Facial expression facial expressions and body language gestures. Non-verbal communication

Most people completely underestimate the role of gestures and facial expressions in communication, paying more attention to words. However, it is based on non-verbal signals that the first impression of the interlocutor is created. It is then remembered for a very long time.

Fanatics are colorful, but it is more pleasant for humanity to see gestures,
rather than listening to arguments.
Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche

Gestures as a non-verbal means of communication

They help or, conversely, distract listeners from the conversation. Even the complete absence of gestures also carries certain information.

In any case, non-verbal speech can tell a lot about us as speakers.

Handshake

Performing this action, a person does not think about how exactly he does it. Very often, because of this, the handshake turns out to be wrong.

• If it insecure and lethargic, then this will surely cause the interlocutor to think that you are not the authority here.
  Also, don't overdo it squeezing the hand of the interlocutor, as if with pincers. Such a gesture can be perceived as desire to impose one's will.

Uncontrolled touch

They testify to your excitement and even cunning.

• When woman fixing her hair, it is perceived as sexy gesture, symbolizing "preening".
  Any forehead, nose, mouth in sign language is regarded as not true. Unconsciously, you are trying to neutralize the lies you are telling, thereby trying to shut your own mouth.

Why gestures need to be recognized

Unconscious gestures and body movements can betray a deceiver. Many psychologists are convinced that a liar can always be recognized, no matter how hard he tries to hide his lie. He will be betrayed by the inconsistency between what he says and what he does.

Hands will tell us everything about the interlocutor

• When a person gestures with one hand, looks it's unnatural. Therefore, it is necessary to use both hands alternately or equally.
  Crossing arms during a conversation, makes your interlocutors think that you show your skepticism Or don't believe your own words.

Video: Interesting facts about gestures. Sign language

Posture

• stooped, hunched people always taken for insecure or apathetic. Such people are considered nervous or unhealthy.

Watch

The role of body language and facial expressions in non-verbal communication

The elements of non-verbal communication are multi-valued, therefore, they should be interpreted only on the basis of the context of a particular situation.

However, one cannot unconditionally trust exclusively unconscious behavior. It is necessary to perceive information in a complex, combining non-verbal information with verbal. Having already certain knowledge about specific human gestures, one can only build on them.

Observation needs to be developed, as it helps to collect as much information as possible about the people with whom you have to communicate.

The ability to listen - excellent skill. The intonation and sound of the voice are no less important than the meaning of the words.

We take care of ourselves

Noticing the signals emanating from us, you need to note our reaction to what is happening, remember the change in voice, body position, gestures.

Should be considered internal signals that we feel. These include nervous tremors, announcing excitement or, for example, a headache, warning of stress.

Conclusion

After all if you correctly decipher unconscious signals that come to us from other people, you can comprehend their hidden motives.

Probably, each of us has repeatedly noticed that when meeting a new person, literally in the first minutes there is a feeling of sympathy, a predisposition to further communication or antipathy, a desire to stop communication. The reason for such a seemingly spontaneous reaction to a new acquaintance lies in his gestures and facial expressions - it is common for everyone to intuitively evaluate the interlocutor by his unconscious gestures and facial expressions. The psychology of gestures and facial expressions is a science designed to study the relationship between the internal state of a person and external manifestations, to identify patterns between emotions, feelings, and accompanying gestures, to determine the impact of unintentional gestures and facial expressions on the effectiveness of interpersonal communications.

By studying sign language, psychology has achieved considerable success: experienced specialists in non-verbal signals emitted by the human body determine the mood and feelings of a person, recognize deception, and identify the main character traits. However, knowledge of the basics of the psychology of facial expressions and gestures is useful not only for specialists conducting research in this area, but also for people who are far from psychology - having information about the meaning of non-verbal signals, you can not only learn to better understand the interlocutor, recognize lies, but also use knowledge to achieve success in interpersonal communication.

Sign language is universal for everyone

Regardless of upbringing, behavior, habits, on a subconscious, intuitive level, the body of each person reacts to different situations approximately the same, therefore, observing involuntary gestures and facial expressions, even stranger, it is possible to draw correct conclusions. However, it should be remembered that all gestures must be considered in a complex, and not separately - gestures are ambiguous, they can only be correctly interpreted in conjunction with other non-verbal signals. owning basic knowledge and some experience, you can correctly recognize the mood of the interlocutor, his personal attitude towards the opponent. Consider common gestures.

Protective gestures

In the case when a person feels danger, discomfort, feels distrust and antipathy towards the interlocutor, feels uncomfortable in the company of certain people, he subconsciously seeks to isolate himself, close himself from them. Therefore, if the interlocutor, when communicating, crosses his arms over his chest, crosses his legs, moves back, holds any object in front of him as an additional barrier between him and you (a folder with documents, papers), then a constructive dialogue is most likely will not work out - a person feels tense and subconsciously tuned in to protection. Another eloquent non-verbal sign of a negative reaction and protection, the psychology of gestures calls hands clenched into fists.

Gestures indicating openness and predisposition

In contrast to protective gestures, there are non-verbal signals indicating predisposition, a certain trust and positive evaluation heard (seen). A free, somewhat relaxed posture, unbuttoning the top buttons of a jacket or outerwear, tilting towards the interlocutor, demonstrating open palms, straightening the legs, connecting the fingers like a dome are gestures of openness. If the interlocutor gives you just such non-verbal signals, it means that he feels comfortable in your company and, with a high probability, communication will bring the results you expect.

boredom gestures

Understanding that the interlocutor is bored and you need to move the conversation in another direction or end the conversation is quite simple. Boredom is evidenced by tapping your foot on the floor, stepping from foot to foot, palm propping your head, looking at the situation, "empty" look, constant glances at the screen mobile phone, sorting out foreign objects in the hands (clicking a fountain pen, pointlessly turning the pages of a notebook, etc.).

Gestures of personal interest

In the company of a person of the opposite sex they like, people tend to make certain gestures that indicate sympathy. For women, such signs are the correction of hairstyles, clothes, smoothing hair, swaying hips, stroking movements of hands on knees, a sparkle in the eyes, a long look directed at the interlocutor. Men in the company of a woman they like straighten their clothes, preen themselves, straighten their backs, straighten their shoulders.

Gestures of uncertainty

It is important to be able to notice non-verbal signals that indicate the uncertainty and doubts of the interlocutor, because, having noticed the gestures of this group, it is easy to conclude that a person needs additional arguments, persuasion in order for him to take your side. According to the observation of psychologists, such gestures are the interlacing of fingers, rubbing neck, various finger movements, rubbing the nose or eyes with a finger, palm resting the chin.

Gestures demonstrating dominance/submission

The psychology of gestures distinguishes a separate group of non-verbal signals indicating dominance/submission. Signs of an internal feeling of superiority over the interlocutor and a desire to dominate include hands joined behind the back, straightened shoulders, a raised chin, a strong handshake (the palm is placed on top of the opponent’s palm), hands thrust into the front pockets of trousers or a jacket so that thumbs are outside. If a person stoops, tries to physically be lower than his interlocutor (sit down when he is standing, tilt his head), turns his feet inward, holds out his hand with his palm up when shaking hands, then he is ready to obey and recognize the authority of his interlocutor.

Facial expressions - a face will tell more than words

The facial expressions of the interlocutor are no less important than body language, since psychologists can tell a lot about a person by facial expressions. The psychology of facial expressions allows, by the slightest changes in facial expressions, to understand the mood of a person and his attitude to what he hears, sees or says himself. Since people cannot fully control all the contractions and relaxations of the facial muscles, they are the ones who give out all emotions in the first place.

Calm eyes and slightly raised outer corners of the lips indicate a good, high spirits, and dull eyes, lowered eyebrows and slightly lowered corners of the lips are a sign of sadness, bad mood. Slightly raised eyebrows, slightly widened eyelids are a sign of sincere interest, and if a slightly open mouth is added to such facial expressions, the person is probably surprised. If the interlocutor tightly compresses his lips, frowns his eyebrows, the nostrils of his nose involuntarily expand, then he feels anger or indignation. Also bad sign is an elongated face and raised eyebrows of the interlocutor - such a facial expression often indicates disrespect, contempt.

The psychology of gestures and facial expressions is a science that allows you to "read" emotions, notice the slightest changes in the opponent's mood and feel your interlocutor. Knowing how to put into practice the knowledge of this subsection of psychology, you can achieve success in communicating with almost every person and forget forever what a misunderstanding in a conversation is.

According to research, only a tenth of the information a person conveys in words. The rest is made up of gestures, facial expressions and intonation. The first intuitive “scan” of a person takes about 10 seconds. People do not always say what they think, but the body does not know how to lie. Hidden feelings find a way out through gestures. The psychology of non-verbal communication is very broad and multifaceted. Learning to understand human gestures and their meanings will make it much easier to find out the truth.

Gesture classification

When the emotional background of a person rises, he stops monitoring his body. But when trying to unravel the thoughts of others, it is necessary to take into account situational factors in order for the judgment to be correct. For example, if a person crosses his arms over his chest in severe frosts, this can only mean that he is cold, and not secrecy and isolation.

Human gestures are divided into types:

Common;

emotional;

ritual;

Individual.

Hand movements

When studying human gestures and their meanings, special attention should be paid to the hands. It is their movements that make up most of the communication. Many of them have become so familiar and mundane that they are no longer noticed. But even simple gestures, when examined in more detail, can be entertaining.

Handshake

When one person greets another, manner can say a lot. Powerful people serve it palm down. When respect is present, the hand is brought edge down. If a person is compliant and knows how to find compromises, he holds it out with his palm up. Morally weak people insecure and very weak, and aggressive ones, on the contrary, very strongly, at this time their arm is fully extended and tense.

Open and closed gestures

Thinking about how to understand a person by gestures, you need to know that they are open and closed. The first is understood as those movements when a person spreads his arms to the side or shows his palms. They indicate that he is ready for contact and open to communication.

Closed gestures include those that help a person build a psychological barrier. The body can be closed not only by hands, but also by foreign objects. Such manipulations indicate that a person does not trust the interlocutor and is not ready to open up to him. It can be interlocked fingers or crossed arms.

Studying human gestures and their meanings, experts came to the conclusion that people who put their palms on their palms or clasp their hands behind their backs feel superior to others and have high conceit. Aggression may be indicated by hands in a pocket when the thumb is left out.

Touching the face

If during a conversation the interlocutor constantly touches his face, ears or neck, this should alert. Most likely he's lying. Hand movements near the mouth may indicate that a person lacks support and approval. But external factors should also be taken into account: perhaps the interlocutor scratches his eyes and touches his nose because of a cold or an allergy.

People who are passionate about something often prop their cheeks. If a person scratches his chin, then he is in the process of making some important decision.

slopes

To find mutual understanding, it is important to know what facial expressions and gestures of a person indicate. The psychology of non-verbal communication is the key to success. Many movements are carried out on a subconscious level, so it is almost impossible to control them.

When a person feels sympathy for the interlocutor and is ready to make contact with him, he usually leans towards him. If he is sitting, the body can move forward, but the legs remain in place. Leaning to one side, he demonstrates a friendly attitude. When the interlocutor leans back in his chair, he may have gotten bored with the conversation and lost interest in it.

personal boundaries

Why do you need to know how to read human gestures? People have certain rules concerning their personal territory and space. A person who loves to break them and invade other people's borders, loves to show strength and show off in public. Confident people often take a little more space: they stretch their legs, comfortably position their hands. The shackled person tries to assume the fetal position.

Not everyone is ready to let the interlocutor into their personal space. If a person internally tenses, crosses his arms and moves back, then he is not ready for close contact.

If a person is far away...

A person who becomes far away from the interlocutor seems arrogant. But in fact, he is simply afraid to get close to others. It can annoy him appearance or a topic of conversation, and he wants to quickly end the conversation. Often people who are accustomed to distance themselves experience fear in their souls.

Copying movements

Wanting to figure out how to understand a person by gestures, you should pay attention to whether he copies other people's movements. When the interlocutor imitates, this indicates that he feels sympathy and is positive.

rocking

Such body movements, as well as the corresponding gestures and facial expressions of a person, speak of internal restlessness or impatience. In moments of excitement, adults can sway from heel to toe to calm down a little. But the interlocutor is unlikely to like this behavior: it distracts and confuses the speaker, preventing him from concentrating.

fidgeting

When people get nervous, their body can give out a lot of different information. Fidgeting speaks about no less than facial expressions and gestures. When a person feels insecure, he makes various movements, such as wringing his hands or fidgeting in a chair. This helps him take his mind off an unpleasant situation.

If the interlocutor is constantly fiddling with his tie, perhaps he lied or simply wants to leave the society in which he is.

head tilts

A tilted head is a sign that the interlocutor is interested in the conversation, he is ready to listen and is interested in continuing it. Such gestures of a person and their meanings are unambiguous and indicate that he is completely focused on the perception of information.

Head nodding and jerky movements

Psychologists have long noticed that if a person does not like what he hears, he unconsciously makes a sharp movement of his head in the opposite direction from the speaker. Thus, he creates a barrier between himself and the source of discomfort.

People who constantly nod in response to the speech of the interlocutor are accustomed to pleasing everyone. They really want to please everyone and get the approval of others. As a rule, these people lack self-confidence and are afraid of being rejected.

If a person shakes his head, then this is how he expresses internal disagreement with the interlocutor.

Downcast and upturned head

A person who talks with his head down is modest and insecure, he suffers from low self-esteem. Perhaps in this moment he is depressed or deeply unhappy.

A raised head and a raised chin are a sign of aggressiveness and hostility. Perhaps a person feels an impending threat and is ready to go to any extremes in order to protect himself.

If the interlocutor constantly throws his head back, this may indicate contempt or arrogance.

scratching

This movement does not matter only when a person is ill with something. In other situations, it is an indicator that the interlocutor feels awkward or insecure. It is much easier to find contact with others if you know what facial expressions and gestures of a person mean. The psychology of non-verbal communication will help to resolve the situation without bringing it to a conflict. Sometimes people scratch their heads if they don't like something. By offering the interlocutor an alternative option in time, you can avoid disputes and criticism.

Often a person scratches himself if he does not understand the question. By changing the wording and explaining in more detail what is required of him, you can give him time to prepare a response.

Shoulder movements

Such gestures may indicate that a person is indifferent to what is happening, or he is lying. It can also be regarded as uncertainty in the words spoken. During a untruthful story, people shrug their shoulders very quickly. This twitching helps them pull themselves together and look collected and calm. Raised shoulders are a sign of insecurity.

flirting gestures

When a person wants to attract the attention of the opposite sex, he touches his hair or adjusts his clothes. Sometimes there is increased gesticulation and excitement. Women can twist a lock of hair around their finger or adjust their makeup. Men, when communicating with a lady who arouses their sympathy, want to appear strong and self-confident. They put their hands on their belts or put them in their pockets, play with the belt, attracting attention.

Disguised gestures

They help a person achieve the desired level of calm and security. Instead of directly crossing the arms, various objects are used: cufflinks, watch strap or bracelets. But the result of these manipulations is always the same: one arm is across the body, thus creating protection. This indicates nervousness.

Hand dangling

For full communication, it is very important to understand what human gestures mean. If during a conversation one of his hands dangles randomly, draws some lines or describes circles, this may indicate that the interlocutor is deceiving.

If a person wants to express criticism or is dissatisfied with what is happening, he often takes this position: one hand props up the chin, and the index finger is straightened. The other hand can support the elbow. If, together with this, one or two eyebrows are lowered, then inside the person clearly does not approve of the interlocutor.

Neck rubbing

When a person rubs his ear or neck during communication, most likely he does not fully understand what is required of him. His assurances that everything is clear to him are a lie. Of course, if such actions are not caused by yesterday's draft and pain.

Mouth covered by hand

The friction of the century can also indicate that the interlocutor is telling a lie. If the deception is quite serious, a person can look away or lower his eyes, stroking his neck or ears. But all these signs should be considered in a complex.

• People who want to emphasize their unshakable positions can make firm hand gestures to emphasize the transition from one topic to another. Photos clearly demonstrate such gestures of people.

• If the situation is very tense, it is worth using hand movements to defuse it a little. Serious phrases can be illustrated with cheerful gestures. This will cheer up the audience a little and charge the atmosphere with positive.
• Do not become a clown and make ridiculous movements. Human gestures and facial expressions should draw attention to the main conversation, and not distract from it. In addition, they must be understandable to all present.

Introduction

Today, in the face of new, universal problems (global, humanitarian), the importance of dialogue is growing immeasurably. The commonality of being of different regions, countries, cultures, a common problem field does not mean that they follow the same standards, social, economic, cultural. The community is formed from a combination of different regional, ethno-cultural associations. The form of this community is worked out in the course and through the dialogue or polylogue between them. Interest in the speech act as a whole, including both the act of expression and the intentions of the speaker and its effect on the listener, involves considering the speech act as an event. speech communication, i.e. active social interaction.

By the end of the 20th century, a new type of social scientist, a specialist in the field of non-verbalism, appeared. This problem of society began to be studied only in the early sixties, and the public became aware of non-verbal communication only after Julius Fast published his book in 1970. But even today, most people are still unaware of the existence of body language, despite its importance in human life.

The "language" of body movements includes facial expressions and gestures.

MIMIC (from the Greek. mimikos - imitative), expressive movements of the muscles of the face, one of the forms of manifestation of human feelings. In the theater - an important element of acting or facial movements, expressing the inner state of mind.

SIGN LANGUAGE (kinetic language, linear language), a system of gestures and body movements used as a means of communication along with sound speech or instead of it in everyday communication, as well as in connection with rituals, religious prohibitions, etc. or hand movement or other body movement something that expresses or accompanies speech. A decisive, expressive, energetic gesture. Sign language (linear language that conveys a message through gestures). Theater of gestures (pantomime).

For example, an open outstretched palm during a handshake among various peoples of the world symbolizes friendliness, sincerity and the absence of aggressive intentions.

It is especially important to know the features of non-verbal communication for the correct perception of silent films.

There is a hypothesis that Charlie Chaplin and other silent film actors became the founders of non-verbal communication.

In the 20th century, Charles Darwin's The Expression of the Emotions in Men and Animals, published in 1872, was the most influential. It stimulated modern research in the field of "body language", and many of Darwin's ideas and his observations are recognized today by researchers around the world. Since that time, scientists have discovered more than 1,000 non-verbal signs and signals.

This problem was also studied by Albert Meyerabian, who determined that the transfer of information between interlocutors occurs through verbal means (only words) by 7%, by sound means (tone of voice, intonation of sound) by 38%, and by non-verbal means by 55%. %.

Professor Birdwissle did a similar study and found that the average person only speaks words for 10-11 minutes a day, and that each sentence lasts no more than 2.5 seconds on average. Like Meyerabian, he found that less than 35% of the information in a conversation is verbal, and more than 65% of the information is transmitted through non-verbal means of communication.

Most researchers share the opinion that the verbal channel is used to convey information, while the non-verbal channel is used to convey interpersonal relationships, and in some cases is used instead of verbal messages. For example, with a single glance, you can understand how a person is disposed towards you. This can be seen in the eyes, gestures and posture. The eyes can also play an important role.

Regardless of the cultural level of a person, words and the movements that accompany them coincide with such a degree of predictability, Birdwissle argues that a trained person can determine by voice what movement a person is making at the moment of pronouncing a particular phrase. And vice versa. Birdwissle also learned to determine what voice a person is speaking by observing his gestures at the moment of speech.

Every day we use dozens of gestures, almost without thinking about their meaning and not always realizing that they are able to convey much more information about us to other people than words.

It is surprising that sometimes not every one of us understands that his posture, gestures and movements may contradict what his voice says.

The study of the semiotic system of non-verbal communication not only promotes mutual understanding between people - carriers of the same culture and language, but also of different cultures and languages.

The relevance of this work lies in the extremely high role of non-verbal communication and the need for its in-depth study in the context of the globalization of the world.

The problem of this study lies in the misunderstanding of gestures and facial expressions by people in the process of non-verbal communication.

The purpose of the study is to study the features of non-verbal communication among representatives of both the same and different nationalities, as well as to determine correct interpretations gestures and facial expressions.

1.Explore the role of facial expressions and gestures in the process of communication.

2.Conduct a comparative analysis of the symbolism of gestures of carriers of different cultures.

.To identify the psychological patterns of correspondence between a person and facial expressions and gestures.

.Determine how a person uses the semiotic system of non-verbal communication in practice.

.Conduct a comparative analysis of the symbolism of facial expressions.

The main hypothesis: suppose that the studied part of the population (students) belong to a group of people who understand facial movements and gestures well, but practically do not use this understanding in everyday life, which can lead to misunderstanding of interlocutors, as well as the emergence of conflict situations.

In the process of research, we used the following scientific methods:

.A taxonomic method that allowed the classification of facial expressions and gestures.

.The historical method, thanks to which the origin of facial expressions and gestures was revealed.

.A descriptive method that made it possible to give psychological characteristics facial expressions and gestures.

.An experimental method that made it possible to identify the psychological patterns of a person and facial expressions and gestures.

.A comparative method, thanks to which we compared the facial expressions and gestures of people who are native speakers of different languages.

Linguopsychological method that allowed us to talk about the symbolic meaning of facial expressions and gestures.

A statistical method that made it possible to determine how much respondents understand gestures and facial expressions, and to systematize the data obtained.

The object of research is non-verbal communication.

The subject of the study is the interpretation of facial expressions and gestures.

In the preliminary period of the study, a survey was conducted of 90 1st year students of the Belarusian State Economic University of the Faculty of Finance and Banking, which made it possible to determine the perception of facial expressions and gestures by native Russian speakers living at the beginning of the 21st century.

1.Facial expressions, gestures and traditions

Gestures are always present in the conversation of all people. It has become so common that sometimes we do not notice it. But each country has its own gestures and facial expressions. If we talk about the British, they are very stingy with gestures. They try not to touch each other and carefully maintain a distance the size of an outstretched hand when talking. Much to our surprise, the British placed the following warning on the brochures of airlines operating overseas flights: "Be careful - your gestures can put you in an ambiguous position."

Many Russians put their hands in their pockets when speaking. But this, it turns out, can also create a problem: in Argentina, a police officer can point out indecent behavior to a person who puts his hands in his pants pockets.

In Germany, when talking, the distance with an outstretched arm is not enough. The German will retreat at the same time another half step. In Italy, on the contrary, an Italian will take half a step closer to you, and a person living in Saudi Arabia, will try to communicate in such a way as to breathe right in your face.

As an insult and a challenge, the Greek will perceive the raising of his hand with an open palm in his direction, and the American, in turn, will not be so angry.

In Japan, you shouldn't tighten your belt in public. This may be perceived as the beginning of hara-kiri.

Greeks, Turks and Bulgarians shake their heads from side to side when they say "yes", which means "no" to most Europeans. And North American Indians accompany their speech with special smooth gestures that can enrich what is said with additional meaning or give words the exact opposite meaning.

Americans count on their fingers, bending them away from the fist, but not bending them like we do. But if it is most often customary for us to bend our fingers, starting with the little finger, then the Japanese first bends the thumb, and after five begins the reverse process.

The index finger to the temple means "stupidity" in France, "wit" in Holland and "live your mind" in the UK.

When a Frenchman, German or Italian considers any idea stupid, he expressively knocks himself on the head, and if a German slaps his forehead with an open palm, then this can mean: "Yes, you're crazy!" In addition, Germans, as well as Americans, French and Italians, are in the habit of drawing a spiral near their head with their index finger, which means: "Crazy idea ..." Conversely, when an Englishman or Spaniard knocks himself on the forehead, it is clear to everyone that he satisfied, and not with anyone, but with himself. Despite the fact that in this gesture there is a share of self-irony, the person still praises himself for his ingenuity: "This is the mind!" If the Dutchman, knocking himself on the forehead, stretches his index finger up, then this means that he appreciated the intelligence of the interlocutor. But if the finger points to the side, then this means that his head does not work. Germans often raise their eyebrows as a sign of admiration for someone's idea. The same behavior in England would be regarded as an expression of skepticism.

By touching his eyelid with his finger, the Italian will express his benevolence: "I see you are a nice guy." In Spain, this gesture means doubt about the veracity of your words, and for the Frenchman it means "you are a talker, brother!"

If an Englishman intends to teach someone a lesson, he raises two fingers folded together, which means "Well, I'll show you!". And in the USA, the same gesture will be perceived as "You and I are a good team" or "You and I will not spill water!"

A typical Italian gesture - a palm in the shape of a boat - means a question, a call for explanations. And a similar gesture in Mexico is a call to pay for information: "I won't tell you anything for free."

"Horns", formed from the index finger and little finger, serve the Italians in order to "take away the evil eye", the Frenchman will consider that they want to call him a cuckold. A completely obscene gesture (the middle finger of the hand held up) has become famous thanks to the cinema on almost all continents. But in France, our domestic "fig" has the same meaning.

The raised thumb in America, England, Australia and New Zealand has three meanings. This gesture is usually used when voting on the road, trying to catch a passing car. The second meaning is everything is fine , and when the thumb is sharply thrown up - it becomes an offensive sign, meaning obscene swearing.

When Italians count from one to five, this gesture represents the number 1and the index finger 2. If the Americans and the British count, the index finger means 1and the middle finger 2; in this case, the thumb represents the number 5 .

Raising the thumb in combination with other gestures is also used as a symbol of power and superiority, as well as in situations where someone wants you. crush with your finger .finger sign

This sign is very popular in the UK and Australia and has an offensive interpretation here. During World War II, Winston Churchill popularized the sign V to indicate victory, but the hand is turned back to the speaker. If the hand is turned with the palm towards the speaker, then the gesture acquires an offensive meaning.

In most European countries, however, the V-gesture means victory anyway. .

You shake hands. Remember that the same gesture can have different nuances that completely change its character. A handshake is a common thing.

Men usually shake hands more tightly than women, but inner convictions and attitudes play an almost decisive role in this. If a representative of the so-called stronger sex adheres to liberal views, belongs to the subspecies of "bespectacled intellectuals", then he will most likely have a sluggish, flabby, inexpressive handshake. But if a woman professes a liberal philosophy of life, then, on the contrary, she may have a bulldog grip.

Knowing about the intricacies of the art of shaking hands is worth it to everyone who is going to an interview with their potential employer. It is also useful to get acquainted with the classification of handshakes compiled by Nick Ailes, an expert from one of the London institutes, who distinguishes four main types: "bone-breaker", "wet fish", "Masonic" and a la Bill Clinton.

Bonebreaker: There are those who like to press your hand with such desperate enthusiasm, as if they were wringing out laundry. A possible diagnosis is that they have an internal self-doubt that requires something to compensate for it. Wet fish: Sweaty palm that can "chill" you.

Masonic Sign: Any clever finger-twisting that Expert Isles does not recommend doing under any circumstances.

And finally, the style of the former American President of the United States, who has a habit of placing his left hand on right hand his interlocutor - just above the elbow. He has many imitators, but mostly among politicians. Usually such a gesture will be considered excessive familiarity.

These are just a few examples and comparisons. different countries world (particularly Europe). The following are the main stages of characterization:

comparison of gestures;

appearance, clothing, posture;

VOICE - a set of sounds of various heights, strengths and timbres that arise in a person as a result of vibrations of the elastic vocal cords. Airways (lungs, bronchi, trachea, larynx, oral and nasal cavities) participate in the formation of the voice.

Most people pay great attention to the voice. The voice can be high, medium and low (bass). Tempo and intonation also play great importance when talking. For example, intonation can be business (official), everyday (informal), etc.

By the tone, intonation with which the request was made, one can tell how important this request is for the interlocutor, and whether it is a request to do a friendly favor or is more like an order. For example, the expression "Hi" can be pronounced with many different intonations and have, accordingly, a completely different meaning: it can be a friendly greeting, or it can mean: "how do you not understand this."

GESTICULATION is one of the most important categories of non-verbal communication. There are so many of them that not a single person can list all the gestures. Only a few groups of gestures are listed below.

Copying movements

If one person copies elements of the body language of another (at the same time they cross their legs, prop their heads with their hands, clench their hands, etc.), it is likely that one or both of the interlocutors are in a lyrical mood. When a person imitates another person, this indicates that he wants to be like him.

Rocking from heel to toe

These body movements signal that the person is feeling impatient or restless. Adults sway from heel to toe in moments of excitement, when they are uncomfortable and want to calm down.

This behavior is not uncommon in children either: it is their way of cheering themselves up and restoring their mental balance. If adults behave in this way, others do not like it, because it distracts them. They cannot pull themselves together and focus on what the person who is swinging is trying to tell them.

When people do not find a place for themselves, they thereby reveal a lot of information about themselves. They get nervous, and then it's a sign that they don't want to be here anymore. They wring their hands or shift from foot to foot, which indicates excitement or irritation. When a person is uncomfortable, he constantly makes some kind of movement to feel better.

When people are uncomfortable, their temperature rises, they literally feel the heat in their chest.

So when someone fidgets, they are sending a message that they are uncomfortable or something is bothering them. Perhaps the person lied or wants to get away from the people in whose society he is currently located.

head tilt

A head tilted to the side signals that the person is interested and is ready to listen to what you have to say. He is focused on your words, and you managed to completely capture his attention.

Sharp movement of the head

When people hear something they don't like, people often make a sharp movement of their head away from the speaker. Most likely, this is an unconscious reaction designed to create a barrier between the person and the source of discomfort.

People who constantly nod when their interlocutor speaks like to please everyone. They usually have a burning desire to please. Their manner seems to say: "I agree with everything you say, and you must love me for it." As a rule, these are insecure people who are afraid of being rejected.

When a person shakes or shakes his head, it means that he expresses doubt or disagreement with what was said. He may shake his head, trying to analyze what was said and decide what position he should take in this case.

head scratching

Scratching the head means that the person is embarrassed or unsure about something.

Usually it is clearly visible. This gesture is in most cases an additional facial expression. For example, the curvature of the lips.

Shrug When people shrug their shoulders, it means that they are not telling the truth, are being insincere, or don't care. It can also be regarded as "I don't know", "I'm not sure" or "something I can't believe".

A person who lies usually shrugs his shoulders very quickly. In this case, it is done completely involuntarily and means something completely different than indifference or lack of interest. The person seems to say that he is telling a lie.

If a person raises his shoulders, but does not shrug them, but leaves them in this position, then he shows his defenselessness. This movement was often made by Marilyn Monroe to emphasize her sexuality and willingness to communicate.

Openness gestures. Among them are the following: open hands with palms up (a gesture associated with sincerity and openness), shrugging, accompanied by a gesture of open hands (indicates openness of nature), unbuttoning a jacket (people who are open and friendly to you often unbutton their jacket during a conversation and even take it off in your presence). For example, when children are proud of their achievements, they openly show their hands, and when they feel guilty or wary, they hide their hands either in their pockets or behind their backs. Experts also noticed that during successful negotiations, their participants unbutton their jackets, straighten their legs, move to the edge of the chair closer to the table, which separates them from the interlocutor.

Gestures of protection (defensive). They react to possible threats, conflict situations. When we see that the interlocutor has his arms crossed on his chest, we should reconsider what we are doing or saying, because he begins to move away from the discussion. Hands clenched into fists also mean the speaker's defensive reaction.

Evaluation gestures. They express thoughtfulness and dreaminess. For example, the gesture "hand to cheek" - people leaning their cheek on their hand are usually immersed in deep thought. A gesture of critical assessment - the chin rests on the palm, the index finger is extended along the cheek, the remaining fingers are below the mouth (the "wait and see" position). A person sits on the edge of a chair, elbows on hips, arms hanging freely (position "this is wonderful!"). The tilted head is a gesture of attentive listening. So, if most of the students in the audience do not have their heads tilted, then the group as a whole is not interested in the material that the teacher presents. Scratching the chin ("OK, let's think" gesture) is used when a person is busy making a decision. Gestures with glasses (wipes glasses, takes glasses in his mouth, etc.) - this is a pause for reflection, thinking about his position before putting up more decisive resistance, demanding explanations or raising a question.

Staggering is a gesture that indicates an attempt to solve a difficult problem or make a difficult decision. Pinching the bridge of the nose is a gesture usually combined with closed eyes, and speaks of deep concentration, intense thought.

Boredom gestures. They are expressed in tapping the foot on the floor or clicking the cap of a fountain pen. Head in the palm of your hand. Machine drawing on paper. Blank stare ("I look at you, but do not listen").

Gestures of courtship, preening. In women, they look like smoothing hair, straightening hair, clothes, looking at yourself in the mirror and turning in front of it; swaying the hips, slowly crossing and spreading the legs in front of the man, stroking oneself on the calves, knees, thighs; balancing the shoes on the tips of the fingers ("I feel comfortable in your presence"), for men - adjusting the tie, cufflinks, jacket, straightening the whole body, moving the chin up and down, etc.

Gestures of suspicion and secrecy. The hand covers the mouth - the interlocutor diligently hides his position on the issue under discussion. A glance to the side is an indicator of secrecy. Legs or whole body facing the exit - sure sign that the person wants to end the conversation or meeting. Touching or rubbing the nose with the index finger is a sign of doubt (other varieties of this gesture are rubbing the index finger behind the ear or in front of the ear, rubbing the eyes).

Gestures of dominance-subordination. Superiority can be expressed in a welcoming handshake. When a person gives you a firm handshake and turns it so that the palm rests on top of yours, he is trying to express something like physical superiority. And, conversely, when he holds out his hand with the palm up, it means that he is ready to accept a subordinate role. When the interlocutor's hand during a conversation is carelessly thrust into the pocket of his jacket, and the thumb is outside, this expresses the person's confidence in his superiority.

Readiness gestures. Hands on hips - the first sign of readiness (it can often be seen in athletes waiting for their turn to perform). A variation of this posture in a sitting position - a person sits on the edge of a chair, the elbow of one hand and the palm of the other rest on his knees (this is how they sit immediately before concluding an agreement or, conversely, before getting up and leaving).

Reinsurance gestures. Different finger movements reflect different sensations: insecurity, internal conflict, fears. The child in this case sucks his finger, the teenager bites his nails, and the adult often replaces his finger with a fountain pen or pencil and bites them. Other gestures of this group are interlaced fingers, when the thumbs rub against each other; tingling of the skin; touching the back of a chair before sitting down.

For women, a typical gesture of giving inner confidence is a slow and graceful raising of a hand to the neck.

Frustration gestures. They are characterized by short, intermittent breathing, often accompanied by obscure sounds like moaning, lowing, etc. (one who does not notice the moment when his opponent begins to breathe rapidly and continues to prove his own may run into trouble); tightly braided, tense hands - a gesture of distrust and suspicion (one who tries, with his hands clasped, to assure others of his sincerity, usually fails), his hands tightly squeeze one another - which means that the person is in a "trouble" (for example, must answer to a question containing a serious accusation against him); stroking the neck with the palm of the hand (in many cases when a person is defending himself) - women usually fix their hair in these situations.

Gestures of trust. The fingers are connected like the dome of a temple (the "dome" gesture), which means trust and some complacency, selfishness or pride (a very common gesture in a boss-subordinate relationship).

Gestures of authoritarianism. Hands are connected behind the back, the chin is raised (this is how army commanders, policemen, and also top leaders often stand). In general, if you want to make clear your superiority, you just need to physically rise above your opponent - sit above him if you are talking while sitting, or maybe stand in front of him.

Gestures of nervousness. Coughing, clearing the throat (one who often does this feels insecure, anxious), elbows are placed on the table, forming a pyramid, the top of which is the hands located directly in front of the mouth (such people play cat and mouse with partners, while they do not give them the opportunity to "reveal the cards", an indication of which is the removal of hands from the mouth on the table), jingling coins in the pocket, indicating concern about the presence or lack of money; twitching one's ear is a sign that the interlocutor wants to interrupt the conversation, but is holding himself back.

Self-control gestures. Hands are wound behind the back and strongly clenched. Another posture is sitting in a chair, the man crossed his ankles and clasped his hands on the armrests (typical of waiting for a dentist's appointment). The gestures of this group signal a desire to deal with strong feelings and emotions.

1.3 Appearance: clothing, posture

The posture during a conversation means a lot: interest in the conversation, subordination, desire for joint activities etc. If your partner is sitting almost motionless, wearing dark glasses, and even covering the records with his hands, you feel extremely uncomfortable.

Therefore, during business meetings, one should not take a pose that characterizes closeness in communication and aggressiveness: frowning eyebrows, a head slightly tilted forward, elbows widely spaced on the table, clenched into fists or clasped fingers. Avoid wearing tinted glasses, especially when you first meet. Not seeing the eyes of the interlocutor, the partner may feel embarrassed, since a significant amount of information is inaccessible to him. As a result, it will break general atmosphere communication.

The posture reflects the subordination of the participants in the conversation. Moreover, it is psychological subordination - the desire to dominate or, on the contrary, to obey, and this may not coincide with status. Sometimes the interlocutors occupy an equal position, but one of them seeks to show his superiority. For example, one sat on the edge of a chair, putting his hands on his knees, the other fell apart, casually crossing his legs. The relationship of these people is obvious, even if you don’t hear what is being said: the first is subordinate to the second (the formal ratio of the positions they hold is not important).

The desire for dominance is also evidenced by such postures as: both hands on the hips, legs slightly apart; one hand on the hip, the other leans on the jamb of the door or wall; head slightly raised, arms crossed at the waist. On the contrary, if you want to emphasize agreement with your partner, you can observe a kind of copying of his gestures. So, if one of the partners during a friendly conversation sits with his head propped on his hand, the other almost automatically does the same, as if thereby saying "I am the same as you." strangers try to avoid copying each other's poses. Conversely, if the interlocutors want to establish friendly, relaxed relations, they repeat each other's movements. However, it is important that both interlocutors strive for an informal, friendly atmosphere. Otherwise, copying the pose can cause an extremely negative reaction.

Appearance

Appearance is how other people see and perceive another person. This is an important part of non-verbal communication.

Good appearance depends on the characteristics:

neat and clean appearance;

free natural behavior;

grammatically correct speech;

decent manners;

calm reaction to praise and criticism;

gesture facial expressions semiotic non-verbal

Another major feature in non-verbal communication. For example, we took a small test:

With this simple test, you can practice your ability to read faces. Determine what feeling the face expresses in each of the 12 drawings.

Correct answers (these are considered to be original in meaning with the definitions given below):

1.Everyone knows the expression of ambiguity, confusion.

2. Moody.

.Expression of interest.

Discontent.

.Sadness, sadness, frustration.

Astonishment.

.Disinterest. The exact opposite of gesture number 9.

.Anger. Furrowed eyebrows indicate a very angry state.

.Joy, some surprise interest.

Sadness.

.An expression of contemplation.

.Concern and excitement.

2.Comparative analysis of the symbolism of facial expressions and gestures

In the course of the study, we conducted a survey of 1st year students of the Belarusian State Economic University of the Faculty of Finance and Banking. 90 respondents were offered a questionnaire.

The objective of the study is to find out what importance young people attach to facial expressions in their daily lives. To what extent do they know how to read it, do they understand what facial movements mean, how they react when communicating with other people.

working hypothesis.

The fact that young people understand facial expressions affects their relationship directly with each other, as well as with the society surrounding them. However, each person can give different meaning interlocutor's facial expressions. It is assumed that the studied part of the population (students) belongs to the group of people who understand facial movements and gestures well, but practically do not use this understanding in everyday life, which can lead to misunderstanding of interlocutors, as well as the emergence of conflict situations.

The main procedure for collecting data from a sociological study is the questioning of respondents.

The procedure for analyzing the data obtained is the processing of questionnaires.

The body is a glove for the soul

For each question, choose your answer.

Do you think that facial expressions and gestures are ...

1. Spontaneous expression of a person's state of mind;
2. Supplement to speech;
3. Manifestation of our subconscious.

2. Do you think that in women the language of facial expressions and gestures is more expressive than in men?

1. Not;
2. Don't know.

3. What mimic movements and gestures, in your opinion, are understood in the same way all over the world? (Choose three.)

1. Head shake;
2. Head nods;
3. wrinkling of the nose;
4. Forehead wrinkling;
5. Wink;
6. Smile.

4. What part of the body most expressive?

1. Feet;
2. Legs;
3. Arms;
4. Hands;
5. Shoulders.

5. Which part of the face is the most expressive ? (Choose two.)

1. Forehead;
2. Brows;
3. Eyes;
4. Nose;
5. Lips;
6. The corners of the mouth.

6. If someone, while talking or laughing, often covers his mouth with his hand, in your mind this means that ...

1. He has something to hide;
2. He has ugly teeth;
3. He is ashamed of something.

7. What do you first of all pay attention to when talking with a person?

1. On the eyes;
2. Mouth;
3. Arms;
4. Pose.

8. If your interlocutor, talking to you, looks away, this is a sign for you ...

1. Dishonesty;
2. uncertainties;
3. composure.

9. A man speaks to a woman. He does this because

1. The first step is always taken by men;
2. A woman unconsciously makes it clear that she would like to be spoken to;
3. He's brave enough to take the risk turn from the gate.

10. You got the impression that the words of a person do not correspond to those signals that you caught from his facial expressions and gestures. What do you believe more?

1. words;
2. Signals ;
3. He will make you suspicious.

11. Pop stars like Madonna or Prince use it at concerts. gestures that are openly erotic in nature. What do you think is behind this?

1. Just fiddling;
2. They are turn on the audience;
3. This is an expression of their own mood.

12. Is it possible to completely control your facial expressions?

1. Not;
2. Only individual elements of facial expressions.

13. When flirting intensely, you express yourself mostly...

1. eyes;
2. hands;
3. Words.

14. Do you think that most of your gestures ...

1. peeped from someone and memorized;
2. passed down from generation to generation;
3. laid down by nature.

The results of processing the questionnaires are presented in the table.

Question number Answer optionaBcDEf110%75%15%---220%75%5%---310%50%50%20%70%100%410%10%45%15%20%-515%5%25%10 %45%100%60%0%100%---740%15%5%40%--80%100%0%---940%10%50%---100%0%100%-- -110%100%0%---1220%5%75%---1350%45%5%---140%0%100%---

After processing the data, we have the following results:

% - people who interpret facial expressions and gestures well, but rarely use this information in real life. These people tend to be more literal, take the words they say and be guided by them, rather than the conclusions drawn from the information received from the facial expressions and gestures of the interlocutor.

Recommendation for this group of people: pay more attention to the information received from the facial expressions and gestures of your interlocutor and make decisions (actions) taking into account this information. This will help them communicate more comfortably and avoid conflict situations.

% - people who definitely have the ability to understand people without words, but they rely too much on this quality. After all, if they smile at you, this does not mean that they declare their love.

% - people for whom the language of facial expressions and gestures is a Chinese letter. And it's not about their abilities, they just don't attach any importance to it.

The recommendation for this group of people is to try to intentionally fix your attention on the small gestures of the people around you. Remember the proverb: The body is a glove for the soul . Understanding others, you will never find yourself in the trap of loneliness.

Thus, having studied the problem of facial expressions and gestures, we can draw the following conclusions:

.facial expressions and gestures are a semiotic (sign) system of non-verbal communication, different in different national cultures;

.extralinguistic reasons (i.e. the state in which a person lives, the political situation, social status, etc.) big influence on the perception of gesture and facial expressions;

.the culturological aspect of the perception of the semiotic system of non-verbal communication is also important, since the culture, history, traditions of the people are important for the formation of the human mentality;

.most people (about 90%) interpret facial expressions and gestures well, but rarely use this information in real life;

.The problem of non-verbal communication is extremely relevant in the context of the globalization of the world and requires in-depth research.

Literature

1.Gold Sabrina. The latest guide to deciphering gestures, postures, facial expressions. - M., 2007.

.Nelson Audrey, Golant Suzanne. The language of facial expressions and gestures. What it is. - St. Petersburg, 2003.

.Knapp Mark, Hall Judith. Non-verbal communication. Facial expressions, gestures, movements, postures and their meaning. Complete guide to non-verbal communication. - M., 2007.

.Pronnikov V.A., Ladanov I.D. The language of facial expressions and gestures. - M., 2003.

.Stepanov S. The language of appearance. Gestures, facial expressions, facial features, handwriting and clothing. - M., 2000.

.Tumarkin P.S. Gestures and facial expressions in Japanese communication. Linguistic and cultural dictionary-reference book. - M.: Russian language, 2001.

.Fishing S.V. The language of facial expressions, attitudes and gestures. - M., 2007.

.Khomich E.O. The language of facial expressions and gestures. - M., 2008.

.Huber C. First Impression. The language of facial expressions and gestures. - M., 2007.

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Fomina-Chertousova Neonila Anatolyevna, Candidate of Medical Sciences,Assistant of the Department of Nervous Diseases and Neurosurgery,Neurologist, epileptologist of the highest qualification category

Emotions are a form of reactions reflecting states nervous system and mood of a person arising in response to various influences internal and external environment of the body. Emotional reactions should be considered as one of the forms of adaptation of the organism to the conditions of existence based on the evolutionary approach. Darwin developed a theory about the origin of emotions, studied the anatomical and physiological foundations and expressions of emotions, while establishing which muscles of the face and body are involved in the implementation of emotional reactions. Darwin singled out 3 basic principles of emotional expressions: 1) the principle of useful associated habits, 2) the principle of antithesis, 3) the principle of the direct influence of the general excitation of the nervous system. Darwin showed the genesis of various emotions in animals and humans from the standpoint of the theory of evolution. The nervous substrate of emotions is connected with the cerebral cortex and subcortical formations (thalamus, hypothalamus, striopallidar system), which act in close relationship with each other. Separate subcortical systems have their own specifics. The visual tubercle gives emotional coloring of various tones and degrees, the striopallidary system is involved in the implementation of the external expression of emotions, the hypothalamus regulates autonomic, vascular, neuro-endocrine functions and metabolism in emotional states. Pain emotion causes adaptive movements that protect against pain - muscle tension, posture or body position, crying, groaning, screaming and vasomotor disorders.

V. I. Lenin said that the dialectical path of knowing the truth, knowing objective reality carried out by the transition of contemplation to abstract thinking and from there to practice. Such is the regularity of emotional reactions under the influence of the external environment.

Mental activity is supported by emotional tone, which corresponds to the statement of IP Pavlov that the subcortex charges the cortex. Emotions play a big role in human life. Emotional reactions are associated with sensations, perceptions, ideas, thoughts, i.e. with the cognitive process. Here is one example of the influence of emotions on mental activity. Mayer, who discovered the law of energy transformation, went to Indonesia as a ship's doctor. He wrote that with such love he took up the work of investigating the law of the transformation of energy, that he was little interested in the part of the world that he passed, and, remaining on board, freely devoted himself to work, and he felt such inspiration that he had not felt before or after that time. . In behavioral reactions, emotions manifest themselves in two ways: 1) as the formation of a need, expressed in expectation, anxiety, and 2) as the fulfillment of a need, associated with a feeling of pleasantness, pleasure, enjoyment. Emotions were divided into negative and positive. Among emotions, sadness, fear, anxiety, fear, suffering, embarrassment, anger, disappointment, grief, joy, love, excitement, etc. are distinguished. trunk and coordination of movements, metabolic disorders. Emotional expressions of a person are manifested on early stage body development. So, primary emotions (crying, smiling) are found in a newborn child. The fetus, prematurely withdrawn for medical reasons and placed in favorable conditions for circulation and nutrition, mimic manifestations are observed. When a bristle touches the upper lip, a grimace appears, similar to the facial reactions of an adult, expressing disgust, disgust, a feeling of unpleasantness. In the fetus, you can observe the expression of "sorrow", sobs. A small child expresses his displeasure by crying and screaming loudly. Gradually, the child begins to restrain his feelings. An adult in pain groans, cries. Mimicry from the moment of birth develops and improves. In an adult, crying is not only from pain, but also from joy. Human motor skills change with age. The hypothalamus, quadrigemina, nuclei of the facial nerve make up the anatomical substrate, which is involved in the implementation of facial reactions, manifested in conjunction with the activity of the cerebral cortex. The extrapyramidal system affects the tone of facial muscles, the rate of their activity, the intensity of their innervation, as well as automatic and expressive movements. The direct expression of facial expressions is the muscles of the face. Mimic muscles innervated by the facial nerve perform various functions, which determines the whole variety of facial expressions. The oculomotor nerves also take part in facial expressions. In mimic activity, proportionality of movements is important, which is due to complex combinations of the cerebellar system with vestibular and sensory mechanisms.

Voltaire in the poem “A Failed Portrait (Marquise de B.)” expressed the combination of various emotional nuances in this way: “Is it easy to paint a portrait of you: strict and cheerful, capricious and stern, you seem like a naughty, but no, contrary to yourself, you are well-behaved again.” I. M. Sechenov in "Physiology of the nervous system" described mimic acts, noting the role of congenital combined movements, showed that they have a reflex character. I. M. Sechenov considers any mimic movement of the face as the end of a reflex, complicated by mental elements.

Studying emotions, P.F. Lesgaft showed the importance of development and education, that is, the role of environmental factors in the expression of emotions. M. I. Astvatsaturov divided emotions into cortical and subcortical. E. K. Sepp stated that contractions of facial muscles during emotions have biological significance and create favorable conditions for cerebral circulation.

Cannon believed that the physiological basis of emotions is the nervous processes that occur in the thalamus. According to IP Pavlov, the physiological basis of emotions is not only the subcortex, but also the cerebral cortex. During emotions, changes in respiration, blood circulation, hormonal functions, blood composition, blood sugar, sympathetic-adrenal substances occur. By influencing the emotional sphere, it is possible to cause a change in the physiological functions associated with our sensations. Through imagination it is possible to realize suggestion. For example, imagine that I am holding a lemon in my hand, one slice of which has been cut off. I continue to cut with a knife, from which a drop of lemon juice drips, the next slice, and the skin of the lemon is cut with difficulty, the bone is squeezed out, which falls on a saucer with a few drops of juice, then I cut off a slice of lemon and continue to cut the lemon, and at the sight This results in a sour taste in the mouth and saliva. Didn't you feel acids in your mouth if you imagined this picture in detail?

Many of you probably could experience the emotion of fear of heights, when there is fear, uncertainty, dizziness, sometimes a feeling of nausea, that is, the emotion of fear with vegetative-visceral manifestations.

The subcortical nodes are the centers of the most important conditioned reflexes. Due to the close interaction of the cerebral cortex and the subcortex, there is an exciting effect from the subcortical nodes on the cells of the cerebral cortex and their dynamics when the cortical functions are weakened. IP Pavlov cited the observation of a military neurosis, in which the former commander, falling asleep, began to scream, wave his arms or legs, give orders, command, in a word, experienced the scenes of the war. Violation of the ratio between the irritable and inhibitory process in the cerebral cortex leads to the emergence of negatively colored emotions. It is necessary to emphasize the fallacy of the views of Freud, who considered the libido to be the basis of emotions. IP Pavlov wrote that the behavior of an animal consists of balancing the excitatory and inhibitory processes associated with various agents. If an irritable process is evoked and then limited by an inhibitory process, then the animal, experiencing difficulty, begins to squeal, bark, and rush out of the machine. Our feelings of pleasant, unpleasant, feelings of lightness and difficulty, joy and sorrow, triumph and despair are associated with a change in the nervous dynamics in the cerebral cortex and subcortex. Feeling is always stronger than reasoning (Maurois). The emergence of strong contrasting experiences, emotional experiences that manifest themselves in a person when performing complex tasks, I. P. Pavlov explained by the phenomena of mutual induction. Emotions influence the way of learning through the use of visual, auditory, kinesthetic stimuli. Some remember the task when turned on visual images, for others - when turned off. The formation and change of dynamic stereotypes, their breaking and are accompanied by emotional manifestations. With the resumption of a temporary connection, i.e., with the recollection of an experienced emotional reaction (offense, etc.), unrest may reappear, facial expressions change, and usually corresponding vegetative manifestations appear on the face and in the internal organs (heart). P. K. Anokhin created the theory of emotions, based on the idea of ​​the integrity of physiological formations that carry out emotional reactions. From a biological point of view, it is believed that positive emotional sensations are fixed as a mechanism that maintains the body at an optimal level.

The significance of the second signaling system for the emergence and change of the emotional state of a person, the role of the word as an irritant is revealed in experimental and clinical observations. Words are not only the causative agent of emotional experiences, but also an irritant that causes vasomotor and other vegetative reactions. When suggested, it is possible to identify vascular reactions on the face, changes in cardiac activity, respiration, pulse, gas exchange, functions gastrointestinal tract, facial expressions and other manifestations observed with emotions. The processes occurring in the cortex and subcortex are the physiological basis of emotions. Emotional reactions are carried out with the participation of the reticular formation of the brain stem. The cerebral cortex receives information about the reactions that have occurred in the body associated with emotions, resulting in feelings of pleasant satisfaction or, conversely, dissatisfaction. The destruction of subcortical formations leads to a violation of the external expression of emotions. Hess and collaborators, by stimulating the hypothalamus, influenced the behavior of the animal. When removing the cerebral cortex in "thalamic" and "hypothalamic" animals, Bard found that pain stimulation gives a more distinct outward expression of rage and anger. The latest data have established the participation in the process of emotions of the amygdala complex (Fig. 47, A), the hippocampus, the cortex of the cingulate gyrus, the orbital cortex and other areas of the brain, in particular, the activating influence of the reticular formation of the brain stem (Fig. 47, B). These formations are mediators between the hypothalamus and the cerebral cortex in the formation of emotions. Impulses to the limbic system come from the reticular formation; another path is more complicated: from the thalamus to the hippocampus, from here along the fibers of the fornix to the mamillary bodies of the hypothalamus and further along the mamillo-thalamic tract to the anterior nucleus of the thalamus and then to the limbic gyrus.

The amygdala body is connected to the subcortical nodes and the cerebral cortex and may play a role of facilitating or

Rice. 47. The relationship of the cortex and subcortex.

A - some connections of the amygdala body with the subcortex and cortex: 1 - frontal *

parietal lobe; 2 -■ temporal lobe; 3 - islet; 4 - amygdala body;

b - tailed body; 6 - hypothalamus; 7 - reticular formation;

B - the influence of the reticular formation of the brain stem: the effect on the cortex
brain (a), muscle tone (b), cardiovascular system (c),
on sympathetic-adrenal functions (d); B - neuro-endocrine relationships
and their role in emotions.

slowing down general education that can reduce or increase the overall tone of the emotional state. The limbic system, which is related to emotions and internal organs, receives signals through the reticular formation and the hypothalamus, and this affects the manifestation of the emotional state. Experimentally, with electrical effects on the deep structures of the brain, various emotional manifestations can be induced depending on the location of the stimulation, the strength, frequency, and duration of the current. With electrical stimulation of the deep structures of the brain, an increase in the emotional background or the development of a pathological emotional state that is not associated with the previous mood is revealed. A correlation has been established between changes in the emotional state and the nature of the electrosubcorticogram of the hippocampus, septum, and other brain structures. Emotions include experiences of voluptuous sensations, pleasant sensations, in which there is an attraction to their repetition. Sometimes emotions manifest themselves in the form of “unreasonable joy”, “unaccountable fear”, “pointless longing”. For understanding the physiological foundations of emotions, the teachings of I. P. Pavlov about the types of higher nervous activity, different depending on the strength of the excitatory and inhibitory processes. Persons of a strong unbalanced type with a strong irritable process and a weak inhibitory process (unrestrained type) react violently in an unfavorable situation, show affective reactions with anger and rage. With emotional overstrain, they easily experience confusion, self-doubt, and despair. Persons of a strong balanced type with pronounced irritable and inhibitory processes react with restraint to what has happened and quickly find a way out of a difficult situation. A strong, balanced, calm type of higher nervous activity is characterized by fairly well-defined irritable and inhibitory processes, with the inhibitory process predominating over the irritable one. Balanced persons think over every step and as a result make a correct, firm and deliberate decision. Thus, emotional reactivity depends on the type of higher nervous activity. Individual differences in the nature and strength of experiences are associated with the peculiarities of the interaction of signaling systems. I. P. Pavlov singled out artistic, mental and intermediate types. One of the important expressions of emotional states are changes in cardiovascular activity. At positive emotions blood pressure due to an increase in the work of the heart and blood vessels rises, leaving no significant trace reactions. With negative emotions (fear, grief), the activity of the heart and blood vessels is excited, and a large trace remains after the emotional reaction. This difference is associated with the peculiarities of negative emotions: with a generalized spread of excitation and a subsequent delay in the leveling of metabolic shifts. With negative emotions, the functions of the hypothalamus and

nonspecific nuclei of the thalamus, the reticular formation (Fig. 47, B), i.e., systems that are involved in the implementation of the "stress" reaction. The adrenal system is involved not only in the humoral way, but also through the reticular formation, the sympathetic system, and through the connections of the hypothalamus with the pituitary gland (adrenocorticotropic hormone stimulates the sympathetic-adrenal system in the periphery). Emotional tensions, unrest, "emotional stress" play an important role in the pathogenesis of hypertension, viscerospasms and dyskinesias, neurodermatosis, collagenosis, autonomic dysfunctions, and neuroses. Excessive release of adrenaline, norepinephrine, adrenocorticotropic hormone into the blood during negative emotions causes arterial hypertension and can cause hypertensive paroxysms and crises. The phagocytic activity of leukocytes changes with neuroses, pain stimuli and unrest (for example, in students during exams).

Cannon believed that autonomic reactions that occur during emotional stress are aimed at mobilizing the body's resources to get out of a difficult situation. The expression of emotions involves respiratory functions (increased and deepening of breathing), secretory functions (“dry lips”, etc.), activity of the sphincters of the gastrointestinal tract (dyskinesia of the biliary tract and intestines). Emotional upheavals can cause an increase in body temperature (a violation of thermoregulation carried out by the hypothalamus). Sometimes, during an emotional reaction, a person trembles, sometimes he feels that he has “thrown into a fever.” We often manage to delay the external expression of emotions (facial expressions, speech, etc.), but it is difficult to influence the autonomic, visceral and hormonal (adrenergic, etc.) manifestations. Emotions can be viewed in evolutionary terms as useful adaptive responses.

External expression of emotions are facial expressions, gestures, body posture, motor skills. I. M. Sechenov believed that all the endless variety of external manifestations of brain activity is finally reduced to one phenomenon - muscle movement. Whether a child laughs at the sight of a toy, whether Garibaldi smiles when he is persecuted for excessive love for his homeland, whether a girl trembles at the first thought of love, whether Newton creates world laws and writes them on paper - everywhere the final fact is muscular movement. Mimic expressions are very variable and the slightest changes in facial expressions can reveal a change in the mood and emotional state of a person. The primary integration of emotions is associated with subcortical formations, and especially with the nucleus of the facial nerve, with the participation of which mimic expressions are realized. Based on the connections of the cortex and subcortex with the facial nerve, various nuances of facial expressions are formed, through which a person shows a variety of emotional expressions. The facial expressions of the upper part of the face are mainly manifested in the wrinkling of the forehead, raising the eyebrows up, and frowning. Darwin gave the frontal muscle

the nature of alertness in case of danger. When attention is strained, vertical folds appear in the middle of the forehead. Often, with affect, a person has vertical folds of the forehead above the bridge of the nose. At rest, these folds are smoothed out. A change in the horizontal or vertical position of the eyebrows is observed with emotional expressions of grief, care, and suffering. The artist also has his own style, "handwriting". A beautiful expression of the facial expressions of suffering is presented in Delacroix's painting "Massacre in Chios", in the sculptural group "Laocoön", which depicts suffering as a result of the struggle with snakes.

Emotional expressions are manifested not only by facial expressions, but also by the condition of the eyes. In Velazquez's painting "Innocent X" (1650), the artist reflects an ominous look, expressing cunning, imperiousness, insight, secrecy. The nature of the look, the position of the eyebrows, the size and uniformity of the palpebral fissures, the direction of the look (to the side, up, straight), the brilliance or dullness of the eyes change with external expressions of emotions. The look can be sharp-sighted, concentrated, cold, dreary, sad, pensive, pleading, joyful, crafty, envious, ingratiating, reproaching, harsh, tender, proud, affectionate, etc. In the novel "War and Peace" L.N. Tolstoy is given a large number of shades of expression in the eyes, clearly conveying the various emotional attitudes of a person. The expression on the face of a blind man is frozen, motionless, his gaze is directed into the distance. Pupils can reflect various nuances of emotional experiences. In the eyes you can see an expression of fright, sadness, joy, grief, indifference (“the eyes are sleeping”). In many works of art one can find vivid expressions: “read through the eyes”, “indignant, stern look and lips tightly closed”, “the expression of the eyes spoke”. M. Gorky described the eyes: offended, sad, angry, tired, wet. L. N. Tolstoy in the novel “Anna Karenina” wrote: “The expression of her eyes, meek, calm and truthful, and especially her smile, which always carried Levin into a magical world, always struck her.” Chopin wrote in his diary that "her eyes were reflected in my eyes, warm, passionate ...". “Her caressing eyes fogged me” (J. Sand).

In the lower half of the face, facial expressions are most actively carried out in the movements of the mouth. A tightly closed mouth, clenched teeth, tightly compressed lips express certainty and determination, purposefulness. Relaxation of the mouth as a result of a decrease in the tone of the corresponding muscles causes facial expressions indicating a decrease in human activity. L. N. Tolstoy described facial expressions during excitement as follows: “His cheeks began to nervously twitch first to one side, then to the other, giving his face an unpleasant expression. His eyes, too, were not the same as always: either they looked impudently jokingly, or they looked around frightened ”(“ War and Peace ”), Balzac described the mimic expression in alarm:“ An imperceptible wrinkle that cut through the white face, a barely perceptible twitch of the face, slightly furrowed brows, almost imperceptibly quivering lips.

In facial reactions, sometimes the corner of the mouth takes a big part. The drooping of the corner of the mouth Darwin assessed as a vestige of crying. V. M. Bekhterev attached importance to the condition of the corners of the mouth for assessing the tone: when depressed, dreary mood, depressive state and when crying from pain, grief, joy, the corners of the mouth are lowered. Pay attention to the famous painting by A. G. Venetsianov "Fortune-telling on the cards" (1842). The fortuneteller looks at the cards intently, thinks, looks for a clue, and the other waits with curiosity and impatience for an answer (Fig. 48).

In a state of joy, cheerfulness, a certain composure, a good tone of facial muscles and alignment of the corners of the mouth are noted. When laughing, the corners of the mouth are pulled back and up. Ironic laughter is accompanied by a “curvature” of one corner of the mouth (a function of the triangular muscle of the lower lip). A change in the position of the mouth may indicate an outward expression of emotions, accompanied by mockery, sarcasm. The circular muscle of the mouth causes the manifestation of facial expressions, accompanied by laughter. The laughter experienced inside is manifested by a closed mouth, a joyful expression of the eyes, sometimes combined with a small trembling of the lower part of the face. Mimic expression of laughter is diverse. There are characteristic, pronounced, full-fledged laughter (laughter "from the heart") and abortive, depressed, when a person does not want to laugh, but out of politeness maintains a joyful mood that the interlocutor has. A smile, like laughter, can be different. When smiling, the corners of the mouth stretch to the side. A smile can be triumphant when a person has won some kind of victory, tender, kind at the sight of a child, vicious at the sight of an enemy, etc. about 100 shades of human smile.

A beautiful image of the emotion of joy and happiness is presented in the world-famous painting by Leonardo da Vinci "Monna Lisa". While drawing, Leonardo forced Monna Lisa to be entertained with singing and jokes so that her face would not have an imprint of sadness, and he managed to capture a gentle smile (Fig. 49). I. E. Repin gave an excellent depiction of various emotions in his paintings (Fig. 50, A). These masterpieces include his famous painting "Cossacks writing a letter to the Turkish Sultan." The picture draws attention to the emotion of laughter on the faces of all the depicted Cossacks. Laughter II. E. Repin expressed it differently: either in the form of a sly smile, or in the form of thunderous laughter. Laughter shows the confidence of the Cossacks in their power, and this expresses patriotic feelings (Fig. 50, B).

In the portraiture of famous artists, there are many vivid images that reflect experiences and emotional expressions. So, in the portrait of the old man, Rembrandt depicted a forehead with deep wrinkles as a result of deep thoughts and worries, a thoughtfully looking ahead, reflecting concentration and fatigue, and characteristic, overworked hands. The general appearance shows wisdom and inner strength. V. I. Surikov painted a beautiful portrait of “a man with a sore hand, who is closed.

deepened in his experiences” (“he looks at the viewer, but does not communicate with him”). There is a shadow under the eyes, the cheekbones protrude, the cheeks are sunken. V. I. Surikov suffered from heart disease and died 3 years after he painted this picture, in which his thoughts about the disease are embedded. The portrait of F. M. Dostoevsky, painted by V. G. Perov, reveals the emotional experiences of the great Russian writer - a singer of the humiliated and offended, who had tremendous power of mind and feelings. The facial expression is characteristic: frowning eyebrows, directed forward, concentrated gaze, compressed lips, sunken cheeks, bent posture of the torso and an expressive gesture of the hands (fingers cover the knees). This portrait shows suffering, painful experiences and hard work of thought. With emotions, it has an expression of pantomime, i.e., a combination of the movement of the torso and face. So, with great grief, suffering is expressed in pantomime: the head and shoulders are lowered, the back is hunched, the arms hang limply along the body. On the contrary, a person in a joyful state has increased motor activity, he is excited; the patient talks a lot, gesticulates vigorously, jumps up and sits down again, walks around the room, etc.

In the process of life experience, the ability to control one's feelings, restrain emotional reactions is developed, a person learns to control himself. Thus, it is possible to suppress the feeling of pleasantness during a conversation and maintain a conversation without revealing one's attitude. In order not to upset loved one, sometimes they try to hide their feelings, and only by the expression of their eyes can one notice excitement, discontent or irritation. V. I. Lenin’s mother, M. A. Ulyanova, when she came to visit the children in prison, kept herself calm, without betraying excitement, looked at the children resolutely and calmly. On a date with Anna Ilinichnaya Ulyanova, she did not betray her mother's grief and did not tell about the execution of Alexander.

Gestures, along with facial expressions, changing the posture of the body, are used by actors to create plausible expressions of human experiences in the audience. Gestures, tempo, conversational techniques, manner of intonation played a big role in the history of the French theater. Shakespeare's Hamlet said: "Don't uselessly wave your hands, match gestures with words, words with gestures, so as not to violate the prudent moderation of nature." K. S. Stanislavsky created a system that includes the internal and external work of the actor on himself and on the role, the development of a technique for expressing emotional states, which makes it possible to evoke creative well-being and set motor skills corresponding to the transfer of internal experiences. Stanislavsky described the portrait of the conductor A. G. Rubinstein, created by Repin: "The fire of the gaze, the movements of the muscles of the face, arms, torso, causing violent impulses and passionate playing of the orchestra."

Gestures are sometimes more eloquent than words. People, and not only musicians, tend to conduct. “Take a pianist,” says I. P. Pavlov, all his mechanical training, all his movements are basedpans on an infinite number of temporary conditioned reflexes originating from locomotive apparatus hands and fingers.

To express emotions, voice and tone are of great importance. V. M. Bekhterev drew attention to this. Emotional expressions vary depending on the timbre, intonation, strength, expressiveness of speech. The voice can be gentle and, conversely, harsh, unfriendly. One and the same word changes its emotional meaning depending on the expressiveness with which it is pronounced. With uncertainty, a person’s voice sounds timid, indecisive. On the contrary, a person who is convinced of the rightness speaks loudly, clearly, softly provides the necessary evidence. It was not by chance that A. S. Makarenko wrote that he became a real master when he learned to say “come here” with 15-20 shades, developed nuances in his face, figure, and voice. Bernard Shaw believed that there are 50 ways to say the word "yes" and 500 shades of the word "no", and there is only one way to write these words.

Musical speech and changing timbre and rhythm can convey an inner experience. Music plays a big role in creating emotional experiences. Thus, the opera combines vocal melodies, instrumental music, choreographic art. The expressiveness of singing, the artistry of theatrical images, the beauty of the scenery create certain emotions. Rhythm, tempo, harmony, voice intonation, musical expressiveness and melody - all this has an emotional and expressive meaning. In the operas of Glinka, Tchaikovsky, Verdi and others, the language of melodies evokes emotional experiences. Impressions from watching a movie, a concert, theatrical performance depend on the impact on our emotions of stimuli that affect the visual, auditory analyzers and special zones in the cerebral cortex, realizing musical effects when the thalamo-subcortical centers are turned on, giving a kind of expressiveness to emotional manifestations. Artistic images on the stage were created by F. I. Chaliapin, who perfectly mastered his voice, rhythm, plasticity, breathing, and the ability to make sound.

Fine examples can be found in art that reflect the role of emotions and their external manifestations. The outstanding Spanish painter Goya, the founder of realism, who paved the way for Daumier, Courbet, Manet, expressed emotions with an artistic technique in “caprichos” (Fig. 51, A, B). I. Kramskoy was looking for expressiveness of emotions in the painting "Inconsolable grief". Many of the artist's paintings excite and evoke emotional reactions. There are many in the literature clear examples descriptions of emotional states. Alphonse Daudet (the author of Tartarin from Tarascon, Kings in Exile), who suffered from sharp pains, described pain emotion as follows: “Pain creeps into everything that I see, into my imagination and into my reasoning. This is a complete saturation of a person with pain. It is important for students and doctors to know examples of overcoming negative emotions. The writer N. Ostrovsky, having lost his sight and suffering from sharp pains in his limbs, wrote that<41 постепенно стал так устанавливать свою психику, чтобы не заме-

Rice. 51. Pictures

Goya.

A - “The sleep of reason gives birth
monsters";

B yag "Dream of lies and infidelity
standing,

to stop the pains that plagued him, and achieved that he could turn off the pain in any part of the body. Working on himself, he learned to switch consciousness, not to pay attention to the "screams of the body."

In painting, Leonardo da Vinci developed techniques that can be used to show facial expressions and body movements characteristic of various emotions. Of great importance is the gesture in the drawings of Delacroix Sokolov-Scal, Bryulov (Fig. 52, A, B, C, D), etc. Many of the largest artists created samples of gesture that reflects emotions. A wide variety of gestures is represented in the remarkable works of Rodin, Botticelli and others (Fig. 53). K. S. Stanislavsky attached great importance to gesture, and this is captured in his photographs in various roles (Fig. 54).

With emotional stress, nervous and endocrine regulation is disturbed, the state of the cardiovascular system, respiration, secretory and motor functions of the gastrointestinal tract, body temperature, etc., change. In the development of some somatic diseases, long-term emotional overstrain is important, for example, in hypertension, angina pectoris, stomach ulcers, diabetes mellitus, neurodermatitis, etc.

In many diseases, facial expressions and eyes reflect the emotional state of the patient. Suffering and illness are vividly conveyed in the works of many writers. I. S. Turgenev in the story “Living Powers” ​​skillfully described the expression of a patient with a bronze disease: “The head is completely dried up, one-color, bronze skin - an icon of an old letter, give or take; the nose is narrow, like a knife blade; the lips are almost invisible, only the teeth and eyes are whitening, and thin strands of yellow hair are knocked out from under the scarf onto the forehead. At the chin, in the fold of the blanket, they move, slowly fingering like chopsticks, two tiny hands are also bronze in color ... The face is not

Rice. 53. Expression of emotions in sculptures and paintings by famous artists.

a - "Thought" by Rodin; b - "The Thinker" by Rodin; c - "Romeo and Juliet" by Rodin;

g - "Abandoned" Botticelli.

Rice. 54. Gestures and postures expressing various emotions.

a - K. S. Stanislavsky as Gaev; b - Dr. Shtokman; c - Famusova;
g! - Argon; e, f - poses of the hands of K. S. Stanislavsky in connection with emotions.

only not ugly, even beautiful, but terrible, extraordinary. And this face seems all the more terrible to me, because on it, on its metal cheeks, I see - it is struggling ... a smile is trying and cannot blur. The voice seemed to evaporate from barely moving lips. A dark, motionless face with bright and dead eyes fixed on me.

L. N. Tolstoy in the novel “War and Peace” vividly described the illness of Prince Andrei: “He did not sleep long and suddenly woke up anxiously in a cold sweat. When he woke up in a cold sweat, stirred on the sofa, Natasha went up to him and asked what was wrong with him. He did not answer her and, not understanding her, looked at her with a strange look. Violation of cerebral circulation is described by L. N. Tolstoy: “The sixth blow came to Count Bezukhov. Suddenly a shudder appeared in the large muscles and wrinkles of the count's face. The shudder intensified, the beautiful mouth twisted, an indistinct hoarse sound was heard from the distorted mouth. The patient's eyes and face showed impatience... While the count was being turned over, one of his arms fell back helplessly, and he made a futile effort to drag it. Did the count notice that look of horror with which Pierre looked at this lifeless hand, or what other thought flashed through his dying head at that moment, but he looked at the disobedient hand, at the expression of horror in Pierre's face, again at the hand, and on the face he had a weak, suffering smile that did not go well with his features, expressing, as it were, mockery at his own impotence. Suddenly, at the sight of this smile, Pierre felt a shudder in his chest, a pinching in his nose, and tears clouded his vision. The reactive state of Natasha Rostova is described as follows: “The signs of Natasha's illness were that she ate little, slept little, coughed and never revived. She not only avoided all external conditions of joy: balls, skating, concerts, theater; but she never laughed so that her tears were not heard because of her laughter. She couldn't sing. As soon as she began to laugh or tried to sing alone with herself, tears choked her. The novel “Anna Karenina” describes Anna’s illness in this way: “She obediently lay down on her back and looked in front of her with a radiant look ... All day there was a fever, delirium and unconsciousness. By midnight, the patient lay unconscious and almost without a pulse ... By morning, excitement, liveliness, speed of thought and speech began again, and again ended in unconsciousness. Figuratively given in the novel is a description of the physical suffering of Kitty Shcherbatskaya, Alexei Vronsky and other characters: “Thin and ruddy, with a special gleam in her eyes due to the shame she had suffered, Kitty stood in the middle of the room ... She broke out, and her eyes filled with tears.” L. N. Tolstoy wrote that "all happy families are alike, each unhappy family is unhappy in its own way." By this he showed a variety of negative emotions. So, in patients with myocardial infarction in the eyes, you can find an expression of fear, anxiety. Paul Cezan, who suffered from diabetes, had red, inflamed eyes, a puffy face, a slightly bluish nose, and a special facial expression. Motility disorders

Rice. 55. Facial expressions of patients with various forms of diseases.

and shaking paralysis; b - tumor of the frontal lobe; c - gaze spasm with par-
knsonism; d - atherosclerotic parkinsonism; e - pseudobulbar palsy;
“* atherosclerotic hyperkinesis of the face; g - herpetic meningitis; s-aneurysm
right internal carotid artery; and - atherosclerotic chorea.

occur with lesions of the frontal lobes (changes in facial movements, apraxia, psychomotor disorders). On fig. 55, 56, 57, 58, 59 shows changes in facial expressions in patients with various diseases of the nervous system.

Mimicry is disturbed in patients in a coma. We have established that, despite the loss of consciousness, mimic automatisms can be reflexively detected. So, when excessively painful stimuli are applied to a patient in a coma, emotional reactions occur, which usually also manifest themselves with the preservation of consciousness: the pupil expands, facial expressions of suffering appear, sometimes a groan. With pressure at the supraorbital point or when the lower jaw is pulled forward, a mimic reaction occurs. When the nasal mucosa is irritated with a cotton swab slightly moistened with ammonia, sneezing and a mimic reaction appear, with percussion along the zygomatic arch, movement of the facial muscles occurs on the side of irritation. With a pronounced coma, the patient's face is amicable, the look is indifferent, the eyelids are half closed, the pupils are narrow,<: углублением комы черты лица заостряются, взгляд становится стеклянным», зрачки расширяются, появляются вегетативные реак-

Rice. 58. Persons with myopathy.

a, b - Landouzy-Dejerine; in. Mr Erba.

facial expressions (the face is often pale, cyanotic, often ash-gray). With brain injuries, mimic reactions drop out, as in other coma states. The dynamics of facial disorders depends on the depth of the coma, the degree of brain damage and the location of the lesion. With brain tumors, lethargy, stupor are noted, in which an expression of drowsiness, apathy, indifference appears on the face, but with tumors of the frontal lobe, patients are disinhibited, prone to jokes, euphoric, uncritical to their condition.

Mimic disorders are especially observed when the facial nerve is damaged. The face with mimic movements warps in a healthy direction. Skin folds, especially frontal ones, smooth out or disappear on the affected half, the corner of the mouth is lowered

Rice. 59. Different phases of facial expression in a patient with pain
vym tic in trigeminal neuralgia.

It turns out that the cheek is blown out during exhalation as a result of muscle atony and sails during breathing. The palpebral fissure on the affected side of the facial nerve is wider (paresis of the orbicular muscle of the eye), blinking becomes sharp. When closing the eyes on the affected side, the palpebral fissure does not close, due to damage to the circular muscle of the eye (hare's eye), a white strip of sclera remains (Bell's symptom). When looking up, a wider strip of sclera forms between the lower eyelid and the cornea (Negro's symptom). When you try to close your eyes tightly from a position with lowered eyelids (with paresis), the healthy eye closes, and on the diseased side, the upper eyelid rapidly rises (Dupuy-Dutant symptom). Sometimes there is a paradoxical lifting of the eyelid on the affected side when looking down and, if you want to close the eye tightly (Dupuy-Dutant-Sestan symptom). Active facial movements on the side of the lesion are significantly weakened. The masculinity of half of the face appears, and with a smile and laughter, the asymmetry of the face is even more clearly revealed.

The facial expressions of the patient with facial hemispasm change in a peculiar way. Convulsions appear in the group of facial muscles and gradually spread to the entire half of the face. More often, the spasm begins with the circular muscles of the eye, then spreads to other facial muscles: the eye closes, the nasolabial fold deepens, the corner of the mouth is pulled back, the tip of the nose curves in the same direction, the muscles of the chin and neck contract, sometimes during a spasm the auricle is pulled up . The eyebrow on the corresponding side, under the influence of contraction of the frontal muscle, rises upward, which, in combination with the closed eye, gives the impression of a grimace.

With facial paraspasm, the circular muscle of the mouth, frontal muscles, muscles of the cheeks, and chin convulsively contract and, as a result, the patient's facial expressions change dramatically. In some cases, the head leans back, the sternocleidomastoid muscles tense. Emotional manifestations (laughter, crying, singing) can stop, and sometimes, on the contrary, provoke a spasm of facial muscles. With the defeat of the pallido-nigral system, an akinetic-rigid syndrome is observed, in which hypokinesia or akinesia is combined with amimia. With hyperkinetic-hypotonic syndrome, as a result of damage to the striatum, various hyperkinesis occurs, which capture the muscles of the face and dramatically change the patient's facial expressions. There may be parakinesia and dyskinesia. Grimacing, tics, twitches are noted in the muscles of the face. During hyperkinesis, complex expressive movements are distorted, in which, first of all, subtle differentiated manifestations of facial expressions suffer.

External expressions of emotional reactions in parkinsonism are as follows: the face is amimic, mask-like, the mouth is often half-open, sometimes saliva flows from the mouth; speech is slightly modulated, monotonous, slow, without emotional coloring. Emotional reactions become frozen, for example, crying facial expressions take on a tonic character, last much longer than usual, and at times convulsive information comes up to the top of the eyeballs. The posture of the patients acquires a characteristic shape: the head and torso are bent, the arms are brought to the torso. In Parkinson's disease, attention is drawn to the maskiness of the face, the lack of expression of joy, sadness, amazement and other emotional manifestations. Mimic movements, having arisen, tend to freeze, there is a rare blinking (the eyelids are completely closed). There is no gesticulation, speech is slurred, quiet, monotonous without modulations. With Huntington's chorea, the emotional sphere is disturbed, mood changes, emotional mobility is lost, emotional dullness develops; against this background, impulsiveness and restlessness arise. Increased excitability, a decrease in inhibitory processes, a tendency to affective outbursts are noted. Facial expression reflects the emotional state of the patient. Mimicry changes due to pronounced hyperkinesis of the face, causing grimacing, twitching of the nose, sniffling, sobbing, stretching the lips with a tube. Articulation is disturbed, speech is intermittent, the voice is deaf.

With myopathies, the violation of facial expressions manifests itself in the form of a characteristic feature (the face of a myopath): the absence of wrinkles, poor closing of the eyelids, weakness of the circular muscle of the mouth, protrusion of the lips. Due to muscle weakness, whistling, puffing out of the cheeks, and closing of the lips are impossible. Speech becomes fuzzy, blurred, patients do not pronounce labial sounds well. Skin folds are smoothed out on the face, and patients look younger than their years. In chronic progressive ophthalmoplegia, the face takes on a special appearance due to ptosis of both eyelids. Usually the upper eyelids are lowered, sometimes to the level of the pupils, the eyebrows are raised upward, transverse folds protrude on the forehead due to muscle contraction. The facial expression changes and resembles the face of a falling asleep person. With severe ophthalmoplegia, there are no movements of the eyeballs, the eyelids are lowered, and the patient can follow the movement of objects by turning his head to the side and up. Facial expression changes, the face is frowning, sometimes runs

a smile in which, as with crying, the mouth is widely stretched and small wrinkles form around the eyes. There is insufficient concentration of attention and indifference due to a decrease

‘ALEmotions affect the course of diseases. The life expectancy of cancer patients is longer for those who are unaware of their disease and are calmer about their disease, and shorter for patients who are aware of the disease and worry about their suffering. These data allowed Kloper to determine the prognosis of life expectancy in cancer patients.

The so-called iatrogenic diseases are associated with the emotional sphere (from the Greek words "iatros" - a doctor, "gennas" - I produce). Patients may experience fear, pain in the heart after an unsuccessfully spoken word of the doctor. Some patients with neurogenic diseases, having accidentally become acquainted with medical documentation, begin to create a false impression of illness in themselves, emotionally experience and become ill with neurosis. Therefore, it is always necessary to prevent the possibility of iatrogenia.

The words of a doctor are of great importance, and a large section of psychotherapeutic influence is built on this. Modern advances in science make it possible to wage a resolute struggle against the “irrational” in pathology, to reveal cause-and-effect relationships in the etiology of diseases and to explain the patterns of the development of diseases, taking into account disorders of the emotional sphere. l.to- it is the task of developing the neurophysiological and biochemical aspects of emotions in order to train the nervous functions to overcome the negative effects of emotional reactions on the body and develop ways to prevent neurogenic diseases.