Foreign policy of the USSR on the eve of the Great Patriotic War. The foreign policy of the USSR on the eve of the Second World War

Abstract on the topic:

"Foreign policy of the Soviet state on the eve of World War II"

1. The international position of the USSR. 3

2. Soviet-German relations, disagreements and division of spheres of influence. four

Literature. eleven

1. The international position of the USSR

The foreign policy activity of the country in the prewar years was built not only on the basis of internal tasks, but also depending on the state and development of international relations.

Despite the difference in approaches to tactics in foreign policy, the general trend international development in the early 30s. The Soviet leadership has correctly defined: the aggravation of the international situation, the growth of the forces of revanchism and war, the movement of the world to a new war. What was the foreign policy practice of the country under these conditions? There is active activity aimed at combating fascist aggression, creating a system collective security in Europe, the development of international relations based on the policy of peaceful coexistence. The implementation of this line of foreign policy was the establishment in 1933-1935. diplomatic relations of the USSR with Spain, Uruguay, Hungary, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Albania, Belgium, Luxembourg and Colombia, which did not recognize our country for more than 25 years. Special place In the international events of these years, the establishment of diplomatic relations between the USSR and the USA in November 1933 took place. All this testified to the strengthening of the international authority of the USSR and created more favorable conditions for the intensification of its foreign policy activities.

In 1934 the USSR joined the League of Nations. As a result of negotiations between French Foreign Minister Louis Barthou and USSR People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs M.M. Litvinov, a draft Eastern Pact was developed, according to which the USSR, Poland, Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania and Finland form a collective security system. However, the Eastern Pact as a system of collective security was not implemented due to the opposition of England and right-wing reactionary circles in France.

In March 1936, an agreement was concluded with the Mongolian People's Republic, and in August 1937, a non-aggression pact between the USSR and China.

A serious factor that complicated the international situation during these years was the signing of the Munich Agreement of 1938 between Germany, Italy, France and England, according to which Czechoslovakia lost its independence.

Under these conditions, Soviet diplomacy sought, on the one hand, to implement a plan for collective security in Europe, to prevent the creation of a broad united anti-Soviet front, to exercise maximum caution and not succumb to enemy provocations, and on the other hand, to take all necessary measures to strengthen the country's defense.

2. Soviet-German relations, disagreements and division of spheres of influence

In conditions when the negotiations of the USSR with England and France in 1939 reached an impasse, the Soviet leadership accepted the German proposal for peace negotiations, as a result of which, on August 23, 1939, a Soviet-German non-aggression pact was signed in Moscow.

The question arises: was the conclusion of a non-aggression pact with Germany the best option solutions to the problems that confronted the Soviet government during this period?

The USSR was faced with a dilemma: either reach an agreement with Britain and France and create a system of collective security in Europe, or conclude a pact with Germany, or remain alone. There are different points of view of historians on this matter.

Some experts consider the conclusion of a treaty with Germany as worst case, compare it with Munich, claim that the pact with Germany provoked a second world war. Another point of view boils down to an attempt to compare the conclusion of the Soviet-German non-aggression pact with the signing of the Brest peace, to consider it as an example of the use of a compromise, the ability to use inter-imperialist contradictions.

What prompted Germany to make an alliance with the USSR? For Hitler, this was a tactical step: he needed to guarantee the unhindered capture of Poland and deploy further military operations. The Soviet side, signing the treaty, sought, on the one hand, to ensure the security of the USSR on the eve of the German war against Poland by limiting the advance of German troops and Germany's refusal to use the Baltic states for anti-Soviet purposes, on the other hand, to secure the Far Eastern borders of the USSR from Japanese attacks. Having concluded a non-aggression pact with Germany in 1939, when Far East there were hostilities, the USSR avoided a war on two fronts.

On the whole, this pact made it impossible to create a united anti-Soviet front in Europe. Thus, by concluding a pact, the USSR delayed the start of hostilities for a while and pushed its borders away from the vital centers of the country. But, undoubtedly, the fact that the USSR used the delay received was less effective than its partner in the pact. A few words about the secret protocol to this treaty, which was kept in deep secrecy.

If the treaty of August 23, 1939 itself can be explained and justified by specific circumstances, then the adoption on September 28, 1939 of additional protocols to the Soviet-German treaty was a serious political mistake that could have been avoided at that time. December 24, 1989 II Congress people's deputies The USSR, having heard the report of the Commission for the Political and Legal Evaluation of the Soviet-German Non-Aggression Pact of 1939, condemned the secret protocol to it and recognized them as "legally untenable from the moment they were signed." It was also recognized that "... the decision to sign them was in essence and in form an act of personal power and in no way reflected the will of the Soviet people, who are not responsible for this conspiracy" (1939. Lessons of History. M., 1990. pp. 496-497).

Let us name other foreign policy actions of the USSR. During these years, Bessarabia was returned to the Soviet state. Somewhat earlier, in September 1939, the peoples of Western Ukraine and Western Belarus were returned to the territorial community with Ukraine and Belarus. September 17, 1939, i.e. when Germany was at war with Poland, Soviet troops crossed its eastern border. In the official statement of the Soviet government, these actions were justified by the need to "protect the lives and property of the population of Western Belarus."

The last action was a direct consequence of the implementation of secret protocols to the Soviet-German pact, where Poland was considered from the standpoint of the "sphere of interest" of the USSR.

Such positions of power were manifested in the relations between the USSR and its Baltic neighbors.

In October 1939, the USSR offered Finland to lease the Hanko Peninsula, which was of strategic importance for our borders, for 30 years, as well as to transfer the islands in the Gulf of Finland, part of the Rybachy and Sredny peninsulas near Murmansk and part of the Karelian Isthmus, i.e. about 2,710 square kilometers, in exchange for a territory in Soviet Karelia of 5,523 square kilometers. The Finnish side did not accept these conditions, and the negotiations were interrupted on November 13, and then a military conflict broke out between the USSR and Finland.

The Soviet-Finnish war lasted 105 days, from November 30, 1939 to March 12, 1940. Although this campaign ended with the victory of the USSR, it allowed our country to strengthen its strategic positions in the north-west, to move the border away from Leningrad, it is still impossible not to recognize that this war caused political and moral damage to our country. World public opinion in this conflict was on the side of Finland, the prestige of the USSR fell noticeably. At the request of a number of countries, on December 14, 1939, the USSR was expelled from the League of Nations.

By the end of May 1940, it became clear that the hostilities in Western Europe unleashed by Germany as a result of the outbreak of World War II on September 1, 1939, were nearing completion. Germany emerged from this campaign even stronger economically and militarily. Having gained the upper hand over France and Great Britain, Germany lost all interest in maintaining "friendship" with the USSR. The war came close to the territory of the USSR. Under these conditions, the USSR was interested in keeping German troops as far away from its borders as possible, and its actions in 1940 were aimed at using the Soviet-German treaty of 1939 to limit the scope of German aggression.

In conclusion, we will try to briefly formulate the answer to the question: Did the foreign policy USSR in the 30s. country security? The answers to this question are ambiguous. If earlier the entire foreign policy of the USSR of this period was assessed as infallible, then today we encounter completely opposite judgments. The facts of that period indicate that the foreign policy activity of the USSR in the 30s. was controversial, the methods of its implementation in the first and second half of the 30s. differed from each other, which was explained by the specific situation, its change, the desire to delay the war at any cost, which inevitably led to mistakes and miscalculations. As a result, many tasks related to ensuring the country's security have not been fully resolved.

The second, but very important issue that needs to be explained is Soviet-German relations, connected not only with the signing of the 1939 treaty itself, but also with subsequent events, up to the treacherous attack of Germany on the USSR.

In this regard, the trip of the head of the Soviet government V.M. Molotov to Germany in November 1940 was of fundamental importance. This trip became a sensation that immediately spread all over the world. Molotov's mission still attracts public attention and arouses the increased interest of researchers who interpret and evaluate it in different ways. This interest is not accidental, because the Soviet materials of Molotov's talks with Reich Chancellor Hitler, Reich Foreign Minister Ribbentrop, conversations with the German Ambassador to the USSR Schelenberg, Reich Marshal Goering, Hitler's deputy Hess are important for understanding the relationship between the two states on the eve of the war between them.

The Second World War had its own specific causes and features that distinguished it from the First World War. Nevertheless, due to their deep origins and a certain continuity of the geopolitical situation, both world wars can be considered as bursts of a global crisis in the system of international relations. late XIX- World War I of the 20th century.
The situation in Europe in the 1930s and early 1940s was complicated.
In the center of Europe there was a strong German Empire, which after the First World War began to grow stronger and gain economic power. Because of the disputed territories of Alsace and Lorraine, France became Germany's natural adversary. Faced with the threat of German hegemony, France allied itself with Russia.
The situation in Europe was aggravated by the growing contradictions between Russia and Austria-Hungary (German ally) in the Balkan Peninsula. The fragility of the "patchwork" Austro-Hungarian Empire, the shift of Russian foreign policy from the Far East to the Middle East and Europe (after Russo-Japanese War), as well as the severity of the problems of the countries of the Balkan region - all this inevitably brought the clash of interests of the great powers closer.
The most important reason for the growing instability of the system of international relations was the relative weakening british empire, despite the huge possessions, financial, naval power. This 19th-century superpower was increasingly losing out to the United States and Germany in economic development. The commercial and political expansion of Germany, the unprecedented pace of its construction navy and the rearmament of the army - all this began to threaten the British Empire. Violation of the international balance of power forced England to abandon the role of world arbiter, and conclude an alliance with France and Russia. The split of Europe into two hostile camps led to a global armed conflict.
The reverse side of progress also affected, which humanity has not learned to neutralize as a result of technical achievements, the internalization of the economic and political development, the gradual involvement of the broad masses in politics gave the growing conflict an unprecedented scale. W. Churchill wrote: “The unification of mankind into large states and empires and the awakening of collective self-consciousness among the peoples made it possible to plan and carry out bloodshed on such a scale and with such persistence that they had not even imagined before .... The achievements of civilization made it possible for a long time to switch the energy of entire peoples to the cause of destruction.
In addition, the victory of the Bolsheviks in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century led to the fact that the world was divided into socialist and capitalist segments, and the latter, into its own, into triumphant victorious powers and humiliated losing countries. At the same time, the two largest and regenerating powers, the USSR and Germany, formed totalitarian regimes that differed from one another in their goals and objectives. However, between these states there were common features. The totalitarian regimes of Germany and the USSR did not perceive universal human values, the "bourgeois democracies" of the world system that had developed after the end of the First World War. The USSR aspired to national messianism. Genetically they gave birth to what global crisis system of international relations was an important prerequisite for the victory of the Bolshevik and fascist regimes, and in many ways the conditions for their existence. The difference was that the victory of the Bolsheviks was facilitated by the protracted First World War, the fall of tsarism, and the establishment of fascism was the result of this war, the strengthening of the influence of the communists in Germany. German National Socialism was focused on changes in the country's foreign policy influence and did not pretend to restructure the socio-economic foundations of society.
A means of implementing the fascist doctrine, based on the thesis of the racial superiority of the Aryans over other peoples, as well as a way to solve socio-economic problems, was openly proclaimed by Hitler, the war.
Thus, under these conditions, the foreign policy of the USSR, having two interpenetrating layers: one - official relations with the states of the West and the East at the diplomatic level, and the other is semi-legal and illegal activities to promote the ideas of Marxism-Leninism, communism to these countries and strengthen their influence through structures similar in ideas. In foreign policy, with varying success, there was a struggle for the priority of each of these two layers. But gradually, with the departure of the ideals of the immediate implementation of the world revolution into the background, the tasks of ensuring the stability of the new regime in the USSR began to be solved with greater use of diplomatic methods.

In the early 1930s, the situation in the world began to heat up. World economic crisis contributed to the coming to power in some countries of forces seeking to carry out democratic transformations (England, France, etc.). In others, the crisis contributed to the formation of anti-democratic (fascist) regimes (Germany, Italy), which became the instigators of military conflicts. Hotbeds of international tension emerged in Europe and the Far East.

Taking into account these factors, the Soviet government determined the tasks of its foreign policy: refusal to participate in international conflicts, recognition of the possibility of cooperation with democratic Western countries to contain the aggressive aspirations of Germany and Japan, and the struggle to create a system of collective security in Europe and the Far East. In 1935, the Soviet-French and Soviet-Czechoslovak treaties were signed on mutual assistance in the event of an attack by an aggressor.

But from the second half of the 1930s, a departure from the principle of non-intervention began to be observed in the foreign policy of the USSR. In 1936 during civil war and the German-Italian intervention in Spain, he assisted the government of the Popular Front.

England and France pursued a policy of "appeasement of the aggressor", concessions to Germany, but it did not give results. International tensions intensified. In 1936, Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact against the USSR. In 1937, with the support of Germany, Japan launched a large-scale military operation in China.

In March 1938, Germany annexed Austria. After that, the question arose of Czechoslovakia, from which she demanded the transfer of the Sudetenland. In September 1938, England and France presented the Czechoslovak government with an ultimatum to satisfy territorial claims Germany. The Prague government first turned to the USSR with a request to fulfill its treaty obligations, but then refused to accept its help. At a meeting in Munich with the participation of Germany, Italy, England and France, an agreement was signed on the rejection of the Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia, and in March 1939 Germany completely occupied the country. The real opportunity to prevent war was missed, " Munich agreement brought her closer.

In the summer of 1938, a Soviet-Japanese military conflict took place near Lake Khasan, and in May 1939, on the Khalkhin Gol River.

In the spring of 1939, the USSR made another attempt to reach an agreement with the West. Negotiations began in Moscow with England and France. But these countries did not seek an agreement with the USSR, and in the summer the negotiations reached an impasse. The USSR found itself in conditions of political isolation and faced the threat of war on two fronts. He was forced to accept the offer of Germany and on August 23 signed a non-aggression pact for a period of ten years. This step allowed our country to gain time.

On September 1, 1939, the Second World War began with the German attack on Poland. Under these conditions, the USSR took measures to strengthen its western borders. On September 17, the Red Army entered Poland, and having reached the Curzon Line, returned Western Ukraine and Western Belarus. At the same time, agreements on mutual assistance were concluded with Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia, allowing the deployment of Soviet troops in these countries. In the summer of 1940, the Popular Fronts won the parliamentary elections there. New governments proclaimed Soviet power and turned to the USSR with a request for admission to the Union. At the same time, under an ultimatum, Romania returned Bessarabia, captured in 1918, to the USSR.

As a result Soviet-Finnish war(November 1939-March 1940) The USSR pushed the border deep into Finland from Leningrad, in return giving twice the area in Karelia.

In April 1941, a neutrality pact was signed with Japan.

One of the most difficult topics in domestic and world historical science is an assessment of what the state of the USSR was on the eve of the Great Patriotic War. Briefly this question should be considered in several aspects: from a political, economic point of view, taking into account the difficult international situation in which the country found itself before the start of the aggression Nazi Germany.

At the time under review, two centers of aggression emerged on the continent. In this regard, the position of the USSR on the eve of the Great Patriotic War became very threatening. It was necessary to take urgent measures in order to secure their borders from a possible attack. The situation was complicated by the fact that the European allies of the Soviet Union - France and Great Britain - allowed Germany to seize the Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia, and subsequently, in fact, turned a blind eye to the occupation of the entire country. Under such conditions, the Soviet leadership proposed its own solution to the problem of ending German aggression: a plan to create a series of alliances that were supposed to rally all countries in the fight against a new enemy.

The USSR on the eve of the Great Patriotic War, in connection with the aggravation of the militaristic threat, signed a series of agreements on mutual assistance and common actions with European and Eastern countries. However, these agreements were not enough, and therefore more serious measures were taken, namely: a proposal was made to France and Great Britain to create an alliance against Nazi Germany. For this, embassies from these countries arrived in our country for negotiations. This happened 2 years before the Nazi attack on our country.

Relations with Germany

On the eve of the Great Patriotic War, the USSR found itself in a very difficult situation: potential allies did not fully trust the Stalinist government, which, in turn, had no reason to make concessions to them after the Munich Treaty, which essentially sanctioned the division of Czechoslovakia. Mutual misunderstandings led to the fact that the assembled parties failed to reach an agreement. This alignment of forces allowed the Nazi government to offer the Soviet side to conclude a non-aggression pact, which was signed in August of the same year. After that, the French and British delegations left Moscow. A secret protocol was attached to the non-aggression pact, providing for the redistribution of Europe between Germany and the Soviet Union. According to this document, the Baltic countries, Poland, Bessarabia were recognized as the sphere of interests of the Soviet Union.

Soviet-Finnish War

After signing the pact, the USSR began a war with Finland, which lasted for 5 months and revealed serious technical problems in weapons and strategy. The goal of the Stalinist leadership was to push back the country's western borders by 100 km. Finland was asked to cede the Karelian Isthmus, lease the Hanko Peninsula to the Soviet Union for the construction of naval bases there. Instead, the northern country was offered a territory in Soviet Karelia. The Finnish government rejected this ultimatum, and then the Soviet troops began fighting. With great difficulty, the Red Army managed to bypass and take Vyborg. Then Finland made concessions, giving the enemy not only the aforementioned isthmus and peninsula, but also the area to the north of them. This on the eve of World War II caused international condemnation, as a result of which he was excluded from membership in the League of Nations.

Political and cultural state of the country

Another important direction domestic policy The Soviet leadership was to consolidate the monopoly of the Communist Party and its unconditional and total control over all spheres of society. To do this, in December 1936, a new constitution was adopted, which proclaimed that socialism had won in the country, in other words, this meant the final destruction of private property and the exploiting classes. This event was preceded by the victory of Stalin in the course of the inner-party struggle, which continued throughout the second half of the 1930s.

In fact, it was during the period under review that a totalitarian political system developed in the Soviet Union. The personality cult of the leader was one of its main components. In addition, the Communist Party has established complete control over all spheres of society. It was this rigid centralization that made it possible to quickly mobilize all the country's resources to repulse the enemy. All the efforts of the Soviet leadership at that time were aimed at preparing the people for the struggle. Therefore, much attention was paid to military and sports training.

But considerable attention was paid to culture and ideology. The USSR on the eve of the Great Patriotic War needed the cohesion of society for a common fight against the enemy. This is what the works of fiction, films that came out at the time in question were designed for. At that time, military-patriotic films were being shot in the country, which were designed to show the heroic past of the country in the fight against foreign invaders. Also, films were released on the screens glorifying the labor feat of the Soviet people, their achievements in production and the economy. A similar situation was observed in fiction. Famous Soviet writers wrote works of a monumental nature, which were supposed to inspire the Soviet people to fight. In general, the party achieved its goal: when Germany attacked, the Soviet people rose to defend their homeland.

Strengthening defense capability is the main direction of domestic policy

On the eve of the Great Patriotic War, the USSR was in a very difficult position: actual international isolation, the threat of external invasion, which by April 1941 had already affected almost all of Europe, required urgent measures to prepare the country for the upcoming hostilities. It was this task that determined the course of the party leadership in the decade under review.

The economy of the USSR on the eve of the Great Patriotic War was at a fairly high level development. In previous years, thanks to two full five-year plans, a powerful military-industrial complex was created in the country. In the course of industrialization, machine and tractor plants, metallurgical plants, and hydroelectric stations were built. In a short time, our country overcame the backlog from Western countries in technical terms.

The factors of the defense capability of the USSR on the eve of the Great Patriotic War included several directions. First of all, the course towards the predominant development of ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy continued, and weapons began to be produced at an accelerated pace. In just a few years, its production was increased by 4 times. New tanks, high-speed fighters, attack aircraft were created, but their mass production has not yet been established. Machine guns and machine guns were designed. A law on universal conscription was passed, so that by the beginning of the war the country could put several million people under arms.

Social policy and repression

The factors of the defense capability of the USSR depended on the efficiency of the organization of production. To this end, the party took a number of decisive measures: a resolution was adopted on an eight-hour working day, a seven-day working week. Unauthorized exit from enterprises was prohibited. For being late for work, a severe punishment followed - arrest, and for a production marriage, a person was threatened with forced labor.

At the same time, the repressions had an extremely detrimental effect on the state of the Red Army. The officer corps suffered especially: out of more than five hundred of their representatives, approximately 400 were repressed. As a result, only 7% of senior officers had a higher education. There is news that Soviet intelligence has more than once issued warnings about an impending enemy attack on our country. Nevertheless, the leadership did not take decisive measures to repel this invasion. However, in general, it should be noted that the defense capability of the USSR on the eve of the Great Patriotic War allowed our country not only to withstand the terrible onslaught of Nazi Germany, but subsequently go on the offensive.

The situation in Europe

The international position of the USSR on the eve of the Great Patriotic War was extremely difficult due to the emergence of militaristic centers. In the West it was, as mentioned above, Germany. It had all the industry of Europe at its disposal. In addition, she could field more than 8 million well-armed soldiers. The Germans occupied such leading and developed European states as Czechoslovakia, France, Poland, Austria. In Spain, they supported the totalitarian regime of General Franco. In the context of the aggravation of the international situation, the Soviet leadership, as mentioned above, found itself isolated, the reason for which was mutual misunderstandings and misunderstandings between the allies, which subsequently led to sad consequences.

The situation in the East

The USSR was also in a difficult situation because of the situation in Asia on the eve of the Great Patriotic War. Briefly, this problem can be explained by the militaristic aspirations of Japan, which invaded neighboring states and came close to the borders of our country. It came to armed clashes: Soviet troops had to repulse the attacks of new opponents. There was a threat of war on 2 fronts. In many respects, it was precisely this alignment of forces that prompted the Soviet leadership, after unsuccessful negotiations with Western European representatives, to agree to a non-aggression agreement with Germany. Subsequently, the eastern front played an important role in the course of the war and its successful conclusion. It was at that time that the strengthening of this direction was one of the priorities.

Economics of a country

The internal policy of the USSR on the eve of the Great Patriotic War was aimed at the development of heavy industry. For this, all forces were thrown Soviet society. Pumping money out of the countryside and loans for the needs of heavy industry became the main steps taken by the Party to create a powerful military-industrial complex. Two five-year plans were carried out at an accelerated pace, during which the Soviet Union overcame the backlog from the Western European states. Large collective farms were created in the countryside and private property was abolished. Agricultural products went to the needs of the industrial city. At this time, a broad movement was unfolding in the working environment, which was supported by the Party. The manufacturers were given the task of overfulfilling the norms of blanks. The main goal of all emergency measures was to strengthen the defense capability of the USSR on the eve of the Great Patriotic War.

Territorial changes

By 1940, there was an expansion of the borders of the USSR on the eve of the Great Patriotic War. This was the result of a whole range of foreign policy measures taken by the Stalinist leadership to ensure the security of the country's borders. First of all, it was about moving the border line in the northwest, which led, as mentioned above, to the war with Finland. Despite heavy losses and the obvious technical backwardness of the Red Army, the Soviet government got its way, getting the Karelian Isthmus and the Hanko Peninsula.

But even more important territorial changes occurred on the western frontiers. In 1940, the Baltic republics - Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia - became part of the Soviet Union. Such changes at the time in question were of fundamental importance, since they created a kind of protective zone from the enemy’s impending invasion.

Exploring the topic in schools

In the course of the history of the 20th century, one of the most difficult is the topic "USSR on the eve of the Great Patriotic War." Grade 9 is the time to study this problem, which is so ambiguous and complex that the teacher must be extremely careful in choosing the material and interpreting the facts. First of all, this concerns, of course, the infamous non-aggression pact, the content of which raises questions and presents a wide field for discussions and disputes.

In this case, the age of students should be taken into account: adolescents are often prone to maximalism in their assessments, so it is very important to convey to them the idea that the signing of such a document, if difficult to justify, can be explained by the difficult foreign policy situation, when Soviet Union, in fact, found himself isolated in his attempts to create a system of alliances against Germany.

One more no less controversial issue- this is the problem of the accession of the Baltic countries to the Soviet Union. Very often one can come across opinions about their forcible accession and interference in internal affairs. The study of this point requires a thorough analysis of the entire foreign policy situation. Perhaps, the situation with this issue is the same as with the non-aggression pact: in the prewar period, the redistribution of territories and changes in borders were inevitable phenomena. The map of Europe was constantly changing, so any political steps of the state should be considered precisely as preparation for war.

Lesson plan "USSR on the eve of the Great Patriotic War", summary which should include both the foreign and domestic political state of the state, must be compiled taking into account the age of the students. In grade 9, you can limit yourself to the basic facts set forth in this article. For students of grade 11, a number of controversial points on the topic should be identified and invited to discuss on its various aspects. It should be noted that the problem of the foreign policy of the USSR is one of the most controversial in Russian historical science, and therefore occupies a prominent place in the school curriculum.

When studying this topic, one should take into account the entire previous period of development of the Soviet Union. The foreign and domestic policy of this state was aimed at strengthening its foreign policy position and creating a socialist system. Therefore, it must be taken into account that it was these 2 factors that largely determined the actions taken by the party leadership in the face of an aggravated military threat in Western Europe.

Even in previous decades, the Soviet Union sought to secure its place in the international arena. The result of these efforts was the creation of a new state and the expansion of its spheres of influence. The same leadership continued after the political victory of the fascist party in Germany. However, this policy has now assumed an accelerated character due to the emergence of centers of world war in the West and East. The topic "USSR on the eve of the Great Patriotic War", the table of theses of which is presented below, clearly shows the main directions of the foreign and domestic policy of the party.

So, the position of the state on the eve of the start of the war was extremely difficult, which explains the peculiarities of politics both in the international arena and within the country. On the eve of the Great Patriotic War, the factors of the defense capability of the USSR played a decisive role in the victory over fascist Germany.

The Second World War. Foreign policy of countries before the war

Foreign policy of countries before the war. Finally, the Versailles system fell before the outbreak of World War II, for which Germany was quite thoroughly prepared. Thus, from 1934 to 1939, military production in the country increased 22 times, the number of troops - 35 times, Germany came second in the world in terms of industrial production, etc.

Currently, researchers do not have a unified view of the geopolitical state of the world on the eve of World War II. Some historians (Marxists) continue to insist on a two-polis characterization. In their opinion, there were two socio-political systems in the world (socialism and capitalism), and within the framework of the capitalist system of world relations there were two centers of a future war (Germany in Europe and Japan in Asia). A significant part of historians believe that on the eve of the Second world war there were three political systems: bourgeois-democratic, socialist and fascist-militarist. The interaction of these systems, the alignment of forces between them could ensure peace or disrupt it. A possible bloc of bourgeois-democratic and socialist systems was a real alternative to World War II. However, a peaceful alliance did not work out. The bourgeois-democratic countries did not agree to create a bloc before the start of the war, because their leadership continued to regard Soviet totalitarianism as the greatest threat to the foundations of civilization (the result of revolutionary changes in the USSR, including the 1930s) than its fascist antipode, which openly proclaimed crusade against communism. The attempt of the USSR to create a system of collective security in Europe ended with the signing of agreements with France and Czechoslovakia (1935). But even these treaties were not put into effect during the period of German occupation of Czechoslovakia due to the "appeasement policy" opposed to them, pursued at that time by the majority European countries regarding Germany.

Germany, in October 1936, formalized a military-political alliance with Italy (“Berlin-Rome Axis”), and a month later the Anti-Comintern Pact was signed between Japan and Germany, to which Italy joined a year later (November 6, 1937). The creation of a revanchist alliance forced the countries of the bourgeois-democratic camp to become more active. However, only in March 1939 did Britain and France begin negotiations with the USSR on joint actions against Germany. But the agreement was never signed. Despite the polarity of interpretations of the reasons for the failed union of anti-fascist states, some of which shift the blame for the unbridled aggressor onto the capitalist countries, others attribute it to the policy of the leadership of the USSR, etc., one thing is obvious - the skillful use by fascist politicians of the contradictions between anti-fascist countries, which led to to grave consequences for the whole world.

Soviet policy on the eve of the war. The consolidation of the fascist camp against the background of the policy of appeasement of the aggressor pushed the USSR to open struggle with a sprawling aggressor: 1936 - Spain, 1938 - small war with Japan at Lake Khasan, 1939 - the Soviet-Japanese war at Khalkhin Gol. However, quite unexpectedly, on August 23, 1939 (eight days before the start of the World War, the Non-Aggression Pact between Germany and the USSR, called the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, was signed). The secret protocols to this pact on the delimitation of the spheres of influence of Germany and the USSR in the north and south of Europe, as well as the division of Poland, which became the property of the world community, forced a new look (especially for domestic researchers) on the role of the USSR in the anti-fascist struggle on the eve of the war, as well as its activities from September 1939 to June 1941, on the history of the opening of the second front, and much more.

There is no doubt that the signing of the Soviet-German non-aggression pact dramatically changed the balance of power in Europe: the USSR avoided a seemingly inevitable clash with Germany, while the countries Western Europe found themselves face to face with the aggressor, whom they continued to pacify out of inertia (an attempt by England and France from August 23 to September 1, 1939 to come to an agreement with Germany on the Polish issue, similar to the Munich Agreement).

Beginning of World War II. The immediate pretext for the attack on Poland was a rather frank provocation by Germany on their joint border (Gliwitz), after which on September 1, 1939, 57 German divisions (1.5 million people), about 2500 tanks, 2000 aircraft invaded the territory of Poland . The Second World War began.

England and France declared war on Germany already on September 3, without providing, however, real assistance to Poland. From 3 to 10 September, Australia entered the war against Germany, New Zealand, India, Canada; The United States declared neutrality, Japan declared non-intervention in the European war.

First stage of the war. Thus, World War II began as a war between the bourgeois-democratic and fascist-militarist blocs. The first stage of the war dates from September 1, 1939 - June 21, 1941, at the beginning of which the German army occupied part of Poland until September 17, reaching the line (the cities of Lvov, Vladimir-Volynsky, Brest-Litovsk), marked by one of the mentioned secret protocols Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact.

Until May 10, 1940, England and France did not practically conduct military operations with the enemy, therefore this period was called " strange war". Germany took advantage of the passivity of the allies, expanding its aggression, occupying Denmark and Norway in April 1940 and going on the offensive from the coast North Sea to the Maginot Line on May 10 of the same year. During May, the governments of Luxembourg, Belgium, and Holland capitulated. And already on June 22, 1940, France was forced to sign an armistice with Germany in Compiègne. As a result of the actual surrender of France, a collaborationist state was created in its south, headed by Marshal A. Peten(1856-1951) and the administrative center in the city of Vichy (the so-called "Vichy regime"). France resisting was led by a general Charles de Gaulle ( 1890-1970).

On May 10, there were changes in the leadership of Great Britain; Winston Churchill(1874-1965), whose anti-German, anti-fascist and, of course, anti-Soviet sentiments were well known. The period of the "strange war" is over.

From August 1940 to May 1941, the German command organized systematic air raids on the cities of England, trying to force its leadership to withdraw from the war. As a result, during this time, about 190 thousand high-explosive and incendiary bombs were dropped on England, and by June 1941, a third of the tonnage of its merchant fleet was sunk at sea. Germany also increased its pressure on the countries of South-Eastern Europe. The accession to the Berlin Pact (the agreement of Germany, Italy and Japan of September 27, 1940) of the Bulgarian pro-fascist government ensured the success of the aggression against Greece and Yugoslavia in April 1941.

Italy in 1940 developed military operations in Africa, advancing on the colonial possessions of England and France ( East Africa, Sudan, Somalia, Egypt, Libya, Algeria, Tunisia). However, in December 1940, the British forced the Italian troops to surrender. Germany rushed to the aid of an ally.

The policy of the USSR at the first stage of the war did not receive a unified assessment. A significant part of Russian and foreign researchers tend to interpret it as an accomplice in relation to Germany, which is based on the agreement between the USSR and Germany under the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, as well as the fairly close military-political, trade cooperation between the two countries until the beginning of Germany's aggression against the USSR. In our opinion, in such an assessment, a strategic approach at the pan-European, global level prevails to a greater extent. At the same time, the point of view, which draws attention to the benefits received by the USSR from cooperation with Germany at the first stage of World War II, somewhat corrects this unambiguous assessment, allowing us to speak about the well-known strengthening of the USSR within the time it won to prepare to repel imminent aggression, which ultimately ensured the subsequent great victory over fascism of the entire anti-fascist camp.

In this chapter, we will confine ourselves to this preliminary assessment of the participation of the USSR in World War II, since the rest of its stages are considered in more detail in Chap. 16. Here, it is advisable to dwell only on some of the most important episodes of the subsequent stages.

Second stage of the war. The second stage of the war (June 22, 1941 - November 1942) was characterized by the entry of the USSR into the war, the retreat of the Red Army and its first victory (the battle for Moscow), as well as the beginning of the intensive formation of the anti-Hitler coalition. So, on June 22, 1941, England announced full support The USSR and the USA almost simultaneously (June 23) expressed their readiness to provide him with economic assistance. As a result, on July 12, a Soviet-British agreement was signed in Moscow on joint actions against Germany, and on August 16, on trade between the two countries. In the same month, as a result of the meeting of F. Roosevelt(1882-1945) and W. Churchill was signed atlantic charter, which the USSR joined in September. However, the United States entered the war on December 7, 1941 after the tragedy at the Pacific naval base Pearl Harbor. Developing the offensive from December 1941 to June 1942, Japan occupied Thailand, Singapore, Burma, Indonesia, New Guinea, and the Philippines. On January 1, 1942, in Washington, 27 states that were at war with the countries of the so-called "fascist axis" signed a declaration of the United Nations, which completed the difficult process of creating an anti-Hitler coalition.

Third stage of the war. The third stage of the war (mid-November 1942 - the end of 1943) was marked by a radical turning point in its course, which meant the loss of the strategic initiative by the countries of the fascist coalition on the fronts, the superiority of the anti-Hitler coalition in the economic, political and moral aspect. On the Eastern Front Soviet Army major victories were won at Stalingrad and Kursk. Anglo-American troops successfully advanced in Africa, liberating Egypt, Cyrenaica, and Tunisia from German-Italian formations. In Europe, as a result of successful operations in Sicily, the Allies forced Italy to capitulate. In 1943, the allied relations of the countries of the anti-fascist bloc strengthened: at the Moscow Conference (October 1943), England, the USSR and the USA adopted declarations on Italy, Austria and general security (signed also by China), on the responsibility of the Nazis for the crimes committed.

On the Tehran Conference(November 28 - December 1, 1943), where F. Roosevelt, J. Stalin and W. Churchill met for the first time, it was decided to open a Second Front in Europe in May 1944 and a Declaration was adopted on joint actions in the war against Germany and post-war cooperation. At the end of 1943, at a conference of the leaders of Britain, China and the USA, the Japanese question was similarly resolved.

Fourth stage of the war. At the fourth stage of the war (from the end of 1943 to May 9, 1945), the Soviet Army was liberating the western regions of the USSR, Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, etc. In Western Europe with some delay (June 6, 1944) The Second Front was opened, the countries of Western Europe were being liberated. In 1945, 18 million people, about 260 thousand guns and mortars, up to 40 thousand tanks and self-propelled artillery mounts, over 38 thousand aircraft took part on the battlefields in Europe at the same time.

On the Yalta Conference(February 1945) the leaders of England, the USSR and the USA decided the fate of Germany, Poland, Yugoslavia, discussed the issue of creating United Nations(created on April 25, 1945), signed an agreement on the entry of the USSR into the war against Japan.

The result of joint efforts was the complete and unconditional surrender of Germany on May 8, 1945, signed on the outskirts of Berlin by Karl-Horst.

Fifth stage of the war. The final, fifth stage of World War II took place in the Far East and Southeast Asia (from May 9 to September 2, 1945). By the summer of 1945, allied troops and national resistance forces had liberated all the lands occupied by Japan, and American troops occupied the strategically important islands of Irojima and Okinawa, inflicting massive bombing attacks on the cities of the island nation. For the first time in world practice, the Americans carried out two barbaric atomic bombings of the cities of Hiroshima (August 6, 1945) and Nagasaki (August 9, 1945).

After the lightning defeat of the Kwantung Army by the USSR (August 1945), Japan signed an act of surrender (September 2, 1945).

Results of the Second World War. The Second World War, planned by the aggressors as a series of small lightning wars, turned into a global armed conflict. From 8 to 12.8 million people, from 84 to 163 thousand guns, from 6.5 to 18.8 thousand aircraft simultaneously participated in its various stages from both sides. The total theater of operations was 5.5 times larger than the territories covered by the First World War. In total, during the war of 1939-1945. 64 states with a total population of 1.7 billion people were drawn in. The losses incurred as a result of the war are striking in their scale. More than 50 million people died, and if we take into account the constantly updated data on the losses of the USSR (they range from 21.78 million to about 30 million), this figure cannot be called final. In the death camps alone, 11 million lives were destroyed. The economies of most of the warring countries were undermined.

It was these terrible results of the Second World War, which brought civilization to the brink of destruction, that forced its viable forces to become more active. This is evidenced, in particular, by the fact of the formation of an effective structure of the world community - the United Nations (UN), which opposes totalitarian tendencies in development, the imperial ambitions of individual states; the act of the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials that condemned fascism, totalitarianism, and punished the leaders of criminal regimes; a broad anti-war movement that contributed to the adoption of international pacts banning the production, distribution and use of weapons mass destruction etc.

By the time the war began, perhaps only England, Canada and the United States remained the centers of the reservation of the foundations of Western civilization. The rest of the world was slipping more and more into the abyss of totalitarianism, which, as we tried to show by the example of the analysis of the causes and consequences of world wars, led to the inevitable death of mankind. The victory over fascism strengthened the position of democracy and provided the way for the slow recovery of civilization. However, this path was very difficult and long. Suffice it to say that only since the end of the Second World War until 1982, 255 wars and military conflicts took place, until recently, a destructive confrontation between political camps, the so-called “ cold war”, humanity has more than once stood on the verge of a nuclear war, etc. Yes, and today we can see the same military conflicts in the world, bloc strife, remaining islands of totalitarian regimes, etc. However, it seems to us, they are no longer define the face of modern civilization.

Questions for self-examination

1. What were the causes of the First World War?

2. What stages are distinguished during the First World War, what groupings of countries participated in it?

3. How did the First World War end, what consequences did it have?

4. Reveal the reasons for the emergence and spread of fascism in the 20th century, give its characteristics, compare it with totalitarianism.

5. What caused the Second World War, what was the alignment of the countries participating in it, what stages did it go through and how did it end?

6. Compare the size of human and material losses in the First and Second World Wars.