Summary: Fundamentals of survival. Belarusian National Technical University

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RUSSIAN EMERGENCY SITUATIONS MINISTRY

FEDERAL STATE STATE INSTITUTION

"1 TEAM OF THE FEDERAL FIRE-FIGHTING SERVICE

FOR THE UDMURT REPUBLIC"

FPS TRAINING STATION

APPROVE

Head of the Training Center of the FPS

FGKU "1 detachment of FPS

for the Udmurt Republic"

lieutenant colonel of internal service

S.A. Churakov

"____" __________________ 2017

PLAN-SUMMARY

Conducting classes on the discipline "Fire Tactics"

with students of special initial training of firefighters

Topic number 5.3.2. "Fundamentals of Survival in Various Emergencies"

Considered at a meeting of the pedagogical council

Protocol No. _____ dated ______________

"_____" ________________20 years

Type of lesson: lecture

Lesson time: 80 minutes

The purpose of the lesson: to familiarize students with the basics of survival in various emergencies

Literature:

Fire tactics / Terebnev V.V., Yekaterinburg: "Publishing house" Kalan "2007.

Handbook of the head of fire fighting. Povzik Ya.S. Moscow "Special equipment" 2001

Rescuer's Manual M 2011

Order of the Ministry of Labor and Social Protection of December 23, 2014 No. 1100n "On approval of the Rules for labor protection in the divisions of the federal fire service of the State Fire Service."

Belov SV et al. Life safety. Textbook. M., "Higher School", 2001.

Psychology of extreme situations for rescuers and firefighters / ed.

Study questions:

Study question

Time, min.

Moving in the natural environment

Educational issues (including control of classes)

Basics of survival, signaling

When conducting RPS in the natural environment, rescuers often have to perform tasks far from populated areas, spend several days in the “field conditions”, and face various extreme situations, which imposes additional requirements on their ability to work in these conditions.

Solid knowledge in various fields, the ability to use them in any conditions are the basis of survival. Going to the RPS, rescuers must, along with tools and protective equipment, have the following set of necessary items that can be useful in any climatic and geographical zone: a signal mirror, with which you can send a distress signal at a distance of up to 3 (M0 km) hunting matches, a candle or tablets of dry fuel for making a fire or heating a shelter, a whistle for signaling; a large knife (machete) in a sheath that can be used as a knife; an ax; a shovel; a spear; a compass; a piece of dense foul and polyethylene; fishing accessories; signal cartridges; medicines; supply of water and food.

Signaling. Rescuers must know and be able to put into practice special signals

Rescuers can use the smoke of a fire during the day and bright lights at night to indicate their own location. If you throw rubber, pieces of insulation, oil rags into a fire, black smoke will be emitted, which is clearly visible in cloudy weather. To get white smoke, which is clearly visible in clear weather, green leaves, fresh grass, and damp moss should be thrown into the fire.

To give a signal from the ground to an air vehicle (aircraft), a special signal mirror can be used. It is necessary to keep it at a distance of 25-30 cm from the face and look through the sighting hole at the plane; turning the mirror, match the light spot with the sighting hole. In the absence of a signal mirror, objects with shiny surfaces can be used. For sighting, you need to make a hole in the center of the object. The light beam must be sent along the entire horizon line, even in cases where the noise of the aircraft engine is not heard.

At night, the light of a hand-held electric flashlight, a torch, a fire can be used for signaling.

A fire built on a raft is one of the distress signals.

Good means of signaling are brightly colored objects and a special coloring powder (fluorescein, uranine), which are scattered on snow, earth, water, and ice when an airplane (helicopter) approaches.

In some cases, sound signals (shout, shot, knock), signal rockets, smoke bombs can be used.

One of the latest developments in the development of "target designation" is a small rubber Balloon with a nylon sheath, covered with four luminous colors, under which a light bulb flashes at night; the light from it is clearly visible at a distance of 4-5 km. Before launch, the balloon is filled with helium from a small capsule and held at a height of 90 m by a nylon cable. The mass of the kit is 1.5 kg.

In order to facilitate the search, it is advisable to use the International Ground-to-Air Air Signals Code Table. Its signs can be laid out with the help of improvised means (equipment, clothing, stones, trees), directly by people who must lie down on the ground, snow, ice or trampled on the snow.

Along with the ability to give signals, rescuers must be able to work and live in the field, taking into account meteorological (weather) factors. Monitoring the state and forecasting of the weather is carried out by special meteorological services. Weather information is transmitted by means of communication, in special reports, is applied to maps using conventional signs.

In the absence of information about the weather, rescuers must be able to determine and predict it according to local characteristics. To obtain reliable information, it is advisable to make a weather forecast simultaneously for several of them.

International Code Table for Airborne Ground-to-Air Signals:

1 - Need a doctor - serious bodily injury; 2 - Medicines are needed; 3 - Unable to move; 4 - Need food and water; 5 - Requires weapons and ammunition; 6 - Map and compass required; 7 - We need a signal lamp with a battery and a radio station; 8 - Specify the direction of travel; 9 - I am moving in this direction; 10 - Let's try to take off; 11 - Vessel seriously damaged; 12 - Here you can safely land; 13 - Fuel and oil required; 14 - All right; 15 - No or negative; 16 - Yes or positive; 17 - Did not understand; 18 - Need a mechanic; 19 - Operations completed; 20 - Nothing found, keep searching; 21 - Information received that the aircraft is in this direction; 22 - We found all the people; 23 - We found only a few people; 24 - We are unable to continue, returning to base; 25 - Divided into two groups, each follows in the indicated direction.

Organization of housing, shelter, food, protection

The weather imposes certain requirements on the organization of a bivouac, temporary housing, life and rest during multi-day RPS. With this in mind, rescuers organize a bivouac. It should be located in avalanche-safe and rock-fall-safe areas, close to a source of drinking water, have a supply of deadwood or firewood. It is impossible to arrange a bivouac in the dried up beds of mountain rivers, near the shallows, in dense shrubs, coniferous thickets, near dry, hollow, rotten trees, in thickets of flowering rhododendron. After removing stones, branches, debris from the site and leveling it, rescuers can proceed with setting up the tent.

Tents differ in design features (frame, frameless), capacity, material. Despite this, they are all designed to protect a person from cold, rain, wind, dampness, and insects.

The procedure for setting up the tent is as follows:

deploy a tent;

stretch and secure the bottom;

install racks and tighten guy lines;

fasten the exit and tighten the roof braces;

eliminate creases on the roof by tensioning (loosening) the guys;

dig a ditch around the tent with a width and depth of 8-10 cm to drain water into
case of rain.

Under the bottom of the tent, you can put dry leaves, grass, ferns, reeds, moss. When setting up a tent on snow (ice), empty backpacks, ropes, windbreakers, blankets, polyurethane foam mats should be placed on the floor.

The pegs are hammered at an angle of 45° to the ground to a depth of 20-25 cm. Trees, stones, ledges can be used to secure the tent. The back wall of the tent must be placed in the direction of the prevailing winds.

In the absence of a tent, you can spend the night under a piece of tarpaulin, polyethylene, or equip a hut from improvised materials (branches, logs, spruce branches, leaves, reeds). It is installed on a flat and dry place, in a clearing or the edge of a forest.

In winter, the campsite should be cleared of snow and ice.

In snowy winter conditions, rescuers must be able to arrange shelters in the snow. The simplest of them is a hole dug around a tree, the size of which depends on the number of people. From above, the pit must be closed with branches, dense cloth, covered with snow for better thermal insulation. You can build a snow cave, a snow dugout, a snow trench. When entering a snow shelter, you should clean your clothes from snow and dirt, take a shovel or knife with you, which can be used to make ventilation holes and a passage in case of snow collapse.

For cooking, heating, drying clothes, signaling, rescuers use fires of the following types: "hut", "well" ("log house"), "taiga", "no-dya", "fireplace", "Polynesian", "starry" , "pyramid".

"Shalash" is convenient for making tea quickly and lighting the camp. This fire is very "gluttonous", it burns hot. “Well” (“log house”) is kindled, if you need to cook food in a large bowl, dry wet clothes. In the "well" the fuel burns more slowly than in the "hut", a lot of coals are formed, which create a high temperature. On the "taiga" you can cook food at the same time in several pots. On one thick log (approximately 20 cm thick) put several thinner

Types of fires: a - "hut"; b - "well"; c - "taiga"; g - "nodya"; d - "fireplace"; e - "Polynesian"; g - "star"; h - "pyramid"

Any fire must be made only after careful preparation of the site: collection of dry grass and deadwood, making a deepening in the ground, fencing with stones the place where it will be bred. The fuel for the fire is dry forest, grass, reeds, shrubs. It has been noticed that burning spruce, pine, cedar, chestnut, larch give a lot of sparks. Quietly burning oak, maple, elm, beech.

To quickly kindle a fire, kindling is needed (birch bark, small dry branches and firewood, a piece of rubber, paper, dry fuel). It fits tightly with a "hut" or "well". To make the kindling light up better, put a piece of candle in it or put dry alcohol. Thicker dry branches are laid around the kindling, then thick firewood. In wet weather or during rain, the fire must be covered with a tarpaulin, a backpack, or a thick cloth.

You can light a fire with matches, lighters, sunlight and magnifying glass, friction, flint, shot. In the latter case, you need:

open the cartridge and leave only gunpowder in it;

lay dry cotton wool on top of the gunpowder;

shoot at the ground, while observing security measures;

smoldering cotton wool will ensure further kindling of the fire.

To set up a fire in winter, it is necessary to clear the snow to the ground or build a deck of thick logs on the snow, otherwise the melted snow will extinguish the fire.

To prevent a fire from causing a fire, it should not be made under low-lying tree branches, near flammable objects, on the leeward side, relative to the bivouac, on peat bogs, near reeds and reeds, dry grass, moss, in spruce and pine undergrowth. In these places, the fire spreads at high speed and is difficult to extinguish. In order to prevent the spread of fire, the fire must be surrounded by a ditch or stones.

The safe distance from the campfire to the tent is 10 meters.

The energy consumption of the human body with an average and above average intensity of loads ranges from 3200 to 4000 kcal per day. Under extreme loads, energy costs increase to 4600-5000 kcal. In this case, the diet should consist of various products containing all the elements necessary for the body. An example of a balanced diet is shown above.

This list may be supplemented by forest products (mushrooms, berries, fruits of wild trees), hunting, and fishing.

Food consumption is carried out in the established mode, which includes two or three hot meals a day, if possible, every day at the same time. For lunch, 40% of the daily diet is spent, for breakfast - 35% and for dinner - 25%.

To maintain a high level of efficiency, the rescuer must adhere to the optimal mode of drinking water consumption.

The water lost by the body must be replaced, otherwise the process of dehydration begins. The loss of water in the amount of 1-2% of body weight makes a person very thirsty; at 3-5% nausea, fever, apathy, fatigue occur; at 10%, irreversible changes appear in the body; at 20% a person dies. The need for water depends on the intensity of the work, the temperature and humidity of the air, and the weight of the human body. With relatively limited physical mobility, the need for water ranges from 1.5-2.0 liters per day in areas with moderate temperatures, to 4-6 liters or more per day in the desert and tropics. With high physical and nervous stress, the need for water increases by 2-3 times.

In natural and artificial reservoirs, water quality often does not meet the requirements for safe use. Therefore, it is advisable to boil it before use. Contaminated or swamp water must be treated with potassium permanganate or special preparations before boiling. Water can also be filtered using depressions in damp earth, thick cloth, special filters.

Moving in the natural environment

RESCUER MOVEMENT OVER ROUGH TERRAIN

Rough terrain is a piece of the earth's surface without high mountains. It is characterized by a variety of conditions, including the presence, along with flat plots of land, hills, hills, ravines, valleys, screes, rivers, reservoirs, vegetation.

Movement on flat areas of rough terrain is characterized by the rhythm of steps with approximately the same length and frequency. The rhythm of movements is ensured by the optimal functioning of the circulatory system, respiratory and other functional systems of the body. At the moment of unsupported position of the leg, its muscles must be relaxed as much as possible. When lowering to the ground, the leg muscles tighten again. The foot must be placed on the entire surface, and not on the edge, to avoid injury to the ankle joint. Walk with slightly bent knees.

The length and frequency of the step are purely individual and depend on many factors: height, weight, strength, experience, fitness of a person, terrain, mass of the load carried. On steep sections, the stride length is reduced by more than half, sometimes it is equal to the length of the foot or can even be shorter.

When driving on level ground average speed is 4-5 km / h and decreases when driving through the forest, swamp, bushes, thickets, snow, sand.

On the rises, the leg must be placed on the entire foot, the toes of the legs should be slightly turned to the sides. This provides a reliable grip of the sole of the shoe with the supporting surface. The body leans slightly forward. With an increase in the steepness of the slope of more than 15 °, the ascent is carried out using the “herringbone” method. At the same time, the toes of the legs turn to the sides. The steeper the slope, the greater the angle you need to turn your feet.

The ascent and descent of the slopes is often carried out using the "serpentine" method. This method is associated with movement across the slope (traverse). When “serpentine” the leg must be placed with the entire sole across the slope so that the toe of the “nearest” leg to the slope of the legs is turned up, and the toe of the “far” leg is turned down. The angle of the foot turn depends on the steepness of the slope. At the moment of changing the direction of movement along the slope, it is necessary to take an elongated step with the “far” leg, placing it up the slope, then place the foot of the “near” leg across the slope, in a “herringbone”, turn around and continue moving.

To facilitate movement along the slope, animal trails, potholes, securely lying objects, an alpenstock, an ice ax should be used.

Scree movement requires special attention, since it is associated with the possibility of rockfall. Screes are strong and fragile, with small, medium and large stones.

Movement along solid talus is carried out straight up or with small zigzags. When zigzagging, always be careful not to be above or below another rescuer.

On fragile scree, you need to move carefully, obliquely. Each broken stone, if possible, should be detained and strengthened. If it was not possible to detain him, then everyone should be warned with the exclamation: “Stone”. Rocks and tree trunks are reliable shelter from stones.

The most dangerous talus with a rocky base.

MOVEMENT OF RESCUERS IN THE CONDITIONS OF ROCKETS

Conducting RPS can cause the need to move rescuers in the conditions of blockages. The route of movement is selected taking into account the shortest distance to the place of work, in the absence of unstable elements and additional obstacles on the way.

When moving through a blockage, rescuers must exercise extreme caution, as it can be fraught with many unexpected things:

victims and material values;

collapse of surviving, unstable fragments of buildings and elements of buildings;

voids and their subsidence;

explosions as a result of the accumulation of combustible and explosive gases in voids;

fire and smoke;

damaged utility networks, product pipelines;

harmful substances, including AHOV.

When moving in the immediate vicinity of the blockage, special attention should be paid to the surviving fragments of buildings, since they represent an increased danger. This is due to the possibility of their sudden collapse. No less dangerous are damaged utility systems.

When moving along the surface of the blockage, the optimal and safe route is chosen. Particular attention is paid to the choice of the place of setting the legs. You need to step only on securely lying objects. In some cases, the remains of buildings, boards, pipes, fittings should be removed from the road.

It is impossible to move in conditions of blockage, enter destroyed buildings, and be near them unnecessarily. Do not run, jump, or throw heavy objects at the blockage. This can cause injury to rescuers and create an additional threat to the health and life of the victims who are in the rubble.

In cases where partially destroyed buildings remain in the RPS area, it is necessary to provide assistance to the people who are in them. To do this, rescuers must assess the reliability of buildings, determine the methods of movement, extraction and evacuation of victims.

MOVEMENT OF RESCUERS IN CRASHED CONDITIONS

When conducting RPS, rescuers often have to move in cramped conditions (narrow passage, well, crack, pipe). The peculiarity of this movement is that it is carried out in unusual positions: on the side, on the back, on all fours, crawling. To this must be added the psychological discomfort associated with constant feeling fear that arises on the basis of claustrophobia - fear of enclosed space.

As a rule, toxic and explosive substances accumulate in a closed space, there is no light in it.

Work in cramped conditions can be carried out after checking the air in the working area with instruments or in an insulating gas mask. A rescuer in cramped conditions must be secured with a rope. Special lamps are used to illuminate the route and places of work.

MOVEMENT OF RESCUERS IN THE SNOW

The movement of rescuers on snow can be carried out on foot, using snowshoes, skis, sledges, snowmobiles and all-terrain vehicles.

One of the most common ways is walking. Its speed depends on the height and structure of the snow cover, the nature of the terrain.

Snow cover with a height of 0.3 m or more is difficult for walking. This is due to the peculiarity of walking, which consists in the need to punch a continuous road in freshly fallen snow or individual holes in old snow. All this requires great physical effort, causes rapid fatigue. Therefore, when walking in deep snow, it is often necessary to replace the rescuer walking in front.

To prevent snow from getting into your shoes, put on trousers over them and tie them at the bottom.

Special devices - snowshoes - help to increase the speed of rescuers' movement in the snow and save energy. They are an oval-shaped frame made of a bar 7 mm thick, 420 mm long and 200 mm wide. 20-25 holes with a diameter of 8-9 mm are drilled in the frame, through which it is intertwined with rawhide belts. A tarpaulin or dense fabric measuring 80x270 mm and rings for tying snowshoes to shoes are attached to the resulting mesh.

MOVEMENT OF RESCUERS ON ICE

At an air temperature of 0 ° C and below, water from a liquid state passes into a solid state (crystallizes), ice is formed. On water surfaces, the thickness and strength of ice depend on the speed of the water flow, its composition and the presence of aquatic vegetation. Level ice forms on a smooth, wind-sheltered water surface. Old (pack) ice is covered with hummocks, which appear as a result of ice compression.

When large heavy ice floes collide between them, grated ice is formed, unsuitable for movement.

The thickness of the ice, especially on fast water, is not the same everywhere. It is thin near the coast, on rapids, in the area of ​​riffles, near rocks, at the confluence of rivers, their confluence with the sea (lake), near frozen objects on bends and bends of rivers. The most dangerous ice under the snow and snowdrifts. The danger when moving on ice is polynyas, ice holes, holes, cracks, hummocks, places where solder and moving ice come into contact.

The movement of rescuers on the ice requires increased security measures. An ice thickness of 10 cm in fresh water and 15 cm in salt water is considered safe for one person. To determine the thickness of the ice, it must be drilled (cut through).

The reliability of the ice is checked by the passage of one lifeguard (light) on it, who, for safety reasons, must be insured with a rope. If, when moving along it, the ice makes characteristic sounds - it cracks, then you can’t walk on it. In case of breaking through the ice, it is necessary to drop heavy things, get to the surface of the ice, lie on your stomach, lean on a pole, skis or ski poles and crawl to the shore.

Special care must be taken when driving on ice that is covered with snow or water. When jumping from one ice floe to another, the support points should be no closer than 50 cm from the edge of the ice.

Aids and equipment used in the lesson: teaching board, teaching aids

Task for independent work students and preparation for the next lesson: review the material covered

Developed

teacher of special disciplines

FPS training center

FGKU "1 detachment of the FPS in the Udmurt Republic"

senior lieutenant of the internal service A.V. Arkhipov

Gomel Engineering Institute of the Ministry of Emergency Situations of the Republic of Belarus

Life safety

Basics of Survival

Prepared

Aniskovich I.I.

Gomel 2009

Basic concepts of survival

Human life has always been fraught with danger. It is no coincidence that our distant ancestors, taking their first steps along the path of evolution, learned to use the stone not only as a tool of labor, but also as a weapon.

The struggle for existence forced people by hook or by crook to cling to life, to adapt to any adversity, no matter how difficult they may be, to boldly go towards dangers. The desire to realize the seemingly impossible, permeating the entire history of mankind, helps to understand the incredible efforts made by people in various parts of the world in order to adapt to harsh natural conditions. Man has always had the ability to adapt to the natural and artificial environment - from primitive hunters who went out to the beast with a stone ax in their hands, to space travelers of the second half of our century, for a long time staying in a state of weightlessness, mobilizing all their physical and mental capabilities. Survival is active, expedient actions aimed at preserving life, health and performance in an autonomous existence. It is for people whose lives are constantly fraught with dangers that preliminary preparation, both physical and psychological, is very important. Rescuers, military personnel of many branches of the armed forces, tourists who go on long routes, many scientists and researchers must first go through a complete adaptation process, as a result of which the body gradually acquires resistance to certain environmental factors that was previously absent and, thus, gets the opportunity to "live in conditions previously incompatible with life”, which means complete adaptation to the conditions of the polar cold, hot deserts or lack of oxygen at mountain heights, fresh water in the salty sea. People who have undergone full adaptation have a chance not only to save life itself, but also to solve problems that were previously unsolvable.

The adaptation process is very complex and multi-stage. At its first stage, the stage of adaptation to any new factor, the body is close to the maximum of its capabilities, but it does not solve the problem that has arisen completely. However, after some time, if a person (or animal) does not die, and the factor requiring adaptation continues to operate, the possibilities of the living system increase - the extreme, or urgent, stage of the process is replaced by the stage of effective and stable adaptation. This transformation is the key link in the whole process, and its consequences are often striking. Extreme conditions - an event (or a sequence of events) in which a person, through his own preparedness, the use of equipment and gear, as well as the involvement of additional, pre-prepared resources, has the opportunity to prevent an emergency, and, if necessary, help himself and others after an emergency. An extreme situation is an event outside of personal human experience, when a person is forced to act (or remain inactive) in the complete absence of equipment, equipment and initial training. (Basic information about ways to overcome the ES is not formalizable in principle, based on the very definition of an extreme situation). Most people and animals placed in extreme situations from which there is no way out do not die, but acquire one or another degree of adaptation to them and save their lives until better times. Such stressful situations - long periods of hunger, cold, natural disasters, interspecies and intraspecies conflicts - are always widely represented in natural environment animal habitats. The same scheme operates in the human social environment. During a relatively short period of its history, mankind went through periods of slavery, serfdom, world wars, but did not degrade, demonstrating high efficiency of adaptation to extreme situations. Of course, the price of such adaptation is unreasonably high, but these indisputable facts inevitably lead to the conclusion that the body must have sufficiently effective specialized mechanisms that limit the stress response and prevent stress damage and, most importantly, allow one to save life and health. In general, all this corresponds to a well-known everyday observation - people who have gone through severe life tests acquire a certain resistance to damaging environmental factors, i.e. resilient in any extreme situation. Imagine that a miracle happened, and today's man suddenly found himself in the primitive conditions of the existence of mankind. Making his way along the damp walls of the cave, to the sonorous chatter of his own teeth, our hero recalls the fire with unexpected joy. What about chopping wood? Well, okay, you can break the branches. He habitually hits himself in the pocket. Oh, horror, no matches! At first, our time traveler does not realize the full depth of the catastrophe that has befallen him. But in a minute it is covered with cold sweat. He has no idea how to make a fire without matches! Feverish attempts to make fire by rubbing wooden sticks against each other, cutting sparks lead to nothing - kindling stubbornly does not want to flare up. Further, with inexorable consistency, it turns out that a representative of our time cannot hunt without a gun, fish without fishing lines and hooks, cannot build even the most primitive shelter, has no idea how to protect his mortal body from hundreds of dangers lurking from all sides. Hunted looking around, he rushes through the ancient forest, occasionally attacking the berries, which do not saturate at all. Our contemporary is doomed. He has to survive in conditions of autonomous existence. Autonomous existence is the activity of a person (a group of people) without outside help. The only chance to prolong their existence is to seek help from the local natives. Nothing to do about! And then he meets the real masters of that era: the genius of getting food, the genius of making fire. With great effort, starting from the very basics, the unlucky traveler comprehends the science of "survival", with difficulty pulling himself up to the level of development of primitive man. There is nothing exaggerated in this fantasy. Even astronauts, before taking their place in the spacecraft, walk hundreds of kilometers along the paths of survival - forest wilds, hot sands of deserts. A modern person, and even more so a professional rescuer, regardless of the planned actions and the route of movement in terrestrial and extraterrestrial space, timing and geographical location, must be ready to act in an emergency, without communication with the outside world, when you can rely only on yourself. For a person who finds himself in an extreme situation due to unforeseen circumstances, such as a plane crash, a shipwreck, military personnel, as well as lost tourists, survival is mainly a psychological issue, and the most important factor in this case is the desire to survive. Regardless of whether a person is left alone or as part of a group, emotional factors may appear in him - experiences due to fear, despair, loneliness and boredom. In addition to these mental factors, trauma, pain, fatigue, hunger, and thirst also influence the will to survive. How long will a person in trouble have to stay in conditions of autonomous existence in extreme conditions? It depends on a number of reasons that determine the duration of autonomous existence.

The reasons for the duration of autonomous existence:

Remoteness of the area of ​​search and rescue operations from settlements;

Violation or complete absence of radio communications and other types of communications;

Unfavorable geographical, climatic and meteorological conditions of the area of ​​search and rescue operations;

Availability of food stocks (or lack thereof);

The presence in the area of ​​search and rescue operations of additional search and rescue forces and means.

Goals and tasks of rescuers on survival issues

The goal of training rescuers for survival is to develop in them stable skills for actions in various conditions of the situation, to develop high moral and business qualities, self-confidence, reliability of rescue equipment and equipment, and the effectiveness of search and rescue support.

The basis of survival is solid knowledge in various fields, from astronomy and medicine to the recipe for cooking dishes from caterpillars and tree bark.

Survival techniques in each climatic and geographical region are different. What can and should be done in the taiga is unacceptable in the desert and vice versa.

A person must know how to navigate without a compass, give a distress signal, go to a settlement, get food with the help of gathering, hunting, fishing (including without a gun and the necessary gear), provide himself with water, be able to protect himself from natural disasters and much more. other.

The practical development of survival skills is extremely important. It is necessary not only to know how to behave in a given situation, but also to be able to do it. When the situation becomes threatening, it is too late to start learning. Prior to high-risk trips, it is necessary to conduct several emergency field exercises that are as close as possible to the real situation of future routes. It is necessary to calculate in advance theoretically and, if possible, check almost all possible emergencies.

5.1. The concept of the human environment. Normal and extreme conditions

habitat. Survival

5.1.1. The concept of human habitat

A person during his life is surrounded by objects of the material world that make up the human environment, or the human habitat (habitat). It consists of inanimate (earth, water, plants, buildings, tools, etc.) and animate (people, animals and etc.) objects.

The content of the human habitat depends on the place, time and conditions. The human habitat in the southern regions of the country differs from that in the northern regions due to differences in climatic conditions. At the same time, the climate itself changes over time, the temperature of the atmospheric air - during the year and day. Differences in the habitat in everyday life and at work are especially significant.

The living environment of a person is determined by the conditions of a person’s stay in his home, in the bosom of nature (rest, work on a personal plot, etc.), in public places, on the street, in transport, if this is not related to the person’s performance of his official duties.

The production environment of a person is determined by the working conditions of a person in production, in an organization, or an institution. In most cases, the conditions of the production environment are less favorable for humans than domestic ones. However, in some cases, the impact on a person of some factors of these environments may be close. For example, the effect of solar radiation on a person resting under the sun is close to that of a worker doing outdoor work at the same latitudes and under the same weather conditions.

In the process of human life, the environment has a certain influence on him. For example, atmospheric air can heat or cool the human body, a falling object can cause injury. Long-term environmental impacts of the same nature eventually cause certain changes in the human body, and under their influence a person adapts to the environment, changing physiologically and psychologically.

From the point of view of human impact, the environment can be represented as consisting of factors that are divided into natural (natural) and anthropogenic, or artificial, generated by human activity. In the historical aspect, in the beginning there were only natural factors. Later, anthropogenic factors began to join them.

A number of human habitat factors can have an adverse effect on it.

Natural unfavorable factors are essential in the domestic environment. For everyday life, for example, the climatic factor is of great importance, which largely determines the conditions of indoor living and outdoor recreation. Of great importance is the aquatic environment that supplies a person drinking water, which irrigates gardens, but at the same time can bring with it great destruction and casualties (floods, storms at sea, etc.). Equally important in everyday life are the effects of harmful natural substances (dust, poisonous gases, etc.), the temperature factor (burns, frostbite), etc.

With the development of human society, the role of anthropogenic adverse factors increases. At present, they are as important as natural factors. Suffice it to recall the electric shock, the fall of people with their own erected structures, gas poisoning, including carbon monoxide, and many other examples. In the mining industry, for example, rock falls in workings as a result of human activity in the bowels of the earth, as well as vehicles in mines, are the main danger: they account for about half of the fatal accidents that occur in coal mines.

What environmental factors are unfavorable for the human body? When answering this question, it is necessary to proceed from the following.

The development of the human body adapted (adapted) it to certain average values ​​of environmental factors and to a certain range of their change relative to average values. But in the course of the life of an organism, it is also possible for the values ​​of environmental factors to go beyond the usual limits for it. The body is not accustomed to such values. The more the factor values ​​deviate from the usual limits, the more unfavorable it is. We come to the conclusion that an environmental factor is unfavorable, the values ​​of which periodically, but not often, go beyond the range of its values ​​habitual for a given organism. For example, for the inhabitants of the middle latitudes of Russia, the outside air temperature is from +20°C to -20°C. Their body has adapted to this temperature diagnosis and in such temperature conditions it functions normally, on average, a person feels comfort (convenience). The temperature of + 30 ° C or - 25 ° C is already perceived uncomfortable, and with large deviations from the usual temperature range, adverse consequences can occur in a person. Therefore, in this example, temperatures above +25°C and below -20°C can be considered as unfavorable values ​​for the factor temperatures. If deviations in the range from +25°С to -20°С are regular, but small (for example, deviations from the upper limit of usual temperatures by +5°С and from the lower limit by -5°С), a person gets used to them and they expand the range of comfortable temperatures. Hence the conclusion follows: in principle, any environmental factor can be unfavorable. For example, oxygen in atmospheric air is essential for human life. Its content in the air is about 21%, and the human body is adapted to such a content. With a significant decrease (increase) in the oxygen content in the air, a person begins to change the functions of a number of organs, which can lead to serious disorders and even death. Thus, oxygen is a favorable factor for human life, if its content is within 21%, with a significant deficiency or excess, it becomes an unfavorable factor. A similar example can be given with atmospheric pressure: normal atmospheric pressure is favorable for a person, its values, which differ significantly from normal, make atmospheric pressure an unfavorable factor.

Therefore, we should not talk about favorable environmental factors, but about unfavorable values ​​of factors. The nature and degree of influence on a living organism of one or another environmental factor depends on the quantitative value of this factor. The further the value of the factor under consideration is from the zone of its comfortable values, the more unfavorable the effect of the factor on the living organism.

5.1.2. Normal and extreme living conditions. Survival

Comfortable or close to them values ​​of human environmental factors take place, as a rule, in normal human life, in peacetime. They are often referred to as normal living conditions.

Normal life-giving conditions provide for the life support of the population for a normal life, life in peacetime. Almost every Russian lives in these conditions.

In the event of emergencies, people in the emergency zone may find themselves without shelter, water, food and medical care. In most cases, it is extremely difficult to solve the most important issues of life support for the affected population in these extreme conditions promptly and in the required volumes, because the supply system will be destroyed or its ability to fully meet all the needs of the victims will be insufficient.

In such cases, it turns out to be important to establish a priority life support for people, which at first provides for the satisfaction of only the physiological needs of a person, primarily in food.

In addition, in some emergency situations in the initial period of their occurrence, even the physiological needs of a person for energy cannot be satisfied. There are difficulties with housing, water, cooking, medical care, etc. Similar difficulties can also occur under other circumstances, when a person, regardless of the planned actions and the route of movement, geographical location, is cut off from the outside world and must rely only on himself. This is the extreme conditions of human life. For a person who is in extreme conditions, the desire to survive is natural, i.e. save your life.

The behavior of a person left to himself in extreme conditions, the purpose of which is to save his life, is survival.

Extreme conditions in which a person is fighting for survival are characterized by: the absence or lack of food (food); lack or shortage of drinking water; exposure to low or high temperatures on the human body.

Food provides the body's needs for energy and the functioning of all human organs and systems.

The composition of food should include proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins.

Proteins form the basis of every living cell, every tissue of the body. Therefore, a continuous supply of protein is absolutely necessary for the growth and repair of tissues, as well as the formation of new cells. The most valuable proteins are meat, milk, eggs and vegetables, primarily potatoes and cabbage and some cereals - oatmeal, rice, buckwheat.

Fats and carbohydrates are the main sources of energy and determine mainly the calorie content of food. Animal fats are considered more complete than vegetable fats. The most useful fats contained in milk, cream, sour cream. Carbohydrates are especially rich in cereals, vegetables, fruits, a certain amount of carbohydrates is found in milk.

Vitamins are necessary for the proper growth and development of the body, for the normal functioning of the gastrointestinal tract, neuromuscular apparatus, vision, etc. The most important for the body is vitamin C, vitamins of group B, vitamins A, D, E.

In addition, the composition of food should include minerals (calcium, magnesium, phosphorus) necessary for the skeletal system, as well as cardiac and skeletal muscles. The need for them is fully covered if the food consists of a variety of products of animal and vegetable origin.

In the human body, processes of oxidation (combination with oxygen) of physical food substances (proteins, fats, carbohydrates) are continuously occurring, accompanied by the formation and release of heat. This heat is necessary for all life processes, it is spent on heating the released air, on maintaining body temperature, thermal energy ensures the activity of the muscular system. The more muscle movements a person makes, the more he consumes oxygen, and, consequently, the more he produces costs, but more food is needed to cover them.

The need for a certain amount of food is usually expressed in thermal units - calories. The minimum amount of food that is necessary to maintain the human body in a normal state is determined by its needs at rest. These are human physiological needs.

World Organization health has established that the physiological needs of a person for energy are about 1600 kcal per day. The real energy needs are much higher, depending on the intensity of labor, they exceed the indicated norm by 1.4-2.5 times.

Starvation is a state of the body in the complete absence or insufficiency of the intake of nutrients.

Distinguish between absolute, complete and incomplete starvation.

Absolute starvation is characterized by a complete lack of intake of nutrients - food and water.

Complete fasting is starvation when a person is deprived of all food, but is not limited in water consumption.

Partial starvation occurs when, with sufficient quantitative nutrition, a person does not receive some nutrients with food - vitamins, proteins, fats, carbohydrates, etc.

With complete starvation, the body is forced to switch to internal self-sufficiency, consuming fat reserves, muscle protein, etc. It is estimated that a person of average weight has energy reserves of approximately 160 thousand kcal, 40-45% of which he can spend on internal self-sufficiency without a direct threat to his existence. This is 65-70 thousand kcal. Thus, spending 1600 kcal per day, a person is able to live in conditions of complete immobility and lack of food for about 40 days, and taking into account the implementation of motor functions - about 30 days. Although there are cases when people did not eat for 40.50 and even 60 days and survived.

In the initial period of fasting, which usually lasts 2-4 days, there is a strong feeling of hunger, a person constantly thinks about food. Appetite rises sharply, sometimes there is a burning sensation, pain in the pancreas, nausea. Dizziness, headaches, stomach cramps are possible. When drinking water, salivation increases. In the first four days, a person's weight decreases by an average of one kilogram daily, and in areas with a hot climate - up to 1.5 kg. Then the daily losses decrease.

In the future, the feeling of hunger weakens. Appetite disappears, sometimes a person even experiences some cheerfulness. The tongue is often covered with a whitish coating, and the smell of acetone can be felt in the mouth. Salivation does not increase, even at the sight of food. There is poor sleep, prolonged headaches, irritability increases. A person falls into apathy, lethargy, drowsiness, weakens.

Hunger undermines the strength of a person from the inside and reduces the body's resistance to external factors. A hungry person freezes several times faster than a full one. He gets sick more often and endures the course of the disease more difficult. His mental activity weakens, his working capacity drops sharply.

Water. The lack of water leads to a decrease in body weight, a significant loss of strength, thickening of the blood and, as a result, an overstrain of the heart, which expends additional effort to push the thickened blood through the vessels. At the same time, the concentration of salts in the blood rises, which serves as a formidable signal that dehydration has begun. Dehydration of the body by 15% or more can lead to irreversible consequences, to death. If a person deprived of food can lose almost the entire supply of tissue, almost 50% of proteins, and only after that approach the dangerous line, then the loss of 15% of the fluid is fatal. Starvation can last several weeks, and a person deprived of water dies in a matter of days, and in a hot climate - even hours.

The need of the human body for water in favorable climatic conditions does not exceed 2.5-3 liters per day.

It is important to distinguish true water hunger from the apparent one. Very often, the feeling of thirst arises not due to an objective lack of water, but due to improperly organized water consumption. Therefore, it is not recommended to drink a lot of water in one gulp - this will not quench your thirst, but can lead to swelling, weakness. Sometimes it is enough to rinse your mouth with cold water.

With intense sweating, leading to leaching of salts from the body, it is advisable to drink slightly salted water - 0.5-1.0 g of salt per 1 liter of water.

Cold. According to statistics, from 10 to 15% of people who died in various extreme conditions became victims of hypothermia.

The wind plays a decisive role in human survival in low temperatures. At an actual air temperature of 3 0 С and a wind speed of 10 m/s, the total cooling caused by the combined effect of the actual air temperature and wind is equivalent to the effect of a temperature of –20 0 С. And a wind of 18 m/s turns a frost of 45 0 С into a frost of 90 0 C in the absence of wind.

In areas devoid of natural shelters (forest, relief folds), low temperatures combined with strong winds can shorten human survival to several hours.

Long-term survival at sub-zero temperatures also depends largely on the condition of clothes and shoes, the quality of the built shelter, fuel and food supplies, and the moral and physical condition of a person.

Clothing is capable of protecting a person from the cold in extreme conditions only for a short time, yet sufficient for the construction of a shelter (even a snow one). The heat-shielding properties of clothing depend primarily on the type of fabric. Finely porous fabric retains heat best of all - the more microscopic air bubbles are enclosed between the fibers of the fabric, the closer they are to each other, the less such a fabric transmits heat from the inside and cold from the outside. There are a lot of air pores in woolen fabrics - the total volume of pores in them reaches 92%; and in smooth, linen - about 50%.

By the way, the heat-shielding properties of fur clothing are explained by the same effect of air pores. Each villus of fur is a small hollow cylinder with an air bubble "sealed" inside it. Hundreds of thousands of such elastic microcones make up a fur coat.

Recently, clothing made from synthetic materials and fillers such as synthetic winterizer, nitron, etc. has found wide application. Here, air capsules are enclosed in the thinnest shell of artificial fibers. Synthetic clothing is slightly inferior to fur in terms of warmth, but it is very light, does not impede movement, and is almost not felt on the body. It is not blown by the wind, snow does not stick to it, it gets wet a little.

The most optimal clothing option is multi-layered clothing from different fabrics - best of all from 4-5 layers.

Shoes play a very important role in winter emergencies, because 90% of all frostbite occurs on the lower extremities.

By all available means, we must strive to keep shoes, socks, footcloths dry. To do this, you can make shoe covers from improvised material, wrap your legs with a piece of loose fabric, etc.

Refuge. Clothing, no matter how warm it is, can protect a person from the cold only for hours, rarely for days. No clothing can protect a person from death if a warm shelter is not built in time.

Cloth tents, shelters from the wreckage of vehicles, wood, metal in the absence of a stove will not save you from the cold. After all, when building shelters from traditional materials, it is almost impossible to achieve hermetic sealing of seams and joints. The shelters are blown through by the wind. Warm air escapes through numerous cracks, therefore, in the absence of stoves, stoves and other highly efficient heating devices, the air temperature inside the shelter is almost always equal to the outside.

An excellent shelter in winter can be built from snow, and very quickly - in 1.5-2 hours. In a properly built snow shelter, the air temperature rises to minus 5-10 0 C only due to the heat emitted by a person at 30-40 degree frost outside. With the help of a candle, the temperature in the shelter can be raised from 0 to 4-5 0 C and above. Many polar explorers, having installed a couple of stoves inside, heated the air up to +30 0 C!

The main advantage of snow shelters is the ease of construction - they can be built by anyone who has never held a tool in his hands.

5.2. Major Human Factors Contributing to Survival

Will to live. With a short-term external threat, a person acts on a subconscious level, obeying the instinct of self-preservation. In extreme conditions, with long-term survival, the instinct of self-preservation is gradually lost, sooner or later a critical moment comes when exorbitant physical and mental stress, the seeming senselessness of further resistance suppress the will. A person is seized by passivity, indifference, he is no longer afraid of the possible tragic consequences of ill-conceived overnight stays, risky crossings. He does not believe in the possibility of salvation and therefore perishes without exhausting his reserves of strength to the end, without using food supplies. 90% of people who find themselves on life-saving equipment after a shipwreck die within three days from moral factors. More than once, rescuers removed dead people from boats or rafts found in the ocean in the presence of food and flasks of water.

Survival, based only on the biological laws of self-survival, is short-lived. It is characterized by rapidly developing mental disorders and hysterical reactions - a psychogenic damaging factor acts. The desire to survive must be conscious and purposeful. This is the will to live, when the desire to survive should be dictated not by instinct, but by conscious necessity. The will to live implies first of all actions. Inaction is inaction. One cannot passively expect help from the outside, one must take actions to protect oneself from adverse factors, to help others.

General physical training, hardening. The usefulness of general physical training for a person who finds himself in an extreme situation does not need to be proved. In an extreme situation, strength, and endurance, and hardenedness are needed. These physical properties cannot be acquired under conditions of extreme training. This takes months. Servicemen-rescuers acquire them during physical exercises, tactical and special training, as well as during individual lessons certain types sports in their spare time.

Knowledge of self-rescue techniques. The basis of long-term survival is solid knowledge in the most knowledge - recipes for cooking dishes from caterpillars and tree bark.

A box of matches will not save a person from freezing if he does not know how to properly build a fire in winter or in the rain. Incorrectly provided first aid only aggravates the condition of the victim. It is tempting to have comprehensive knowledge of self-rescue in any climatic zone of the country, in any extreme situations. But this is associated with the assimilation of a large amount of information. Therefore, in practice, it is enough to confine ourselves to studying a specific climatic zone and possible extreme situations in it. However, it is important to study in advance those self-rescue techniques that are suitable for any climatic zone, typical extreme situations: orienteering, determining the time, making fire in primitive ways, organizing a camp, preserving food, "extracting" water, first aid, overcoming water obstacles etc. We must remember the motto: "To know is to be able, to be able is to survive!".

Survival skills. Knowledge of survival techniques must be supported by survival skills. Survival skills are acquired by practice. Having, for example, a weapon, but not possessing the skills of hunting, one can die of hunger with an abundance of game. When mastering the skills of survival, one should not "scatter around", trying to immediately master the entire amount of information on a particular issue of interest. It is better to be able to do less, but better. It is not necessary to practically master the construction of all types of snow shelters (there are about 20 of them), it is enough to be able to build three or four shelters of various designs.

Proper organization of rescue operations. The survival of a group that finds itself in an extreme situation largely depends on the organization of rescue operations. It is unacceptable that each member of the group does only what he considers necessary for himself at a given time. Collective survival allows you to save the life of each member of the group, individual - leads to the death of everyone.

The work within the camp should be distributed by the head of the group in accordance with the strengths and capabilities of each. Physically strong, especially men, should be entrusted with the most labor-intensive work - arranging firewood, building shelters, etc. Weakened, women and children should be given work that is time-consuming, but does not require much physical effort - maintaining a fire, drying and repairing clothes, collecting food, etc. At the same time, the importance of each work, regardless of the labor costs invested in it, should be emphasized.

All work should, as far as possible, be carried out at a calm pace with an even expenditure of energy. Sudden overloads followed by a long rest, irregular work lead to a rapid exhaustion of forces, to the irrational expenditure of the body's energy reserves.

With the proper organization of work, the expenditure of forces of each member of the group will be approximately the same, which is extremely important with a ration, that is, an equal diet for everyone.

5.3. Survival in the natural environment

5.3.1. Fundamentals and tactics of survival in the natural environment

The basics of survival in the natural environment are solid knowledge in a variety of areas, from the basics of astronomy and medicine, to recipes for cooking from non-traditional "foods" that may be in the place of survival - tree bark, plant roots, frogs, insects, etc. d. It is necessary to be able to navigate without a compass, give distress signals, be able to build a shelter from bad weather, light a fire, provide yourself with water, protect yourself from wild animals and insects, etc.

Of great importance is the choice of tactics for survival in the natural environment.

In conditions of survival, three types of human behavior are possible, three tactics of survival - passive survival, active survival, a combination of passive and active survival.

passive survival tactics- this is the expectation of help from rescuers at the scene of an accident or in its immediate vicinity, the construction of housing facilities, the equipment of landing sites, the extraction of food, etc.

The tactics of passive waiting justifies itself in cases of accidents, forced landings of vehicles, the disappearance of which involves the organization of rescue operations to locate and rescue the victims. It is used in situations where there is absolute certainty that the missing will be searched for and when it is known for certain that the rescue units know the approximate area of ​​​​the location of the victims.

Passive survival tactics are also chosen when among the victims there is a non-transportable patient or several seriously ill patients; when the group of victims is dominated by women, children and unprepared for action, poorly equipped people; under especially difficult climatic conditions, excluding the possibility of active movement.

Active Survival Tactics- this is an independent exit of accident victims or rescuers to the nearest settlement, to people. It can be used in cases where the hope of an ambulance is excluded; when it is possible to establish your location and there is confidence in reaching the nearest settlements. Active survival is also used in cases where there is a need to urgently leave the original place due to severe weather and other factors and start looking for an area convenient for passive survival. Active survival is also used in the event of evacuation of victims from the disaster area.

In some cases, combined, that is, including an active and passive form of survival tactics, is possible. In this case, a long-term camp (bivouac) is organized by the joint efforts of the victims, after which a route group is created from among the most prepared. The purpose of the route group is to reach the nearest settlement as soon as possible and, with the help of local search and rescue services, organize the evacuation of the rest of the group.

5.3.2. Location orientation. Orientation by sun and stars

A. Determining the sides of the horizon during the day

If you do not have a compass, you can determine the approximate direction of the north from the sun (and knowing where the north is - all the other sides of the horizon). Below is a method by which you can, at any time when the sun is shining brightly enough, determine the sides of the horizon from the shadow of the pole (Fig. 5.1).

Find a straight pole one meter long and do the following:

1. Drive the pole into the ground on a flat area free from vegetation, on which the shadow is clearly visible. The pole does not have to be vertical. Tilting it to get the best shadow (in size and direction) does not affect the accuracy of this method.

2. Mark the end of the shadow with a small peg, stick, stone, branch, your own finger, a hole in the snow, or any other means. Wait until the end of the shadow has moved a few centimeters. With a pole length of one meter, you need to wait 10-15 minutes.

3. Mark the end of the shadow again.

4. Draw a straight line from the first mark to the second mark and extend it approximately 30 cm beyond the second mark.

5. Stand so that the toe of the left foot is at the first mark, and the toe of the right foot is at the end of the drawn line.

6. You are now facing north. Define the other sides of the horizon. To mark directions on the ground (for orienting others), draw a line crossing the first in the form of a cross (+), and mark the sides of the horizon. The basic rule when determining the sides of the horizon. If you are not yet sure whether to put your left foot or right foot on the first mark (see paragraph 5), remember the basic rule that distinguishes east from west.

The sun always rises on the east and sets on the west (but rarely exactly east and exactly west). The shadow moves in the opposite direction. Therefore, in any place on the globe, the first mark of the shadow will always be in the western direction, and the second - in the East.

For an approximate determination of the north, you can use an ordinary clock (Fig. 5.2).

In the northern temperate zone, clocks are set so that the hour hand points to the sun. The north-south line lies between the hour hand and the number 12. This refers to standard time. If the hour hand is moved one hour ahead, then the north-south line passes between the hour hand and the number 1. In summer time, when the clock hands are moved another hour ahead, instead of the number 1, the number 2 must be taken into account. . The clock can also be used to determine the sides of the horizon in the southern temperate zone, but in a slightly different way than in northern zone. Here the number 12 should be directed to the sun, and then the line N-S will pass in the middle between the number 12 and the hour hand. When moving the hour hand one hour ahead, the N-S line lies between the hour hand and the number 1 or 2. In both hemispheres temperate zones located between 23° and 66° north or south latitude. In cloudy weather, put a stick to the center of the clock and hold it so that the shadow from it falls clockwise. In the middle between the shadow and the number 12, the direction to the north will pass.

Rice. 5.1. Determination of the direction to the north by the shadow of the pole.

Rice. 5.2. Determination of the direction to the north with the help of a clock.

You can also navigate by the constellation Cassiopeia. This constellation of five bright stars is shaped like a tilted M (or W when low). The North Star is right in the center, almost in a straight line from the central star of this constellation, about the same distance from it. as well as from the Big Dipper. Cassiopeia also rotates slowly around the North Star and is always almost opposite the Big Dipper. This position of this constellation is of great help for orientation in the case when Ursa Major is low and may not be visible due to vegetation or high local objects.

In the Southern Hemisphere, you can determine the direction to the south and from here all other directions can be determined by the constellation of the Southern Cross. This group of four bright stars is shaped like a cross tilted to one side. The two stars that form the long axis or rod of the cross are called "pointers". From the base of the cross, mentally extend a distance five times the length of the cross itself and find an imaginary point; it will serve as the direction to the south (Fig. 5.4.). From this point look straight at the horizon and choose a landmark.

Plants can also help in determining the cardinal points. Tree bark, individual stones, rocks, walls of old wooden buildings are usually thicker covered with moss and lichen on the north side (Fig. 5.5). The bark of trees on the north side is rougher and darker than on the south side. In wet weather, a wet dark stripe forms on the trees (this is especially noticeable in pines). On the northern side of the trunk, it persists longer and rises higher. In birches on the south side of the trunk, the bark is usually lighter and more elastic. In pine, the secondary (brown, cracked) bark on the north side rises higher along the trunk.

In spring, the grass cover is more developed and dense on the northern outskirts of the glades warmed by the sun, in the hot period of summer, on the contrary, on the southern, shaded ones. The anthill has a flatter side facing south.

In spring, on the southern slopes, the snow seems to “bristle”, forming southward ledges (thorns), separated by depressions. The border of the forest along the southern slopes rises higher than along the northern ones.

Rice. 5.5. Determination of the direction to the north by the anthill, annual rings and moss on the stones.

The most accurate are astronomical methods for determining the cardinal points. Therefore, they should be used in the first place. Use all others only as a last resort - in conditions of poor visibility, inclement weather.

5.3.3. Definition of time

The method of determining the north direction by shadow (Fig. 5.6) can be used to determine the approximate time of day. This is done in the following way:

1. Move the pole to the point where the east-west and north-south lines intersect and place it vertically on the ground. Anywhere in the world, the western part of the line corresponds to 6:00 o'clock, and East End -18.00.

2. Now the N-S line becomes the noon line. The shadow of the pole is like the hour hand on a sundial, and with its help you can tell the time. Depending on your location and time of year, the shadow can move either clockwise or counterclockwise, but this does not interfere with the determination of time.

3. A sundial is not a clock in the usual sense. The duration of the "hour" varies throughout the year on them, but it is usually assumed that 6.00 always corresponds to sunrise, and 18.00 to sunset. However, a sundial is quite suitable for determining the time in the absence of a real clock or for setting the clock correctly.

Determining the time of day is very important for scheduling a meeting, conducting a planned concerted action by individuals or groups, determining the remaining length of the day before dark, and so on. 12:00 solar time will always actually be noon, however other hour hand readings compared to normal time vary slightly depending on location and date.

4. The method of determining the sides of the horizon from the clock can give erroneous readings, especially at low latitudes, which can lead to “circling”. To avoid this, set your watch to the sun, and then determine the sides of the horizon from it. This method eliminates 10- the minute wait required to determine the sides of the horizon from the movement of the shadow, and in this time you can get as many readings as needed to avoid "circling".

Rice. 5.6. Determining the time of day from the shadow.

Determining the sides of the horizon in this modified way will correspond to determining the north direction from the shadow of the pole. The degree of accuracy of both methods is the same.

Topic No. 12 "Basics of survival in various emergency situations"

Occupation:

Actions of the population in a natural disaster.

Natural emergencies

Natural disasters are usually unexpected. In a short time they destroy territories, dwellings, communications, and bring hunger and disease in their wake.

AT last years Emergencies of natural origin tend to increase. In all cases of earthquakes, floods, landslides, their destructive power increases.

Natural emergencies are divided into: geological, meteorological, hydrological, natural fires, biological and space.

Natural emergencies are subject to some general patterns:

Each type of emergency is facilitated by a certain spatial confinement;

The more intense the dangerous natural phenomenon, the less often it happens;

Each emergency of natural origin has predecessors - specific features;

The appearance of a natural emergency, for all its unexpectedness, can be predicted;

It is often possible to provide for both passive and active protection measures against natural hazards.

The role of anthropogenic influence on the manifestation of natural emergencies is great. Human activity disturbs the balance in the natural environment. Now, when the scale of the use of natural resources has sharply increased, the features of the global ecological crisis have become very noticeable. An important preventive factor that makes it possible to reduce the number of natural emergencies is the observance of natural balance.

All natural disasters are interconnected, these are earthquakes and tsunamis, tropical cyclones and floods, volcanic eruptions and fires, poisoning of pastures, death of livestock.

Taking protective measures against natural disasters, it is necessary to minimize the secondary consequences, and with the help of appropriate training, if possible, eliminate them completely.

The study of the causes and mechanisms of natural emergencies is a prerequisite for successful protection against them, the possibility of their prediction. An accurate and timely forecast is an important condition for effective protection against hazardous phenomena.

Protection from natural phenomena can be active (construction of engineering structures, reconstruction of natural objects, etc.) and passive (use of shelters),

Natural disasters associated with geological natural phenomena include earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides, mudflows, snow avalanches, landslides, precipitation of the earth's surface as a result of karst phenomena.

Earthquakes are underground shocks and vibrations of the earth's surface, resulting from tectonic processes, transmitted over long distances in the form of elastic vibrations. Earthquakes can cause volcanic activity, the fall of small celestial bodies, collapses, dam breaks, and other causes.

The causes of earthquakes are not fully understood. Stresses arising under the action of deep tectonic forces deform the layers of earth rocks. They shrink into folds, and when overloads reach critical levels, they tear and mix. A break in the earth's crust is formed, which is accompanied by a series of shocks and the number of shocks, and the intervals between them are very different. Shocks include foreshocks, mainshock and aftershocks. greatest strength has the main impetus. People perceive it as very long, although it usually lasts a few seconds.

As a result of research, psychiatrists and psychologists have obtained data that often aftershocks have a much more severe mental impact on people than the main shock. There is a feeling of inevitability of trouble, a person is inactive, while he should defend himself.

The focus of an earthquake is a certain volume in the thickness of the Earth, within which energy is released. The center of the focus is a conditional point - the hypocenter or focus. The epicenter of an earthquake is the projection of the hypocenter onto the Earth's surface. The greatest destruction occurs around the epicenter, in the pleistoseist region.

The energy of earthquakes is estimated by magnitude (lat. value). The magnitude of an earthquake is a conditional value that characterizes the total amount of energy released in the earthquake source. The strength of the earthquake is estimated according to the international seismic scale MSK - 64 (Merkalli scale). It has 12 conditional gradations - points.

Earthquakes are predicted by registering and analyzing their "predecessors" - foreshocks (preliminary weak shocks), deformation of the earth's surface, changes in the parameters of geophysical fields, changes in the behavior of animals. Until now, unfortunately, there are no methods for reliable earthquake prediction. The time frame for the beginning of an earthquake can be 1-2 years, and the accuracy of predicting the location of an earthquake varies from tens to hundreds of kilometers. All this reduces the effectiveness of earthquake protection measures.

In seismically hazardous areas, the design and construction of buildings and structures is carried out taking into account the possibility of earthquakes. Earthquakes of 7 points and above are considered dangerous for structures, so construction in areas with a 9-point seismicity is uneconomical.

Rocky soils are considered the most reliable in seismic terms. The stability of structures during earthquakes depends on the quality of building materials and work. There are requirements to limit the size of buildings, as well as requirements to take into account the relevant rules and regulations (SP and N), which boil down to strengthening the structure of structures built in seismic zones.

Antiseismic measures are divided into two groups:

Preventive, preventive measures are the study of the nature of earthquakes, the determination of their predecessors, the development of methods for predicting earthquakes;

Activities that are carried out immediately before the start of an earthquake, during it and after it ends. The effectiveness of actions in earthquake conditions depends on the level of organization of rescue operations, the level of training of the population and the effectiveness of the warning system.

A very dangerous immediate consequence of an earthquake is panic, during which people, out of fear, cannot meaningfully take measures for salvation and mutual assistance. Panic is especially dangerous in crowded places - at enterprises, in educational institutions and in public places.

Death and injury occur when debris from destroyed buildings falls, as well as as a result of people being in the rubble and not receiving timely assistance. Earthquakes can cause fires, explosions, emissions of hazardous substances, traffic accidents and other dangerous phenomena.

Volcanic activity is the result of active processes that constantly occur in the bowels of the Earth. Volcanism is a set of phenomena that are associated with the movement of magma in the earth's crust and on its surface. Magma (Greek thick ointment) is a molten mass of silicate composition, which is formed in the depths of the Earth. When magma reaches the earth's surface, it erupts as lava. Lava does not contain gases that escape during an eruption. This is what distinguishes it from magma.

Volcanoes are divided into active, dormant and extinct volcanoes. Three main types of eruptions are known: effusive (Hawaiian), mixed (Strombolian) and extrusive (dome).

Volcanic activity and earthquakes are interconnected: seismic shocks mark the beginning of an eruption. Volcanic activity initiates landslides, collapses, avalanches, tsunamis (on the seas and oceans).

Landslides are the displacement of soil masses along the slope under the influence of gravity. Rocks sliding down form the slopes of hills, mountains, river and sea terraces. Landslides are caused by natural and artificial causes. Natural causes: undermining of slope bases by water, increase in steepness of slopes, seismic tremors, etc.

Artificial causes: improper agricultural practices, deforestation, too much soil removal, etc. Modern landslides are 80% related to the anthropogenic factor.

In the mechanism of the landslide process, landslides, shears, extrusion, and hydrodynamic removal are distinguished. Landslides are distinguished by the depth of surface slip: surface (up to 1m), shallow (up to 5m), deep (up to 20m), very deep (more than 20m). According to the speed of displacement, landslides are divided into slow, medium and fast. It is the latter of them that are the cause of disasters with many victims. The scale of landslides is determined by the area involved in the process. In terms of thickness, landslides are determined by the volume of shifting rocks - from several hundred cubic meters to 1 million m3.

Mudflows are violent floods on mountain rivers, mud-stone flows caused by heavy rains, washings of reservoir dams, intensive snowmelt, earthquakes. Anthropogenic factors also contribute to the occurrence of mudflows. The high speed of mud streams (15 km/h) is the main danger. Mudflows are divided into strong, medium and weak flows according to their power. Mudflows are characterized by linear dimensions, volume, density, structure, speed of movement, duration, repeatability.

To prevent mudflows, mudflow-retaining and mudflow-directing hydraulic structures are built, the vegetation layer is fixed on mountain slopes, and other anti-mudflow measures are carried out.

A variety of landslides are snow avalanches, a mixture of snow and air crystals. These huge masses of snow sliding down the mountain slopes claim about 100 human lives every year in Europe. Avalanches can be caused by earthquakes. Avalanches according to the nature of movement are divided into slope, flume and jumping. The large kinetic energy contained in an avalanche has tremendous destructive power. On mountain treeless slopes at 30-400C, the most optimal conditions for the formation of avalanches are created. The speed of avalanches can reach from 20 to 100 m/sec. Predicting the exact time of avalanches is impossible.

Preventive measures are divided into passive and active.

Passive methods include the construction of dams, avalanche cutters, snow guards, and planting forests.

Active methods include the artificial provocation of an avalanche in a certain place and in right time. This is the shelling of avalanches with projectiles and directional explosions, as well as the use of strong sound sources.

Meteorological emergencies are caused by the following reasons:

Wind, storm, hurricane, tornado;

heavy rain;

Large hail;

Heavy snowfall;

Blizzards at speeds above 15m/s;

frosts;

Frost and heat.

Wind is the movement of air relative to the earth. Air moves from an area of ​​high pressure to an area of ​​low pressure.

Uneven heating leads to atmospheric circulation, which affects the weather and climate of the planet. The direction of the wind is divided by the azimuth of the side of the horizon from which it blows, measured in m / s, km / h, in knots or points on the Beaufort scale. It was accepted in 1963. World Meteorological Organization.

The cyclic activity of the atmosphere is the main cause of hurricanes, storms and tornadoes. The atmosphere is divided into troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, exosphere, depending on the temperature distribution.

An area of ​​low pressure in the atmosphere with a minimum in the center is called a cyclone. In diameter, it can reach several thousand kilometers, and the speed of its movement is from 30 to 200 km / h. Cyclones are divided according to their origin into tropical and extratropical. The cyclone has the following structure:

Its central part, where the lowest pressure, weak winds and cloudiness, is called the "eye of the storm (hurricane)";

The outer part of the cyclone, where the maximum pressure, hurricane speeds of air flows - the "wall of the cyclone", giving way to the peripheral part, in which the pressure of the atmosphere sharply decreases and the winds weaken.

In the Northern Hemisphere in a cyclone, air masses move counterclockwise, in the Southern Hemisphere - clockwise. During a cyclone, cloudy weather with strong winds prevails.

A hurricane (typhoon) is a wind of great destructive power and long duration. Its speed is 32 m / s or more (on the Beaufort scale - 12 points). Hurricanes are subdivided depending on the place of occurrence of cyclones into extratropical and tropical. Tropical hurricanes move mainly in a meridional direction, while extratropical hurricanes move from west to east.

Hurricanes occur at any time of the year, but in Russia they pass mainly in August and September. A certain cyclicity of their origin contributes to their more accurate forecasting. Forecasters give names to hurricanes, mostly female, or use a four-digit numbering.

Hurricanes are accompanied by showers, snowfalls, hail, electrical discharges. They can cause dust and snow storms.

A storm (storm) is a very strong and continuous wind with a speed of 20 m/s. Storms bring much less destruction and damage than hurricanes.

Storms are vortex and stream.

Vortex storms are caused by cyclonic activity and spread over large areas.

Among the vortex storms, dust, snow and squalls are distinguished.

Dust (sand) storms occur in deserts, in plowed steppes and are accompanied by the transfer of huge masses of soil and sand.

Snowstorms move large masses of snow through the air. They operate on a strip from several kilometers to several tens of kilometers. Snow storms of great strength occur in the steppe part of Siberia and on the plains of the European part of the Russian Federation. In Russia in winter, snow storms are called snowstorms, blizzards, snowstorms.

Flurries are short-term wind amplifications up to a speed of 20-30 m/s. They are characterized by a sudden beginning and the same sudden end, a short duration of action and great destructive power.

Squall storms operate in the European part of Russia both on land and at sea.

Stream storms are local phenomena with a small distribution. They are divided into stock and jet. During katabatic storms, air masses move down the slope from top to bottom.

Jet storms are characterized by horizontal or upslope air movement. Most often they occur between chains of mountains that connect valleys.

A tornado (tornado) is an atmospheric vortex that occurs in a thundercloud. Then it spreads in the form of a dark "sleeve" towards land or sea. The upper part of the tornado has a funnel-shaped extension that merges with the clouds. When a tornado descends to the Earth's surface, its lower part sometimes expands, resembling an overturned funnel. The height of the tornado is from 800 to 1500m. Rotating counterclockwise at a speed of up to 100 m/s and rising in a spiral, the air in the tornado draws dust or water. The decrease in pressure inside the tornado leads to the condensation of water vapor. Water and dust make the tornado visible. Its diameter above the sea is measured in tens of meters, and above land - hundreds of meters.

According to the structure, tornadoes are divided into dense (sharply limited) and vague (indistinctly limited); in time and spatial effect - on small tornadoes of mild action (up to 1 km), small (up to 10 km) and hurricane whirlwinds (more than 10 km).

Hurricanes, storms, tornadoes are extremely powerful elemental forces, in their destructive effect they are comparable only to an earthquake. It is very difficult to predict the place and time of the appearance of a tornado, which makes them especially dangerous and does not allow predicting their consequences.

Hydrological disasters are caused by the following reasons:

Too much high level water - floods, in which part of the settlements and crops are flooded, damage to transport and industrial facilities;

Too low water level, which disrupts the navigation and water supply of cities;

Snow avalanches;

Early freezing, the appearance of ice on navigable waterways.

This group of emergencies includes marine hydrological phenomena - tsunamis, storms, ice pressure, their intense drift.

Floods. There are such basic concepts as high water, high water and flood.

High water is an annual recurring seasonal rise in the water level.

A flood is a short-term and non-periodic increase in the water level in a river or reservoir.

Floods following one after another can cause floods, and the last floods.

Flooding is one of the most common natural hazards. They arise from a sharp increase in the amount of water in the rivers as a result of the melting of snow or glaciers, due to heavy rains. Floods are often accompanied by blockage of the river bed during ice drift (jam) or blockage of the river bed by an ice plug under a fixed ice cover (jamming).

On sea coasts, floods can be caused by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and tsunamis. Floods caused by the action of winds that drive water from the sea and raise the water level due to its retention at the mouth of the river are called surge floods.

Experts believe that people are in danger of flooding if the water layer reaches 1m and its flow speed is more than 1m/s. If the rise of water reaches 3 m, this leads to the destruction of houses.

Flooding can occur even when there is no wind. It can be caused by long waves arising in the sea under the influence of a cyclone. In St. Petersburg, the islands in the Neva delta have been flooded since 1703. more than 260 times.

Floods on rivers differ in the height of the water rise, the area of ​​flooding and the magnitude of damage: low (small), high (medium), outstanding (large), catastrophic. Low floods can be repeated in 10-15 years, high ones in 20-25 years, outstanding ones in 50-100 years, catastrophic ones in 100-200 years.

They can last from several to 100 days.

The flood in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Mesopotamia, which happened 5600 years ago, had very serious consequences. In the Bible, the flood was called the Flood.

Tsunamis are marine gravity waves of great length, resulting from shifts of large sections of the bottom during underwater earthquakes, volcanic eruptions or other tectonic processes. In the area of ​​their occurrence, waves reach a height of 1-5 m, near the coast - up to 10 m, and in bays and river valleys - more than 50 m. Tsunamis propagate inland to a distance of up to 3 km. The coast of the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans is the main area of ​​tsunami manifestation. They produce very large destruction and pose a threat to people.

Breakwaters, embankments, harbors and jetties protect against tsunamis only partially. On the high seas, tsunamis are not dangerous for ships.

Protection of the population from tsunamis - warnings of special services about the approach of waves, based on advanced registration of earthquakes by coastal seismographs.

Forest, steppe, peat, underground fires are called landscape or natural fires. Forest fires are the most common, causing huge losses and leading to human casualties.

Forest fires are uncontrolled burning of vegetation, which spontaneously spreads through the forest area. In dry weather, the forest dries up so much that any careless handling of fire can cause a fire. In most cases, the culprit of the fire is a person. Forest fires are classified according to the nature of the fire, the speed of propagation and the size of the area covered by the fire.

Depending on the nature of the fire and the composition of the forest, fires are divided into grassroots, riding and soil fires. At the beginning of their development, all fires are ground fires, and when certain conditions arise, they turn into crown or soil fires. Mounted fires are subdivided according to the parameters of the edge advancement (burning band bordering the outer contour of the fire) into weak, medium and strong. Ground and crown fires are divided into stable and runaway fires according to the speed of fire spread.

Peatlands burn without a flame, with the accumulation of a large amount of heat. Peat fires continue for a very long time, it is difficult to extinguish them.

Methods of fighting forest fires. The main conditions for the effectiveness of fighting forest fires are the assessment and forecast of fire danger in the forest. State forestry authorities control the state of protection in the territory of the forest fund.

To organize fire extinguishing, it is necessary to determine the type of fire, its characteristics, the direction of its spread, natural barriers (places that are especially dangerous for intensifying the fire), the forces and means necessary to fight it.

When extinguishing a forest fire, the following main stages are distinguished: stopping, localization, extinguishing the fire and guarding the fire (preventing the possibility of catching fire from unexplained sources of combustion).

There are two main methods of fighting a fire according to the nature of the impact on the combustion process: direct and indirect fire extinguishing.

The first method is used when extinguishing ground fires of medium and low intensity with a propagation speed of up to 2m/min. and flame height up to 1.5m. An indirect method of extinguishing a fire in a forest is based on the creation of protective strips along the path of its spread.

Biological emergencies include epidemics, epizootics and epiphytoties.

Epidemic - a widespread infectious disease among people, significantly exceeding the incidence rate usually recorded in a given area.

A pandemic is an unusually large spread of morbidity both in terms of level and scale of distribution, covering a number of countries, entire continents and even the entire globe.

All infectious diseases are divided into four groups:

intestinal infections;

Respiratory tract infections (aerosol);

Blood (transmissible);

Infections of the outer integument (contact).

Epizootics. Infectious animal diseases are a group of diseases that have such common features as the presence of a specific pathogen, cyclical development, the ability to be transmitted from an infected animal to a healthy one, and to take on epizootic spread.

All infectious diseases of animals are divided into five groups:

The first group - alimentary infections, are transmitted through soil, feed, water. The organs of the digestive system are mainly affected. Pathogens are transmitted through infected feed, soil, manure. Such infections include anthrax, foot and mouth disease, glanders, brucellosis.

The second group - respiratory infections - damage to the mucous membranes of the respiratory tract and lungs. These include: parainfluenza, exotic pneumonia, sheep and goat pox, canine distemper.

The third group is transmissible infections, the mechanism of their transmission is carried out with the help of blood-sucking arthropods. These include: encephalomyelitis, tularemia, infectious anemia of horses.

The fourth group is infections, the pathogens of which are transmitted through the outer integument without the participation of carriers. These include: tetanus, rabies, cowpox.

The fifth group - infections with unexplained ways of damage, i.e. unqualified group.

Epiphytotics. To assess the scale of plant diseases, such concepts as epiphytoty and panphytoty are used.

Epiphytoty is the spread of infectious diseases over large areas over a certain period of time.

Panphytotia is a mass disease covering several countries or continents.

Plant diseases are classified according to the following criteria:

Place or phase of plant development (diseases of seeds, seedlings, seedlings, adult plants);

Place of manifestation (local, local, general);

Current (acute, chronic);

Affected culture;

Cause (infectious, non-infectious).

Space is one of the elements that influence earthly life. Dangers threatening from outer space:

Asteroids are small planets whose diameter ranges from 1-1000 km. Currently, about 300 space bodies are known that can cross the Earth's orbit. In total, according to the forecasts of astronomers, there are approximately 300 thousand in space. asteroids and comets.

The meeting of our planet with celestial bodies poses a serious threat to the entire biosphere. Calculations show that the impact of an asteroid with a diameter of about 1 km is accompanied by the release of energy ten times greater than the entire nuclear potential available on Earth.

It is supposed to develop a system of planetary protection against asteroids and comets, which is based on two principles of protection, namely, changing the trajectory of dangerous space objects or destroying it into several parts.

Solar radiation has a huge impact on earthly life.

Solar radiation acts as a powerful healing and preventive factor, at the same time it poses a rather serious danger, excessive solar radiation leads to the development of severe erythema with skin edema and deterioration in health. Special literature describes cases of skin cancer in people who are constantly exposed to excessive solar radiation.

Actions of the population in a natural disaster

To attract attention in emergency cases, sirens, as well as other signaling means, are turned on before the transmission of information. Sirens and intermittent beeps of enterprises, vehicles mean the civil defense signal "Attention to all." In this case, it is necessary to immediately turn on the loudspeaker, radio or television receiver and listen to the message of the civil defense headquarters. With the threat of an earthquake, such a message may begin with the words:

"Attention! Says the headquarters of the civil defense of the city.. Citizens! Due to the possibility...

People actions:

A) with a warning signal:

"Attention everyone!" (sirens, intermittent beeps)

Upon hearing the “Attention everyone!” signal, people need to do the following:

Immediately turn on the radio or TV to listen to the emergency messages of the civil defense headquarters.

Inform neighbors and relatives about what happened, bring the children home and act in accordance with the information you receive.

If evacuation is necessary, follow these guidelines:

Pack in a small suitcase (or backpack) essentials, documents, money, valuables;

Pour water into a container with a tight-fitting lid, prepare canned and dry food;

Prepare the apartment for conservation (close windows, balconies; turn off the supply of gas, water, electricity, put out the fire in the stoves; prepare a second copy of the keys for delivery to the REP; take the necessary clothing and personal protective equipment);

Help the elderly and sick living in the neighborhood.

The population living in landslide, mudflow, collapse and avalanche zones should know the sources, possible directions and characteristics of these dangerous phenomena. On the basis of forecasts, residents are provided with information in advance about the danger of landslide, mudflow, landslide centers and possible zones of their action, as well as about the procedure for signaling danger. This reduces the impact of stress and panic that can arise from the transmission of emergency information about an imminent threat.

The population of dangerous mountainous regions is obliged to take care of strengthening the houses and the territory on which they are built, to participate in the construction of protective hydraulic and other engineering structures.

Primary information about the threat of landslides, mudflows and collapses comes from landslide and mudflow stations, parties and posts of the hydrometeorological service. It is important that this information be brought to the destination in a timely manner. The notification of the population about natural disasters is carried out in the prescribed manner by means of sirens, radio, television, as well as local warning systems that directly connect the units of the hydrometeorological service, the Ministry of Emergency Situations with settlements located in dangerous zones.

If there is a threat of a landslide, mudflow or collapse, an early evacuation of the population, farm animals and property to safe places is organized.

Houses or apartments abandoned by residents are brought into a state that helps to reduce the consequences of a natural disaster and the possible impact of secondary factors, facilitating their excavation and restoration later. Therefore, the transferred property from the yard or balcony must be removed into the house, the most valuable thing that cannot be taken with you, sheltered from moisture and dirt. Close doors, windows, ventilation and other openings tightly. Turn off electricity, gas, water. Remove flammable and toxic substances from the house and place in remote pits or separate cellars. In all other respects, you should proceed in accordance with the procedure established for organized evacuation.

In the event that there was no advance warning of the danger and the residents were warned about the threat immediately before the onset of a natural disaster or noticed its approach themselves, everyone, not caring about property, makes an emergency exit to a safe place on their own. At the same time, relatives, neighbors, all people meeting along the way should be warned about the danger. For an emergency exit, you need to know the directions of movement to the nearest safe places. These paths are determined and communicated to the population on the basis of the forecast of the most probable directions of the arrival of a landslide (mudflow) to a given settlement (object).

Avalanche actions

Before the avalanche struck!

Going to the mountains, you need to familiarize yourself with the maps of avalanche hazards and consult with experts.

After heavy snowfalls, it is necessary to postpone the exits to the mountains for 2 - 3 days, waiting until the avalanches come down, or the snow settles. When declaring an avalanche danger, one should generally refrain from hiking in the mountains.

If you still find yourself in the mountains, then in no case go out onto steep snowy slopes, but move only along roads and well-found paths at the bottom of valleys and along ridges.

You can not go to the snow cornices, cross the slopes across or move along them in a zigzag. As a last resort, go down the slope along the line of falling water - "on the forehead." Immediately return to a safe place if you feel that the snow layer under your feet is sagging and you hear a characteristic hissing sound.

If you need to cross a steep snowy slope, you must:

Check the stability of the snow cover. Coming to the edge of the slope with insurance,

Post an observer over the top of the slope,

Zip up clothes, loosen avalanche cords, remove hands from lanyards of ski poles, loosen backpack straps,

Cross the slope strictly one track after the next.

When organizing an overnight stay, it is necessary to take into account the possibility of avalanches coming down from both sides of the valley. Do not stop in avalanche areas.

Actions of the population in the danger zone

Observe the basic rules of conduct in avalanche areas:

Do not go to the mountains in snowfall and bad weather;

Being in the mountains, monitor the weather;

Going out into the mountains, know in the area of ​​\u200b\u200bhis path or walk the places of possible avalanches.

Avoid areas where avalanches may occur. They most often descend from slopes with a steepness of more than 30 ', if the slope is without bushes and trees - with a steepness of more than 20 '. With a steepness of more than 45 ', avalanches come down almost every snowfall.

In conditions of the threat of avalanches, control over the accumulation of snow in avalanche-prone directions is organized, artificial descent of emerging avalanches is caused, protective structures are built in avalanche-prone directions, rescue equipment is prepared and rescue operations are planned.

If the avalanche breaks high enough, quickly move or run out of the path of the avalanche to a safe place or take cover behind a rock ledge, in a recess (you cannot hide behind young trees). If it is impossible to get away from the avalanche, get rid of things, take a horizontal position, pulling your knees to your stomach and orienting your body in the direction of the avalanche. Close the nose and mouth with a mitten, scarf, collar; moving in an avalanche, with swimming movements of the hands try to stay on the surface of the avalanche, moving to the edge, where the speed is lower. When the avalanche has stopped, try to create space around your face and chest to help you breathe. If possible, move towards the top (the top can be determined with the help of saliva, allowing it to flow out of the mouth). Once in an avalanche, do not scream - the snow completely absorbs sounds, and screams and senseless movements will only deprive you of strength, oxygen and heat. Don't lose your temper, don't let yourself fall asleep.

Actions after an avalanche

Report by any means about what happened to the administration of the nearest settlement and start searching and rescuing the victims.

Having got out from under the snow on your own or with the help of rescuers, inspect your body and, if necessary, help yourself. When you reach the nearest settlement, report the incident to the local administration. Contact a first-aid post or a doctor, even if you think you are healthy. Then proceed as directed by the doctor or the head of the rescue team.

Inform your family and friends about your condition and whereabouts.

If your companion got into an avalanche!

Try to trace the path of his movement in the avalanche. After it stops, if there is no danger of another avalanche, start looking for a comrade down from the place where you saw him in last time. As a rule, the victim lies between the point of disappearance and the location of the lightest items of his equipment.

Having found the victim, first of all, free his Head and chest from snow, clear the airways, and then provide him with first medical aid.

If within half an hour it was not possible to find the victim on their own, it is necessary to call a rescue team.

Actions during the convergence of mudflows and landslides.

Usually, the places where mudflows can go are known. Before going to the mountains, you need to study these places on the route of your movement and avoid them, especially after heavy rains. Always remember that it is almost impossible to escape if caught in a mudflow. You can save yourself from a mudflow only by avoiding it.

Before leaving the house, in case of early evacuation, turn off electricity, gas and water supply. Close doors, windows and ventilation openings tightly.

Hearing the noise of an approaching mudflow, you should immediately rise from the bottom of the hollow up the drain, at least 50-100 m. At the same time, you need to remember that stones can be thrown out of the roaring stream for long distances heavy weight life threatening.

To provide assistance to the victims and assistance to the formations and bodies that sort out the blockages and drifts along the path of the mudflow and in the places where the main mass of the mudflow is removed.

If you are injured, try to get yourself first aid. The affected areas of the body, if possible, should be kept in an elevated position, apply ice (wet matter) to them, a pressure bandage. Contact a doctor.

In case of capture of someone by a moving stream of mudflow, it is necessary to provide assistance to the victim by all available means. Such means may be poles, ropes or ropes supplied to the rescued. It is necessary to take the rescued out of the stream in the direction of the stream with a gradual approach to its edge.

During landslides, it is possible for people to fall under the ground, to strike and injure them with falling objects, building structures, and trees. In these cases, it is necessary to quickly provide assistance to the victims, if necessary, give them artificial respiration.

In a sudden earthquake

Well, in this case, when the danger is too close and the earthquake threatens your life, you must:

At the first push, try to immediately leave the building within 15-20 seconds up the stairs or through the windows of the first floor (it is dangerous to use the elevator). Going downstairs, on the go knock on the doors of neighboring apartments, loudly notifying the neighbors about the need to leave the building. If you stayed in the apartment, stand in the doorway or in the corner of the room (near the main wall), away from windows, lamps, cabinets, hanging shelves and mirrors. Beware of pieces of plaster, glass, bricks, etc. falling on you, hide under a table or bed, turn away from the window and cover your head with your hands, avoid going out onto the balcony.

As soon as the tremors subside, immediately leave the building up the stairs, pressing your back against the wall. Try to turn off the gas, water, electricity, take a first-aid kit with you, the necessary things, close the door with a key. Do not let your actions cause panic.

If there are children and the elderly in neighboring apartments, break open the doors and help them get out into the street, give first aid to the wounded, call an ambulance at the pay phone, or send a messenger to the nearest hospital for a doctor.

If an earthquake catches you driving, stop immediately (preferably in an open area) and get out of the car before the aftershocks end. In public transport, stay in your seats and ask the driver to open the doors; after tremors, calmly leave the salon without crushing.

Together with your neighbors, take part in clearing debris and extracting victims from under the rubble of buildings, using personal vehicles, crowbars, shovels, car jacks and other improvised means to extract them.

If it is impossible to remove people from the rubble yourself, immediately report this to the headquarters for the elimination of the consequences of the earthquake (the nearest fire station, police station, military unit etc.) to provide assistance. Dismantle the rubble until you are sure that there are no people under them. To detect victims, use all possible methods, locate people by voice and knock. After rescuing people and providing first aid, immediately send them on passing cars to the hospital.

Keep calm and order yourself, demand it from others. Together with your neighbors, stop the spread of panic rumors, all cases of robbery, looting, and other violations of the law, listen to messages on the local radio. If your house is destroyed, go to the collection point for medical and material assistance along the middle of the streets and bypassing buildings, poles and power lines.

Actions of the population during floods

During floods, people, agricultural and wild animals die, buildings, structures, communications are destroyed or damaged, other material and cultural values ​​are lost, economic activity is interrupted, crops die, fertile soils are washed away or flooded, the landscape changes, the sanitary and epidemiological situation is complicated. Flooding can occur suddenly and last from a few hours to 2-3 weeks. If your area is affected by flooding, study and remember the boundaries of possible flooding, as well as elevated, rarely flooded places located in the immediate vicinity of where you live, and the shortest routes to them. Familiarize family members with the rules of conduct for organized and individual evacuation in the event of a sudden and rapidly developing flood, as well as places to store boats, rafts and building materials for their manufacture. Make a list of documents, valuables, medicines, warm clothes, food supplies, water taken out during the evacuation in advance, and put everything in a special suitcase or backpack.

The signal "Attention everyone!", Transmitted by sirens, intermittent beeps of enterprises and vehicles, can warn of flooding. When you hear the signal, turn on the radio, TV (local program guide) and listen to the information and instructions to the public (diagram 1 and diagram 2). In the message about the threat of flooding, in addition to hydrometeorological data, they indicate the expected time of flooding, the boundaries of the flooded territory according to the forecast, the procedure for the population to act in case of flooding and evacuation.

An example of a flood message

Attention! Says the Main Directorate of EMERCOM of Russia in the Voronezh region.

Citizens! Due to the rise in the water level in the Don River, flooding of houses in the area of ​​Solnechnaya, Sadovaya, Cherry streets is expected. The population living on these streets must collect the necessary things, food and water, turn off gas and electricity, go to the Sokolovaya Gora area to evacuate to a safe zone.

Public actions for early warning of floods

1. Turn on the TV, radio, listen to the recommendations.

2. Turn off water, gas, electricity, put out the fire in the stove.

3. Create a supply of food and water in an airtight container.

4. Strengthen (hammer) the windows, doors of the lower floors.

5. Move your valuables to the upper floors.

6. Take the necessary things and documents. Follow the evacuation point.

Upon receipt of information about the beginning of the evacuation, you should quickly pack up and take with you: a package with documents and money, a first-aid kit; a three-day supply of food, bed linen and toiletries; a set of outerwear and shoes. All evacuees are required to arrive at the evacuation point by the set date to be registered and sent to a safe area. Depending on the current situation, the population is evacuated by vehicles specially allocated for this purpose or on foot. Upon arrival at the final destination, registration is carried out and transportation to accommodation places for temporary residence is organized.

In case of a flash flood (Scheme 3), it is recommended to take the nearest safe elevated place as soon as possible and be ready for an organized evacuation by water using various watercraft or on foot along the fords. In such an environment, one should not succumb to panic, lose self-control. It is necessary to take measures to allow rescuers to timely detect people cut off by water and in need of help. In the daytime, this is achieved by hanging a white or colored cloth on a high place, and at night - by giving light signals. Until the arrival of help, people who find themselves in the flood zone should remain on the upper floors and roofs of buildings, trees and other elevated places. Usually, staying in a flood zone lasts until the water subsides or help arrives.

Actions of the population in the event of a flash flood

Before help arrives

1. Evacuate to the nearest safe place.

2. Prepare boats or build a raft from improvised materials in case of forced self-evacuation.

3. Stay in the nearest safe place until the water runs out.

4. In the daytime, hang out a white or colored banner, at night, give light signals.

In case of forced self-evacuation 1. Quickly take the nearest high ground.

2. For evacuation, use a raft from improvised means.

3. Evacuate only when the rising water level threatens your safety.

The most important rule for people who find themselves in a flooded area is not to eat food that has come into contact with incoming water, and not to drink unboiled water. Use wet electrical appliances only after thorough drying. People standing in water or in a damp room are prohibited from touching electrical wiring or electrical appliances.

Self-evacuation to an unflooded area is carried out only in hopeless situations - if it is necessary to provide emergency medical care to the victims, when water threatens your safety and there is no hope for rescuers. Lack of food (even for a long time) cannot be considered a valid reason for the risk of self-evacuation.

The decision on self-evacuation must be carefully thought out and well prepared: watercraft, protection from the cold, route and consideration of the situation (current, rise or fall of water, no signs of rescue activity, etc.).

If you find yourself in the water as a result of the flood, do not lose your temper. Diagram 4 describes the order of your actions.

Actions of a person in the water

Hold on to floating objects.

Tie a raft out of floating objects and climb onto it.

If there is a risk of drowning (no foot contact with the bottom), take off heavy clothing and shoes.

Push away dangerous objects with sharp protruding parts

Swim to the nearest realistically reachable unflooded area, taking into account the current drift, moving at an angle to it.

After the water subsides, you should beware of torn and sagging electrical wires. Products and supplies of drinking water that have fallen into the water must be checked by representatives of the sanitary inspection before use, and the existing wells with water should be drained by pumping. Before entering a house (or building) after a flood, you should make sure that its structures have not undergone obvious damage and do not pose a danger. Then it needs to be ventilated for several minutes by opening the front doors or windows. When inspecting interior rooms, it is not recommended to use matches or lamps as a light source due to the possible presence of gas in the air; for these purposes, battery-powered electric lights should be used. Before checking the condition of the electrical network by specialists, it is forbidden to use sources of electricity for lighting or other needs. After opening all doors and windows, removing debris and excess moisture, dry the building.

Actions of the population in industrial accidents and catastrophes.

Industrial accidents and disasters

An accident is damage to a machine, machine tool, equipment, building, structure. There are accidents at public utility networks, industrial enterprises. If these incidents are not so significant and did not entail serious human casualties, they are usually classified as accidents.

A catastrophe is a major accident with a large loss of life, i.e. An event with very tragic consequences. Main criterion in the difference between accidents and disasters lies in the severity of the consequences and the presence of human casualties. As a result of industrial accidents, explosions and fires are possible, and their consequences are destruction and damage to buildings, machinery and equipment, flooding of the territory, failure of communication lines, energy and utility networks. They are most frequent at enterprises that produce, use or store emergency chemically hazardous substances (AHOV). The consequences of accidents are explosions and fires.

During explosions, the shock wave not only leads to destruction, but also to human casualties. The degree and nature of the destruction depends, in addition to the power of the explosion, on the technical condition of the structures, the nature of the building and the terrain. Which businesses are most likely to experience explosions? Where hydrocarbon gases (methane, ethane, propane) are used in large quantities. Boilers in boiler houses, gas equipment, products and semi-finished products of chemical plants, gasoline vapors and other components, flour in mills, dust in elevators, powdered sugar in sugar factories, wood dust in woodworking enterprises explode.

Explosions are possible in residential areas when people forget to turn off the gas. Explosions on gas pipelines occur with poor control over their condition and compliance with safety requirements during their operation, as happened in Bashkortostan on July 3, 1989. A mixture of propane, methane and gasoline exploded. The flames instantly covered a huge area. There were two passenger oncoming trains in the fiery cauldron. A large number of people suffered, many were injured and injured.

Firedamp explosions in mines lead to serious consequences, causing fires, collapses, flooding. groundwater. Sudden collapses of buildings, bridges, and other engineering structures bring great material damage, and in some cases human casualties. The reasons are errors in research and design, poor quality of construction work. On March 23, 1993, one of the workshops of the Bratsk aluminum plant turned into ruins. Under the rubble of the building were 14 night shift workers. Fires occur everywhere: at industrial enterprises, agricultural facilities, educational institutions, preschool institutions, in residential buildings. They arise during the transportation of fuel by all modes of transport. Chemicals such as turpentine, camphor, naphthalene ignite spontaneously. In the process of burning foam rubber, poisonous smoke is released, which leads to dangerous poisoning. In the production process, under certain conditions, wood, coal, peat, aluminum, flour, grain dust, as well as cotton, flax, and hemp dust become dangerous and ignite. In the summer of 1985, fine cotton fluff, which was formed after washing and drying clothes in the laundry room of the Cosmos Hotel (Moscow), clogged the ventilation shaft. Laundry workers decided to get rid of it with the help of ... fire, forgetting that under certain conditions it explodes like gunpowder. So, that's exactly what happened. As soon as a match was struck, an explosion thundered. Eight people were burned and injured. The shock wave tore apart the roof.

It seems the laundry is the most peaceful production, but it exploded.

On March 14, 1993, the largest fire in Russia in the last 10 years began. The plant for the production of engines burned down at KamAZ. The total fire area is 200 thousand m2. Restoration, or rather the construction of a new one, is still being done. In the event of a catastrophe and a major accident, it is very important to promptly notify and organize the protection of workers and employees, all in the vicinity of the population living in danger. First of all, it is necessary to organize rescue operations, provide first aid to the victims and deliver them to medical institutions. After reconnaissance of the affected areas of the object, localization and extinguishing of the fire are organized, measures are taken to prevent further destruction. Separate structures that threaten to fall, collapse or, on the contrary, strengthen, carry out urgent work on the municipal energy networks. At the same time, compliance with safety requirements is of great importance. For example, it is forbidden to unnecessarily walk through the rubble, enter destroyed buildings, carry out work near structures that threaten to collapse. Do not touch bare wires and various electrical devices. The area for rescue and restoration work must be fenced, guards and observers must be posted in a timely manner. As a result of an accident or catastrophe, flammable and corrosive liquids can spread. This must be taken into account when organizing work. The most characteristic types of injuries in accidents and catastrophes are wounds, bruises, bone fractures, ruptures and crushing of tissues, electric shock, burns, and poisoning.

On rail transport

The main causes of accidents and disasters are malfunctions of the track, rolling stock, signaling, centralization and blocking means, dispatcher errors, inattention and negligence of drivers. Most often, rolling stock derails, collisions, collisions with obstacles at crossings, fires and explosions directly in the cars occur. Washout of railway tracks, landslides, landslides, floods are not excluded. When transporting dangerous goods, such as gases, flammable, explosive, caustic, poisonous and radioactive substances, explosions, fires of tanks and other wagons occur. Eliminating such accidents is quite difficult.

Actions in case of an accident (catastrophe or crash) on railway transport.

Usually emergency braking occurs suddenly. If possible, the least traumatic place would be sitting on the floor. If you are standing, be sure to find yourself some kind of support. Rest your feet on a wall or seat, and hold onto the handrail with your hands. Muscles should be tensed to avoid damage to the bone apparatus. There may be several shocks, so do not relax until you realize that the movement of the train has finally stopped. Stay away from windows during an accident, as you can get injured from shrapnel. When buying tickets, you should be aware that the outermost carriages are damaged the most, in the center - the risk of severe damage is minimal. Each car has emergency windows. They should be used immediately after the train stops, as there is a high probability of a fire.

When leaving the car, take only the most necessary things with you: documents, money. Don't look for your luggage, it's not worth your life. Get out only on the field side to avoid getting hit by a train going on the other way. The most dangerous situation in which you can find yourself in the event of an accident on a railway transport is a fire. From open fire, you should go to other cars, closing the doors tightly behind you. Opening windows will be a big mistake. This will only increase the fire. Toxic gas - malminite, which is released during the melting of wagons, is life-threatening. Don't inhale it. Cover your nose and mouth with any damp cloth or piece of clothing. When moving, the train car can completely burn out within half an hour. In this case, the evacuation should take place very quickly and clearly. Once in a safe place, start helping other passengers. Don't give in to panic. Follow the instructions of conductors and other employees of the train. After leaving the damaged train, you should move away from it for a long distance. If there is smoke and fire, then an explosion is possible later. You can protect yourself from a broken electrical wire in case of an accident on a railway transport if you move in small jumps. By doing so, you can avoid being affected by step voltage. It can usually spread up to 30 m on damp ground. In situations where doors and emergency exits are blocked by stones, water, mudflows, you should remain calm and let them know about your location by knocking. Rescue teams will definitely come to the aid of all the victims.

Car accidents and disasters

The causes of road traffic accidents can be very different. First of all, these are violations of traffic rules, a technical malfunction of a car, speeding, insufficient training of persons driving cars, their weak reaction, and low emotional stability. Often the cause of accidents and disasters is driving a car by persons in a state of intoxication. Serious traffic accidents result from non-compliance with the rules for the transport of dangerous goods and the failure to comply with the necessary safety requirements.

Another cause of road accidents is poor road conditions.

Sometimes on the roadway you can see open hatches, unprotected and unlit areas of repair work, and the absence of danger signs. All this together leads to huge losses.

In order to protect yourself and your loved ones in case of accidents in road transport, you must follow the following recommendations:

Control your emotions, do not let go of the steering wheel until the collision. In this case, you will be able to drive the car to the end, and you may be able to rectify the situation or at least avoid serious damage;

Passengers should group and provide head protection;

The muscles must be in a tense state, so they will take on all the force of the blow, and not the bones;

Do your best to resist moving your body forward;

The driver needs to use the back of the seat as a support, tighten his muscles, and squeeze into it. You need to put your hands forward and rest them on the steering wheel;

The side position is the safest, so if you are not wearing a seat belt, it is recommended to roll to the side;

Do not attempt to get out of the vehicle until it has completely stopped. The chances of survival are increased by 10 times if you are inside the cabin, and do not jump out of it while moving;

In case of overturning or in case of fire, the car should immediately leave the passenger compartment;

If there is a child next to you, then cover him with you and take a side position together. The most dangerous passenger seat is the front seat. This is due to the fact that upon impact, the door may jam and you will have to leave the passenger compartment through the windshield or window.

How to get out of a sinking car?

In most cases, when a car has fallen into a body of water, the people in it begin to panic and take rash actions, which exacerbate their situation. They simply do not quite understand what is happening with their vehicle at the moment.

The main actions in case of an accident on a road transport when it is immersed in water are as follows:

Unfasten your seat belt. Surprisingly, often people in a panic forget to do this, and desperate attempts to get out lead to its breakdown.

Help your passengers with seat belts, starting by seniority. Get out from the back of the car. Usually the car sinks, leaning forward due to the heavy engine. For some time after the fall, the car will be afloat.

Open windows first. By opening the doors, you let the flow of water into the cabin and the flooding will accelerate. You need to turn on the headlights, so it will be easier to find your car later. In addition, the light from them will help you navigate in muddy water.

If it is not possible to lower the windows, break them with any heavy object or with your feet. Heavy or metal objects in your pockets, as well as shoes, will interfere with your swimming.

If possible, get rid of all unnecessary things and clothes. Get the kids out of the car first. Explain to them that you need to push off on the roof of the car and swim quickly up.

Once on shore, report the incident and call for medical assistance. In such an extreme situation, a short action plan is suitable for memorization, which is as follows: "Belt, window, children, exit." Remember that due to stress and adrenaline, you may not feel injuries, so a doctor's examination is a must.

In the event of a disaster, the main thing is to provide first aid to the victims in a timely manner. And this should be done no later than the first 20, at most 30 minutes. Otherwise it will be too late. It must be borne in mind that the driver and passengers are most often injured in the head, limbs and chest from impacts with door structures, the steering column, the front wall of the body and the windshield. Additional injuries are caused by objects in the car. Pedestrians receive the most damage from bumpers, fenders, headlights, and hoods. About 60% of all injuries are the result of a secondary impact on the roadway, a curbstone.

What to do? Every driver of a passing car, every pedestrian must immediately take all possible measures to save people, provide them with the very first medical aid, especially to stop bleeding. Traffic police officers, emergency medical and technical assistance are called to the scene.

The crash site is protected by warning signs. The victims, after providing them with first aid, are taken to the nearest medical institutions. The main work in case of major car accidents is carried out by special teams with truck cranes, technical assistance vehicles with metal cutting devices, rack jacks, wedges, grosses and other necessary tools.

Aviation accidents and disasters

Aviation accidents are accidents that did not lead to human casualties, but caused the destruction of the aircraft of varying degrees.

A disaster is an accident with human casualties.

The destruction of individual aircraft structures, engine failure, disruption of control systems, power supply, communications, piloting, lack of fuel, interruptions in the life support of the crew and passengers lead to serious consequences. Today, perhaps the most dangerous and common tragedy on board an aircraft is fire and explosion.

Airplane fire: rules of conduct

Fire during flight can occur for various reasons. This can be facilitated by a breakdown on board, an unforeseen situation during landing or takeoff, or an electrical short circuit. In addition, often the passengers themselves become the culprits of such a terrible and dangerous situation. Some people simply ignore the prohibitions on smoking on board and the use of open flames. Actions in case of fire in an aircraft include the following: Before the flight, carefully listen to the flight attendant, who explains the location of not only the main entrances on board, but also where the emergency exits are located. Remember how far you are from the exit, count the seats to be able to navigate by touch in a smoky cabin. In the event of a fire, do not try at all costs to get to the exit through which you boarded the plane. Almost all passengers will do this, and there will be a crush. Remember about emergency exits, most often there are very few people there. There is only 1.5-2 minutes to evacuate from a burning plane. Do not linger at the inflated ladder. No need to squat down and move out quietly. Just jump on it. Get rid of all flammable clothing. This is especially true for girls. Leggings and nylon tights will need to be removed so as not to get severe burns. Also remove high-heeled shoes to avoid dislocations, injury to other passengers, and damage to the emergency slide. Hold it in your hands so that once on the ground you can quickly put on shoes. Cover open areas of the skin with a dense cloth made of natural materials. Protect head and respiratory tract from combustion products. In cases of heavy smoke, it is necessary to bend down to the floor or crawl to the exit. Do not open hatches yourself. This action can intensify the flame. If the fire occurred during the flight, then you should prepare for a hard landing. Smaller fires can be dealt with using the available fire extinguishers on board. Remember that flight attendants and crew are doing everything to save passengers and the aircraft, so do not ignore their instructions, do not panic or interfere with their work.

Aircraft depressurization: what to do to survive?

The loss of tightness by an aircraft under the influence of internal or external factors is called depressurization. In this situation, decompression is extremely dangerous. It represents a sharp drop in air pressure in the cabin.

At the same time, it can be extremely fast, accompanied by loud noise and the sound of air leaving the cabin, and slow, when its signs are detected only when hypoxia occurs. In the event of a depressurization in an aircraft, the actions must be clear and quick, as the loss of even a few minutes can cost you your life. This situation often leads to accidents in which no one manages to survive.

However, modern aircraft provide a security system that can help passengers even in such a seemingly hopeless situation. Fasten your seat belts. They will be able to keep you in the chair, and you will not be carried away by the air flow from the cabin. Put on an oxygen mask immediately. A common mistake is to put the mask on your face and hold it with your hand.

With any strong shaking or deterioration of health, the mask will fall out and you will suffocate. Take care of yourself first, then help your loved ones and neighbors. Don't get up. Group as instructed. The mask will allow you to breathe normally for 15 minutes. This time may be enough for pilots to lower the board to a height of 3 km, at which the air is not so strongly discharged. In this case, people will be able to breathe on their own without causing severe harm to health.

Accidents at hydraulic structures

The danger of flooding of low-lying areas occurs when dams, dams and hydroelectric facilities are destroyed. The immediate danger is the rapid and powerful flow of water, causing damage, flooding and destruction of buildings and structures. Casualties among the population and various violations occur due to high speed and sweeping everything in its path huge amount running water. The height and speed of the breakthrough wave depend on the size of the destruction of the hydraulic structure and the difference in heights in the upstream and downstream. For flat areas, the speed of the breakthrough wave varies from 3 to 25 km/h, in highlands reaches 100 km/h. Significant areas of the terrain in 15 - 30 minutes. Usually they are flooded with a layer of water with a thickness of 0.5 to 10 m or more. The time during which territories can be under water ranges from several hours to several days. There are diagrams and maps for each hydroelectric complex, which show the boundaries of the flood zone and give a characteristic of the breakthrough wave. The construction of housing and businesses is prohibited in this zone.

In the event of a dam break, all means are used to alert the population: sirens, radio, television, telephone and loudspeakers. Having received the signal, it is necessary to immediately evacuate to the nearest elevated areas. Stay in a safe place until the water subsides or a message is received that the danger has passed. When returning to their original places, beware of broken wires. Do not consume foods that have been in contact with water streams. Do not take water from open wells. Before entering the house, one must carefully inspect it and make sure that there is no danger of destruction. Be sure to ventilate the building before entering. Do not use matches - gas may be present. Take all measures to dry the building, floors and walls. Remove all wet debris.