefore will not be able to help. It is said when the lack of help to someone is explained by ignorance of his needs.

HOUSE WALLS HELP.
At home or in a familiar, familiar environment, a person feels more confident and calmer. It is said with confidence or with the hope that in a familiar environment it will be easier to cope with any business.

ROAD SPOON TO DINNER.
Road - kr. form w. R. from dear; here: "important, valuable to someone, one that is valued." Expensive, valuable is what appears at the right moment. It is said when something is done or received on time, exactly at the moment when it is especially interested or needed, or it is said as a reproach to someone who did not do the necessary on time.

FRIENDS ARE KNOWN (recognized) IN TROUBLE.
Only in difficult times do you find out who your true friend is. It is said in relation to someone who turned out to be very attentive and helped someone in a difficult situation, or, conversely, showed callousness to someone in trouble.

WILL LIVE BEFORE THE WEDDING.
It will pass soon, it will heal soon. It is said jokingly as a consolation to the victim.

FOR A CUTE FRIEND AND EARRING (earring) FROM EAR.
Ear - reduce-weasel. to the ear. For the beloved dear person nothing to be sorry about, give your best. It is said when, out of a feeling of sympathy, a person is generous towards another, ready to do everything for him.

DEBT GOOD TURN DESERVES ANOTHER.
Payment, payment, m. - making money on account of something; pay. Krasen - kr. m.r. form from red, here: (folk poet.) "beautiful; joyful, pleasant." How you treat someone is how you will be treated. It is said when in response to any action or attitude they do the same.

WHERE CRABIES WINTER.
The saying "I'll show you where the crayfish hibernate" was formed back in the days of serfdom. In the middle of winter, the master sent a guilty person to get crayfish to the table. And in winter, crayfish are very difficult to find, besides, you can freeze and catch a cold. Since then, this saying has meant a threat, a warning about punishment.

DISCOVER AMERICA.
America was discovered by the navigator Columbus more than five hundred years ago. Therefore, when someone announces what everyone has long known, they jokingly say: “Well, you discovered America!”

THROUGH STUMP DECK.
The deck is a log. Moving through the forest, when underfoot is a stump, then a deck has to be slow. The expression "through the stump-deck" means to do something somehow, indiscriminately.

INVENT THE BICYCLE.
We all know what a bicycle is and how it works. “Don’t reinvent the wheel” so as not to waste time inventing something that has already existed for a long time.

THE MASTER'S BUSINESS IS AFRAID.
Any business is feasible if a master takes it, that is, a skilled one, knowledgeable person. It is said with admiration and praise when a person shows skill, mastery in his field.

NOT ON SENKA HAT.
In the old days, the hat was a symbol of wealth and nobility. By its size, they judged what place a person occupies in society. “A hat is not for Senka” - this is what they say about a person who is not able to perform this or that job or occupy a certain position.

LOOK FOR THE WIND IN THE FIELD.
Search - command, incl. from ch. to look for (looking for, looking for), nesov. You won't find it anyway, there's no need to look for it. It is about who disappeared and who cannot be found (how useless it is to look for the wind in the field), or about what is irretrievably lost.

YOU CAN'T DROP A WORD FROM A SONG.
What happened, happened, you have to tell everything. They say, as if apologizing for having to tell everything without missing any (usually unpleasant) details (just as you can’t throw out a single word from a song so as not to spoil the whole song).

OUT OF THE FRYING PAN INTO THE FIRE.
Yes, opposed. union - a, but, however. A frying pan (obsolete and regional) - flame, fire. In folk speech, a flame, that is, a fire that rises above a burning object, is associated with a greater misfortune, a flame is a stronger fire. From one trouble to another, big, from a difficult situation to the worst.
It is said when a person, being in a difficult situation, finds himself in an even more difficult situation.

AND THE SWEET, AND THE REAPER, AND IN THE DUDU (on the dude) IGRET.
Shvets (obsolete and simple) - one who sews clothes, a tailor. A reaper is one who reaps (cuts when harvesting) the ripened ears with a sickle. In the dudu (on the pipe) the player (obsolete) is the one who plays the pipe, the musician. About the one who knows how to do everything or who simultaneously performs various duties.

AND I WANT TO AND INCLUDE.
Prickly - bezl., 3 l. units hours from Ch. prick, carry "To touch something sharp to cause pain." It is said when you want to do something, but it's scary, because it is associated with some kind of danger, with a risk.

AND LAUGHTER AND SIN.
It is said when something is both funny and sad at the same time.

AND ON THE OLD WOMAN HAPPENS A PRORUH.
Proruha (simple) - mistake, oversight, failure. And an experienced person can make a mistake, make a mistake, a mistake. It is said to justify a mistake, an oversight committed by a person from whom this could not be expected.

AND THE WOLVES ARE FAT, AND THE SHEEP ARE GOOD.
It is said when it is convenient for some and for others to resolve a difficult situation, or when a decision is made that satisfies everyone.

THE CAT KNOWS (smells) WHOSE MEAT ate.
Chuet - 3 l. units hours from Ch. smell (feel, feel), carry. (simple) to feel. They talk about someone who feels guilty and betrays it with his behavior.

MAKE A FOOL TO PRAY TO GOD, HE WILL BREAK THE FOREHEAD (break it).
By Orthodox custom believers during prayer kneel and bow low (make obeisances), almost touching the floor with their foreheads. It is said with condemnation about a person who damaged the cause with excessive zeal and diligence.

FOR WHAT I BOUGHT, FOR THAT I SELL.
What I heard, I repeat. They speak in their own defense when they retell rumors and therefore do not vouch for the authenticity of what was said.

BAD EXAMPLES ARE CONTINUOUS or BAD EXAMPLE IS CONTINUOUS.
Bad - bad. Contagious - kr. form m. from contagious, here: "one that causes imitation of oneself, is easily transmitted to others. It is said when someone imitates the bad behavior or actions of another person.

FOR FOOLS (fool) THE LAW IS NOT WRITTEN.
Laws are written for reasonable people; fools do not know the laws and do not obey them. It is said about a person when he acts, from the point of view of the speaker, strange or unreasonable, contrary to common sense and generally accepted standards of conduct.
*in a new way*
FOR FOOLS THE LAW IS NOT WRITTEN, IF IT IS WRITTEN IT IS NOT READ,
IF READ, IT IS NOT UNDERSTOOD, IF UNDERSTOOD, IT IS NOT SO!

FRIENDSHIP IS FRIENDSHIP AND SERVICE IS SERVICE.
Friendships should not affect business relationships. It is said when a person, despite friendly relations with someone occupying a different (usually higher) official position, does not deviate from official requirements and duties.

OVER THE SEA TELUSHKA - POLUSHKA, YES RUBLE TRANSPORT.
Heifer (colloquial) - a young cow that has not yet had calves. Polushka is the smallest coin in pre-revolutionary Russia, equal to one-fourth of a kopeck (one hundred kopecks in one ruble). Yes, opposed. union - a, but, however. Transportation - here: payment for the transported goods. Even a cheap thing will become expensive if you have to pay dearly for its transportation. It is said when it is unprofitable to carry cheap goods from afar.

LIFE TO LIVE - NOT A FIELD TO GO.
Life is hard and living it is not easy. It is about the variety of events, about the difficulties that a person encounters throughout his life.

THERE IS NO SMOKE WITHOUT FIRE or THERE IS NO DIMM WITHOUT FIRE.
Nothing happens without a reason. It is usually said when they believe that there is some truth in the spread rumors.

Research task. The experiment is aimed at studying the features of thinking - its level, expediency, criticality.

Methodology. The subject is called several well-known metaphors (“golden hands”, “fiery speech”, etc.), catchphrases(“a storm in a teacup”, “and Vaska listens and eats”, etc.). They propose to explain the figurative meaning, to say when these expressions are used, in

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some cases of life. With a correct explanation of the meaning, it is still impossible to conclude that thinking is not at all disturbed, since the person under study shows the knowledge already available (remembers how to explain). For clarification, it should be proposed to explain proverbs that are similar in meaning, as well as outwardly opposite. For example: “the mind is good, but two are better”, “live with your mind”.

In comprehension tasks, the subject must draw the correct conclusion from the given conditions. For example, Maria's hair is lighter than Sophia's and darker than Nadia's. Who has darker hair? If the subject correctly comprehended the initial data, he will quickly answer: "It's darker at Sophia."

Analysis of results. Normally, they usually cope with all tasks quite easily. The literal interpretation of the meaning of proverbs indicates a decrease in generalization. The difficulty in comparing proverbs also indicates a violation of generalization and inertia of thinking.

Definition and comparison of concepts (table 14)

Research task. To study the ability to analyze and synthesize, generalize.

Methodology. They are offered to read pairs of words: “hare - rabbit”, “street - square”, etc., they are asked to say what is common in these words and what are the differences. Then they propose to name a number of homogeneous concepts in one word (synthesis), for example: pike, crucian carp, catfish - fish.

Analysis of results. Normally, they cope with the task of generalization, somewhat more difficult - with the task of analysis. Should be considered general education, range of interests, awareness.

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Simple analogies (Table 15)

Research task. Reveal the ability to establish logical connections and relationships between concepts, the ability to maintain a sequence of judgments, following the chosen principle of decision.

Methodology. They offer a special table on which pairs of words are written on the left - samples, one at the top, the other under the line. These pairs of words are connected by certain semantic relationships. By analogy with the sample in the right half of the form, a couple of words should also be highlighted. Moreover, the upper word is indicated, and the lower one must be selected from five. For example:

wood __hand _________

bough finger, axe, glove, leg, work

The correct reasoning would be: “The bough is part of the tree. Similar to this is the relationship between the words hand - finger.

Analysis of results. It is important not only to establish errors, but to find out the motivation. This method allows you to detect a violation of the logical structure of thinking. With exhaustion, weakness of active attention, people correct them when indicated. Correction of errors and their further prevention indicates critical thinking.

Complex analogies (table 16)

Research task. To reveal how accessible the subject is to understand complex logical relationships and highlight abstract connections. The technique provokes reasoning with a tendency to it.

Methodology. It is used only in the study of individuals with an average and higher education. They offer 6 pairs of words interconnected according to a different principle: a sheep - a herd (part and whole), a raspberry - a berry (defined

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nie), sea - ocean (less - more), light - darkness (opposites), poisoning - death (cause - effect), enemy - enemy (synonyms). Explain the principle of connecting these pairs. After that, they offer to read a couple of words below and say which pair at the top they correspond to, are similar.

Analysis of results. If the subject has correctly decided everything, it can be concluded that he can understand abstraction and complex logical connections. Violation of the understanding of complex analogies is observed in dementia, amorphous thinking and a tendency to reasoning.

Essential features (table 16)

Research task. Reveal the logic of judgments, the ability to maintain direction and stability of the method of reasoning when solving problems of the same type.

Methodology. A number of words are suggested: one word before the brackets and five words in the brackets. Two of the five words in brackets characterize the concept before the brackets. These words must be found. For example: river (shore, fish, angler, mud, water). The question is asked, without which there can be no river. Answer: shore, water. The answers of the subject are carefully recorded, the explanation is recorded.

Analysis of results. The tasks contain words that provoke frivolous answers according to habitual associations. The technique reveals uncriticality, amorphous thinking, weakness of abstraction, reasoning.

Exclusion of concepts (table 17)

Research task. To establish the ability of the subject to highlight the essential features of objects or phenomena.

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Methodology. They offer a series of five words, which, except for one, are combined according to some essential feature. The subject must find inappropriate words and eliminate them. If he did not immediately master the task, then they solve 1-2 examples with him: “deep, high, light, low, shallow”. The word “light” does not fit here, as it characterizes a different quality. You should pay attention to how the subject explains his actions, how he relates to the mistakes made: he notices or with help, how he motivates them, how much they are available for correction.

Analysis of results. Healthy people usually easily cope with the task, and if they make mistakes, they quickly correct them. The inability to identify essential features is characteristic of dementia.

Drawing up a story from pictures (table 18)

Research task. Find out the ability to analyze, synthesize, comparative evaluation of several data in their relationship to each other.

Methodology. The subject is explained that the proposed drawings depict some kind of event. They offer to find a sequence of pictures and make up a story. Figures X may be used as an illustration.

Analysis of results. Normally, they are quite easy to cope with the task. Difficulties in interpreting pictures and the whole plot are found in dementia.

Pictograms (Table 19)

Research task. This method, proposed by A. R. Luria, is a variant of indirect memorization, but it is used not so much for research

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memory, how much to analyze the nature of the associations of the subjects.

Methodology. It is necessary to prepare in advance 12-15 words and expressions for memorization. Approximate word sets are attached. The subject is given a sheet of paper, a pencil and asked to draw something to help himself in order to make it easier to remember. You can't write, you can only draw. The quality of the drawing does not matter. Unless absolutely necessary, the subject should not be prompted. After completing the task, the sheet with the drawings is put aside, and only after about an hour (at the end of the experiment) are they offered to recall the words from the drawing. In the protocol of the experiment, the reasoning of the subject is recorded, explaining the relationship between the picture and the word.

Analysis of results. Based on the results of the task, one can judge the level of generalization and abstraction processes: whether the subject can designate a word with a symbol, how much his difficulties increase when mediating words of an abstract nature. It is equally important to establish the nature of the associations that the subject is guided by when choosing a pictogram: the correspondence of the pictogram given word, excessive specificity of the association or, conversely, their extremely abstract, conventionally symbolic nature, the presence of an association on a “weak” basis.

The emotional richness of the pictograms plays a significant role. To a certain extent, it reflects emotional condition subject. According to the results of the study, one can judge the logical memory of the subject - how much the mediation of words in visual images helps to remember them.

The technique is used to study the features of thinking - its level, purposefulness and criticality.

The subject is called several frequently used metaphors (“golden head”, “golden hands”, “stone heart”, “hare soul”, “copper forehead”) and proverbs (“The apple does not fall far from the tree”, “Strike while the iron is hot” , “The word is not a sparrow, it will fly out, you won’t catch”) and are asked to explain their abstract, figurative meaning. You can invite the subject to give relevant examples from his life or what he has read. The literal interpretation of a proverb or metaphor indicates the insufficiency of the level of generalization. If the subject correctly explains the figurative meaning of the proverb, this does not mean that thinking is not at all a violation, since when explaining proverbs, the subject shows his knowledge - generalization of new material is not required to complete the task. The process of summarizing new material is explored by other, more complex versions of this technique.

Correlation of proverbs, metaphors and phrases

1. The technique is used to study the thinking of patients. It reveals an understanding of the figurative meaning, the ability to isolate the main idea in a phrase of a specific content, as well as differentiation, purposefulness of the patients' judgments. Developed by B. V. Zeigarnik.

2. To conduct the experiment, you need tablets on which the texts of metaphors and proverbs are written (6-7 tables) and texts of phrases (14-15).

PROVERBS

Strike while the iron is hot.

Do not count your chickens before they are hatched.

There is nothing to blame on the mirror, if the face is crooked.

The hut is not red in the corners, but red in the pies.

Better less is better.

I took hold of the tug, don't say that it's not hefty,

Do not sit in your sleigh.

Not all that glitters is gold.

Measure seven times, cut once.

The material is cut with scissors.

In winter they ride on sleighs, and in summer they ride on carts.

Every morning the sheep are driven outside the village.

What we think is not always good is not always good.

You can’t eat only pies, you have to eat rye bread.

If he himself cut off incorrectly, then you should not blame the scissors.

If you have already gone somewhere, then it is too late to return halfway, etc.

One part of the phrases is such that their meaning corresponds to proverbs, and the rest of the phrases only superficially resemble proverbs in terms of the composition of words, but have nothing in common with them in meaning. Thus, there are about twice as many phrases as proverbs. The same ratio of metaphors and phrases.

METAPHORS

golden head

Iron character

poison man

stone heart

toothy guy

dead of night

PHRASES TO METAPHORS

Clever mind

The artist made a figurine with a gilded head

Gold is brighter than iron

A man carved a heart on a rock

Strong character

Iron is harder than copper

Railway

The boy ate sweets and got sick

Evil person

bitten him poisonous snake

callous heart

He is always with a stone in his bosom

The patient swallowed poison instead of medicine

Ivan had strong and healthy teeth

3. The experimenter lays out on the table to the left of the patient the proverbs or metaphors one under the other, in a column. Then he gives the patient a mixed pack of tables with phrases and suggests: "Put next to each proverb a phrase corresponding to it in meaning." At the same time, the experimenter warns the patient that "not all proverbs have suitable phrases, and many phrases do not fit any proverb."

After the patient has completed this task, the experimenter asks him where he sees the similarity of phrases and proverbs, what is their common idea.

4. The abundance of phrases from which you need to choose the right ones provokes slippage and inaccurate judgments in those patients whose thinking is not purposeful and diffuse. Concreteness and superficiality of judgments of oligophrenics, diffuseness and uncertainty of judgments of patients with vascular and other organic lesions of the brain, slippage and paralogical judgments of patients with schizophrenia are revealed.

Understanding stories

It is necessary to prepare in advance a series of texts of varying degrees of complexity. For example, here are some texts of stories that are often used for examination.

Jackdaw and doves

The jackdaw heard that pigeons were well fed, whitened in White color and flew into the dovecote.

The pigeons accepted her as a sibling, fed her, but she could not resist and screamed lo-daws.

Then the pigeons saw that she was a jackdaw and drove her out. She returned to the jackdaws, but they did not recognize her and did not accept her either.

Donkey and stream

The donkey carried a bag of salt on his back to the city every day. His path lay along a stream. One day he felt desire swim and lay down with a bag of salt in the water. When he got up, his bag was much lighter, as the salt had dissolved into the water. Next time he wanted to lighten his burden again. But this time there was no salt in the bag, there were sponges for bathing. The sponges soaked up the water and became so heavy that the donkey could not get up and drowned.

columbian egg

When Columbus returned to his homeland after the discovery of America, a solemn meeting was arranged for him. Notable fellow citizens gathered for a large meeting and invited Columbus to it. Those present greeted him and admired his discovery. Some of those present, however, did not agree with these praises and said that the discovery of Columbus is overestimated: the passage through the ocean is free for everyone, and everyone could, like Columbus, reach new lands. Columbus said that it really was available to everyone to do it. Difficult is something else. To clarify his thought, he took an egg and offered to put it vertically on the table. But no matter how hard the fellow citizens tried to put the egg, it inevitably fell. Then Columbus lightly hit the egg on the table, broke the shell, and the egg stood on the table in an upright position. Many shouted: "It's too easy!". To this, Columbus said: “Indeed, it is very simple to do this. But downloaded it is necessary to figure out how to do it. That's the hardest part."

Everier problem

There are different views on the value of life. Some consider it a blessing, others an evil. It would be more correct to stick to the middle, because, on the one hand, life brings us less happiness than we would wish for ourselves, on the other hand, the misfortunes that are sent down to us are always less than the misfortune that other people wish for us in our souls. It is this balance that makes life quite bearable, or rather, fair to a certain extent.

Fill in the missing words in the text

The technique proposed by Ebbinghaus is used for a wide variety of purposes: to identify the development of speech, the productivity of associations. It can be successfully used to check the criticality of patients. For experiments, there are many different options for texts: individual phrases, more or less complex stories. Here's an example:

Once upon a time ...... a person. They went on a trip one day. One walked ...... and the other behind him. When the first came to the village, he.....:

- Tell the fool who is coming ...... to hurry up.

So he came to the village ..... a man, he saw people and asked:

- What, fool, already passed?

People were surprised and .....: - Yes, these guys are both .....!

The patient is offered to look through the text and enter only one word in each gap so that a coherent story is obtained. When evaluating the patient's work, one should take into account the speed of word selection, difficulties in selection, the criticality of the patient, that is, the desire to compare the words that he is going to enter with the rest of the text.

Understanding storylines

The technique is aimed primarily at the study of the intellectual level and has much in common with the previous one, however, it differs from it in that the course of reasoning of the subject is more fully revealed during the study and it is possible to more correctly assess the features of the comprehension mechanism in dynamics (A. N. Bernshtein, 1911).

Possible various options, modification experience. The main one is to show patients a specially prepared series of paintings of varying complexity, made mainly in a realistic manner. Usually, reproduction postcards are used for this purpose. The instruction contains a request to the subject to describe the content of the picture. Describing the picture, the subject discovers not only the opportunity to understand its plot, but also shows his stock of knowledge, features of speech, attitude to the events depicted. For the study, such a variant of the methodology can also be used, when the subject is offered humorous drawings. The results obtained make it possible to judge some personality traits subject about his understanding of humor. Particular attention is paid to the ability to highlight the emotional subtext of the picture.