Peter's internal reforms 1 table. Administrative reforms of Peter I the Great

The reforms of Peter I are transformations in state and public life carried out during the reign of Peter I in Russia. All state activity of Peter I can be conditionally divided into two periods: 1696-1715 and 1715-1725.

The peculiarity of the first stage was the haste and not always thoughtful nature, which was explained by the conduct of the Northern War. The reforms were aimed primarily at raising funds for warfare, were carried out by force and often did not lead to the desired result. In addition to state reforms, extensive reforms were carried out at the first stage in order to modernize the way of life. In the second period, the reforms were more systematic.

A number of historians, such as V. O. Klyuchevsky, pointed out that the reforms of Peter I were not something fundamentally new, but were only a continuation of those transformations that were carried out during the 17th century. Other historians (for example, Sergei Solovyov), on the contrary, emphasized the revolutionary nature of Peter's transformations.

Historians who have analyzed Peter's reforms hold different views on his personal participation in them. One group believes that Peter did not play any role in both the formulation of the reform program and the process of its implementation. leading role(which was attributed to him as a king). Another group of historians, on the contrary, writes about the great personal role Peter I in carrying out certain reforms.

reforms government controlled

See also: Senate (Russia) and Colleges (Russian Empire)

At first, Peter I did not have a clear program of reforms in the sphere state government. The emergence of a new state institution or a change in the administrative-territorial administration of the country was dictated by the conduct of wars, which required significant financial resources and the mobilization of the population. The system of power inherited by Peter I did not allow collecting enough funds to reorganize and increase the army, build a fleet, build fortresses and St. Petersburg.

From the first years of Peter's reign, there was a tendency to reduce the role of the ineffective Boyar Duma in government. In 1699, the Near Office, or the Council (Council) of Ministers, was organized under the tsar, consisting of 8 trusted persons who controlled individual orders. It was a prototype of the future Governing Senate, formed on February 22, 1711. The last mention of the Boyar Duma dates back to 1704. A certain mode of operation was established in the Council: each minister had special powers, reports and minutes of meetings appear. In 1711, instead of the Boyar Duma and the Council that replaced it, the Senate was established. Peter formulated the main task of the Senate in this way: “Look at the expenses throughout the state, and set aside unnecessary, and especially vain. Collect money as possible, because money is the artery of war.

Created by Peter for the current administration of the state during the absence of the tsar (at that time the tsar went on the Prut campaign), the Senate, consisting of 9 people (presidents of the collegiums), gradually turned from a temporary into a permanent higher government institution, which was enshrined in the Decree of 1722. He controlled justice, was in charge of trade, fees and expenses of the state, oversaw the serviceability of serving military service by the nobles, he was transferred to the functions of the Discharge and Ambassadorial orders.

Decisions in the Senate were taken collectively, at a general meeting and supported by the signatures of all members of the highest state body. If one of the 9 senators refused to sign the decision, then the decision was considered invalid. Thus, Peter I delegated part of his powers to the Senate, but at the same time placed personal responsibility on its members.

Simultaneously with the Senate, the post of fiscals appeared. The duty of the Chief Fiscal in the Senate and the Fiscals in the provinces was to secretly supervise the activities of institutions: they identified cases of violation of decrees and abuses and reported to the Senate and the Tsar. Since 1715, the work of the Senate was monitored by the Auditor General, from 1718 renamed the Chief Secretary. Since 1722, the control over the Senate has been carried out by the Prosecutor General and the Chief Prosecutor, to whom the prosecutors of all other institutions were subordinate. No decision of the Senate was valid without the consent and signature of the Attorney General. The Prosecutor General and his Deputy Chief Prosecutor reported directly to the sovereign.

The Senate, as a government, could make decisions, but their implementation required an administrative apparatus. In the years 1717-1721, a reform of the executive bodies of government was carried out, as a result of which, in parallel with the system of orders with their vague functions, 12 colleges were created according to the Swedish model - the predecessors of future ministries. In contrast to orders, the functions and spheres of activity of each collegium were strictly delineated, and relations within the collegium itself were based on the principle of collegiality of decisions. Were introduced:

· Collegium of foreign (foreign) affairs - replaced the Ambassadorial Order, that is, it was in charge of foreign policy.

· Military Collegium (Military) - staffing, weapons, equipment and training of the land army.

· Admiralty Board - naval affairs, fleet.

· The patrimonial collegium - replaced the Local Order, that is, it was in charge of noble land ownership (land litigation, transactions for the purchase and sale of land and peasants, and the investigation of fugitives were considered). Founded in 1721.

· Board of Chambers - collection of state revenues.

The state-offices-collegium - was in charge of the state's expenses,

· Revision Board - control of the collection and spending of public funds.

· Commerce Board - issues of shipping, customs and foreign trade.

· Berg College - mining and metallurgical business (mining and plant industry).

Manufactory College - light industry (manufactories, that is, enterprises based on the division of manual labor).

· The College of Justice - was in charge of civil proceedings (the Serf Office operated under it: it registered various acts - bills of sale, on the sale of estates, spiritual wills, debt obligations). Worked in civil and criminal litigation.

· The Spiritual College or the Most Holy Governing Synod - managed (a) church affairs, replaced (a) the patriarch. Founded in 1721. This collegium/Synod included representatives of the higher clergy. Since their appointment was carried out by the tsar, and the decisions were approved by him, we can say that the Russian emperor became the de facto head of the Russian Orthodox Church. The actions of the Synod on behalf of the highest secular power were controlled by the chief prosecutor - a civil official appointed by the tsar. By a special decree, Peter I (Peter I) ordered the priests to carry out an enlightening mission among the peasants: to read sermons and instructions to them, to teach children prayers, to instill in them reverence for the tsar and the church.

· The Little Russian Collegium - exercised control over the actions of the hetman, who owned power in Ukraine, because there was a special regime of local government. After the death in 1722 of Hetman I. I. Skoropadsky, new elections of hetman were prohibited, and the hetman was appointed for the first time by royal decree. The collegium was headed by a tsarist officer.

On February 28, 1720, the General Regulations introduced a single system of office work in the state apparatus for the whole country. According to the regulations, the collegium consisted of the president, 4-5 advisers and 4 assessors.

Central location in the control system was occupied by the secret police: the Preobrazhensky order (in charge of cases of state crimes) and the Secret Chancellery. These institutions were under the jurisdiction of the emperor himself.

In addition, there were the Salt Office, the Copper Department, and the Land Survey Office.

The "first" colleges were called the Military, Admiralty and Foreign Affairs.

On the rights of colleges there were two institutions: the Synod and the Chief Magistrate.

The colleges were subordinate to the Senate, and to them - the provincial, provincial and county administration.

The results of the management reform of Peter I are ambiguously considered by historians.

Regional reform

Main article: Regional reform of Peter I

In 1708-1715, a regional reform was carried out in order to strengthen the vertical of power in the field and better provide the army with supplies and recruits. In 1708, the country was divided into 8 provinces headed by governors endowed with full judicial and administrative power: Moscow, Ingermanland (later St. Petersburg), Kyiv, Smolensk, Azov, Kazan, Arkhangelsk and Siberia. The Moscow province gave more than a third of the proceeds to the treasury, followed by the Kazan province.

The governors were also in charge of the troops located on the territory of the province. In 1710 new administrative divisions- shares uniting 5536 households. The first regional reform did not solve the set tasks, but only significantly increased the number of civil servants and the cost of their maintenance.

In 1719-1720, the second regional reform was carried out, which eliminated the shares. The provinces began to be divided into 50 provinces headed by governors, and the provinces were superdistricts headed by zemstvo commissars appointed by the Chamber Collegium. Only military and judicial matters remained under the jurisdiction of the governor.

Judicial reform

Under Peter, the judicial system underwent radical changes. Functions supreme court received the Senate and the College of Justice. Below them were: in the provinces - gofgerichts or court courts of appeal in major cities, and provincial collegiate lower courts. The provincial courts conducted civil and criminal cases of all categories of peasants except for the monastic ones, as well as townspeople not included in the settlement. Since 1721, the magistrate conducted the court cases of the townspeople included in the settlement. In other cases, the so-called one-man court acted (cases were decided solely by a zemstvo or city judge). However, in 1722 the lower courts were replaced by provincial courts headed by a governor. Also, Peter I was the first person to carry out judicial reform, regardless of the state of the country.

Control over the activities of civil servants

To control the execution of decisions on the ground and reduce rampant corruption, since 1711, the position of fiscals was established, who were supposed to “secretly visit, inform and expose” all abuses, both higher and lower officials, pursue embezzlement, bribery, and accept denunciations from private individuals . At the head of the fiscals was the chief fiscal, appointed by the emperor and subordinate to him. The Chief Fiscal was a member of the Senate and maintained contact with subordinate fiscals through the fiscal desk of the Senate Chancellery. Denunciations were considered and monthly reported to the Senate by the Punishment Chamber - a special judicial presence of four judges and two senators (existed in 1712-1719).

In 1719-1723. the fiscals were subordinate to the College of Justice, with the establishment in January 1722 of the post of prosecutor general were supervised by him. Since 1723, the chief fiscal was the general fiscal, appointed by the sovereign, his assistant was the chief fiscal, appointed by the Senate. In this regard, the fiscal service withdrew from the subordination of the College of Justice and regained departmental independence. The vertical of fiscal control was brought to the city level.

Military reform

Army reform: in particular, the introduction of regiments of the new system, reformed according to foreign sample, - was started long before Peter I, even under Alexei I. However, the combat effectiveness of this army was low. Reforming the army and creating a fleet became necessary conditions for victory in the Northern War of 1700-1721. Preparing for the war with Sweden, Peter ordered in 1699 to make a general recruitment and start training soldiers according to the model established by the Preobrazhenians and Semyonovites. This first recruitment gave 29 infantry regiments and two dragoons. In 1705, every 20 yards had to put up one recruit for life service. Subsequently, recruits began to be taken from a certain number of male souls among the peasants. Recruitment to the fleet, as well as to the army, was carried out from recruits.

Church reform

One of the transformations of Peter I was the reform of church administration carried out by him, aimed at eliminating church jurisdiction autonomous from the state and subordinating the Russian church hierarchy Emperor. In 1700, after the death of Patriarch Adrian, Peter I, instead of convening a council to elect a new patriarch, temporarily appointed Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky of Ryazan as the head of the clergy, who received the new title of Custodian of the Patriarchal Throne or "Exarch".

To manage the property of the patriarchal and episcopal houses, as well as monasteries, including the peasants belonging to them (approximately 795 thousand), the Monastic order was restored, headed by I. A. Musin-Pushkin, who again became in charge of the trial of the monastic peasants and control income from church and monastic land holdings. In 1701, a series of decrees was issued to reform the management of church and monastery possessions and the organization of monastic life; the most important were the decrees of January 24 and 31, 1701.

In 1721, Peter approved the Spiritual Regulations, the drafting of which was entrusted to the Pskov bishop, Ukrainian tsar's close associate Feofan Prokopovich. As a result, a radical reform of the church took place, which eliminated the autonomy of the clergy and completely subordinated it to the state. In Russia, the patriarchate was abolished and the Spiritual College was established, soon renamed the Holy Synod, which was recognized by the Eastern patriarchs as equal in honor to the patriarch. All members of the Synod were appointed by the Emperor and took an oath of allegiance to him upon taking office. War time stimulated the removal of valuables from the monastic vaults. Peter did not go for the complete secularization of church and monastery possessions, which was carried out much later, at the beginning of the reign of Catherine II.

financial reform

The Azov campaigns, the Northern War of 1700-1721 and the maintenance of a permanent recruit army created by Peter I required huge funds, which were collected by financial reforms.

At the first stage, it all came down to finding new sources of funds. To the traditional customs and tavern fees were added fees and benefits from the monopolization of the sale of certain goods (salt, alcohol, tar, bristles, etc.), indirect taxes (bath, fish, horse taxes, tax on oak coffins, etc.) , obligatory use of stamped paper, minting coins of smaller weight (damage).

In 1704, Peter carried out a monetary reform, as a result of which the main monetary unit became not money, but a penny. From now on, it began to equal not ½ money, but 2 money, and this word first appeared on coins. At the same time, the fiat ruble was also abolished, which had been a conditional monetary unit since the 15th century, equated to 68 grams of pure silver and used as a standard in exchange transactions. The most important measure in the course of the financial reform was the introduction of a poll tax instead of the prior taxation. In 1710, a "household" census was carried out, which showed a decrease in the number of households. One of the reasons for this decrease was that, in order to reduce taxes, several households were surrounded by one wattle fence, and one gate was made (this was considered one household during the census). Due to these shortcomings, it was decided to switch to a poll tax. In 1718-1724, a second census of the population was carried out in parallel with the revision of the population (revision of the census), which began in 1722. According to this revision, there were 5,967,313 people in the taxable state.

Based on the data obtained, the government divided by the population the amount of money needed to maintain the army and navy.

As a result, the size of the per capita tax was determined: serf landowners paid the state 74 kopecks, state peasants - 1 ruble 14 kopecks (since they did not pay dues), urban population- 1 ruble 20 kopecks. Only men were taxed, regardless of age. The nobility, clergy, as well as soldiers and Cossacks were exempted from the poll tax. The soul was countable - between revisions, the dead were not excluded from the tax lists, newborns were not included, as a result, the tax burden was unevenly distributed.

As a result of the tax reform, the size of the treasury was significantly increased. If in 1710 income extended to 3,134,000 rubles; then in 1725 there were 10,186,707 rubles. (according to foreign sources - up to 7,859,833 rubles).

Transformations in industry and commerce

Main article: Industry and trade under Peter I

Realizing during the Great Embassy the technical backwardness of Russia, Peter could not ignore the problem of reform Russian industry. In addition, the creation of their own industry was dictated by military needs, as indicated by a number of historians. Having started the Northern War with Sweden in order to gain access to the sea and proclaiming the construction of modern fleet in the Baltic (and even earlier - in Azov), Peter was forced to build manufactories designed to meet the sharply increased needs of the army and navy.

One of the main problems was the lack of qualified craftsmen. The tsar solved this problem by attracting foreigners to the Russian service on favorable terms, by sending Russian nobles to study in Western Europe. Manufacturers received great privileges: they were exempted from military service with their children and craftsmen, they were subject only to the court of the Manufactory Collegium, they got rid of taxes and internal duties, they could bring the tools and materials they needed from abroad duty-free, their houses were freed from military quarters.

Significant measures have been taken on the exploration of minerals in Russia. Previously, the Russian state was completely dependent on foreign countries for raw materials, primarily Sweden (iron was transported from there), but after the discovery of deposits of iron ore and other minerals in the Urals, the need for iron purchases disappeared. In the Urals, in 1723, the largest ironworks in Russia was founded, from which the city of Yekaterinburg developed. Under Peter, Nevyansk, Kamensk-Uralsky, Nizhny Tagil were founded. There are weapons factories (cannon yards, arsenals) in the Olonetsky region, Sestroretsk and Tula, gunpowder factories - in St. Petersburg and near Moscow, the leather and textile industries are developing - in Moscow, Yaroslavl, Kazan and the Left-Bank Ukraine, which was conditioned by the need to produce equipment and uniforms for the Russian troops, silk weaving, the production of paper, cement, a sugar factory and a trellis factory appear.

In 1719, the “Berg Privilege” was issued, according to which everyone was given the right to search, melt, boil and clean metals and minerals everywhere, subject to the payment of a “mountain tax” of 1/10 of the cost of production and 32 shares in favor of the owner of that land where ore deposits are found. For hiding ore and trying to prevent mining, the owner was threatened with confiscation of land, corporal punishment, and even the death penalty "through the fault of looking."

The main problem in the Russian manufactories of that time was the shortage of labor. The problem was solved by violent measures: entire villages and villages were assigned to manufactories, the peasants of which worked out their taxes to the state at manufactories (such peasants would be called ascribed), criminals and beggars were sent to the factories. In 1721, a decree followed, which allowed "merchants" to buy villages, the peasants of which could be relocated to manufactories (such peasants would be called sessional).

Trade has been further developed. With the construction of St. Petersburg, the role of the main port of the country passed from Arkhangelsk to the future capital. River channels were built.

In particular, Vyshnevolotsky (Vyshnevolotsk water system) and Obvodny canals were built. At the same time, two attempts to build the Volga-Don Canal ended in failure (although 24 locks were built), while tens of thousands of people worked on its construction, working conditions were difficult, and mortality was very high.

Some historians characterize Peter's policy in trade as a policy of protectionism, which consists in supporting domestic production and imposing higher duties on imported products (this corresponded to the idea of ​​mercantilism). So, in 1724, a protective customs tariff was introduced - high duties on foreign goods that could be manufactured or already produced by domestic enterprises.

The number of factories and plants at the end of Peter's reign reached 233, of which about 90 were large manufactories.

autocracy reform

Before Peter, the order of succession to the throne in Russia was in no way regulated by law, and was entirely determined by tradition. Peter in 1722 issued a decree on the order of succession to the throne, according to which the reigning monarch during his lifetime appoints himself a successor, and the emperor can make anyone his heir (it was assumed that the king would appoint "the most worthy" as his successor). This law was in effect until the reign of Paul I. Peter himself did not use the law of succession to the throne, since he died without indicating a successor.

estate policy

The main goal pursued by Peter I in social policy is the legal registration of class rights and obligations of each category of the Russian population. As a result, there was new structure society in which the class character was more clearly formed. The rights and duties of the nobility were expanded, and, at the same time, the serfdom of the peasants was strengthened.

Nobility

1. Decree on education of 1706: Boyar children must receive either primary school or home education without fail.

2. Decree on estates of 1704: noble and boyar estates are not divided and are equated to each other.

3. Decree of the same inheritance of 1714: a landowner with sons could bequeath all his real estate to only one of them of his choice. The rest were required to serve. The decree marked the final merger of the noble estate and the boyar estate, thereby finally erasing the differences between them.

4. Division of military, civil and court service into 14 ranks. Upon reaching the eighth grade, any official or military man could receive the status of a personal nobleman. Thus, a person's career depended primarily not on his origin, but on achievements in public service.

The place of the former boyars was taken by the “generals”, consisting of the ranks of the first four classes of the “Table of Ranks”. Personal service mixed the representatives of the former tribal nobility with people raised by the service. Peter's legislative measures, without significantly expanding the class rights of the nobility, significantly changed his duties. Military affairs, which in Moscow times was the duty of a narrow class of service people, is now becoming the duty of all sections of the population. The nobleman of the time of Peter the Great still has the exclusive right to land ownership, but as a result of the decrees on uniform inheritance and revision, he is responsible to the state for the taxable serviceability of his peasants. The nobility is obliged to study in order to prepare for the service. Peter destroyed the former isolation of the service class, opening, through the length of service through the Table of Ranks, access to the environment of the gentry to people of other classes. On the other hand, by the law of single inheritance, he opened the exit from the nobility to merchants and the clergy to those who wanted it. The nobility of Russia becomes a military-bureaucratic estate, whose rights are created and hereditarily determined by public service not birth.

Peasantry

Peter's reforms changed the position of the peasants. From different categories of peasants who were not in serfdom from the landowners or the church (black-eared peasants of the north, non-Russian nationalities, etc.), a new single category of state peasants was formed - personally free, but paying dues to the state. The opinion that this measure “destroyed the remnants of the free peasantry” is incorrect, since the population groups that made up the state peasants were not considered free in the pre-Petrine period - they were attached to the land ( Cathedral code 1649) and could be granted by the tsar to private individuals and the church as serfs. State. peasants in the 18th century had the rights of personally free people (they could own property, act as one of the parties in court, elect representatives to estate bodies, etc.), but were limited in movement and could be (up to early XIX century, when this category was finally approved as free people) were transferred by the monarch to the category of serfs. Legislative acts relating to the serfs proper were contradictory. Thus, the interference of landlords in the marriage of serfs was limited (decree of 1724), it was forbidden to put serfs in their place as defendants in court and keep them on the right for the debts of the owners. The rule was also confirmed on the transfer of landowners' estates, who ruined their peasants, to custody, and the serfs were given the opportunity to enroll as soldiers, which freed them from serfdom (by decree of Empress Elizabeth on July 2, 1742, the serfs lost this opportunity). By the decree of 1699 and the verdict of the Town Hall in 1700, peasants engaged in trade or crafts were granted the right to move into the settlements, freeing themselves from serfdom (if the peasant was in one). At the same time, measures against fugitive peasants were significantly tightened, large masses of palace peasants were distributed to private individuals, and landowners were allowed to recruit serfs. A decree on 7 April 1690 was allowed to yield, for the unpaid debts of "local" serfs, which was effectively a form of serf trading. The taxation of serfs (that is, personal servants without land) with a poll tax led to the merging of serfs with serfs. The church peasants were subordinated to the monastic order and removed from the power of the monasteries. Under Peter, a new category of dependent farmers was created - peasants assigned to manufactories. These peasants in the 18th century were called possessive. By decree of 1721, nobles and merchants-manufacturers were allowed to buy peasants to manufactories to work for them. The peasants bought to the factory were not considered the property of its owners, but were attached to production, so that the owner of the factory could neither sell nor mortgage the peasants separately from the manufactory. Posessional peasants received a fixed salary and performed a fixed amount of work.

Transformations in the sphere of culture

Peter I changed the beginning of the chronology from the so-called Byzantine era (“from the creation of Adam”) to “from the Nativity of Christ”. The year 7208 of the Byzantine era became the year 1700 from the Nativity of Christ, and the New Year began to be celebrated on January 1. In addition, the uniform use of the Julian calendar was introduced under Peter.

After returning from the Great Embassy, ​​Peter I led the fight against the external manifestations of the "outdated" way of life (the most famous ban on beards), but no less paid attention to the introduction of the nobility to education and secular Europeanized culture. Seculars began to appear educational establishments, the first Russian newspaper was founded, translations of many books into Russian appear. Success in the service of Peter made the nobles dependent on education.

Under Peter in 1703 the first book appeared in Russian with Arabic numerals. Until that date, they were designated by letters with titles (wavy lines). In 1708, Peter approved a new alphabet with a simplified type of letters (the Church Slavonic font remained for printing church literature), the two letters "xi" and "psi" were excluded.

Peter created new printing houses, in which 1312 titles of books were printed in 1700-1725 (twice as many as in the entire previous history of Russian book printing). Thanks to the rise of printing, paper consumption increased from 4,000 to 8,000 sheets at the end of the 17th century to 50,000 sheets in 1719.

There have been changes in the Russian language, which included 4.5 thousand new words borrowed from European languages.

In 1724, Peter approved the charter of the Academy of Sciences being organized (opened in 1725 after his death).

Of particular importance was the construction of stone Petersburg, in which foreign architects took part and which was carried out according to the plan developed by the tsar. He created a new urban environment with previously unfamiliar forms of life and pastime (theatre, masquerades). The interior decoration of houses, the way of life, the composition of food, etc. have changed.

By a special decree of the tsar in 1718, assemblies were introduced, representing a new form of communication between people in Russia. At the assemblies, the nobles danced and mingled freely, unlike earlier feasts and feasts. The reforms carried out by Peter I affected not only politics, economics, but also art. Peter invited foreign artists to Russia and at the same time sent talented young people to study "arts" abroad, mainly to Holland and Italy. In the second quarter of the XVIII century. "Peter's pensioners" began to return to Russia, bringing with them new artistic experience and acquired skills.

On December 30, 1701 (January 10, 1702), Peter issued a decree ordering to write full names in petitions and other documents instead of pejorative half-names (Ivashka, Senka, etc.), not to fall on your knees before the king, to wear a hat in the cold in winter in front of the house where the king is, do not shoot. He explained the need for these innovations in this way: “Less baseness, more zeal for service and loyalty to me and the state - this honor is characteristic of the king ...”

Peter tried to change the position of women in Russian society. He by special decrees (1700, 1702 and 1724) forbade forced marriage and marriage. It was prescribed that there should be at least six weeks between the betrothal and the wedding, "so that the bride and groom could recognize each other." If during this time, the decree said, “the bridegroom does not want to take the bride, or the bride does not want to marry the groom,” no matter how the parents insisted, “there is freedom.” Since 1702, the bride herself (and not just her relatives) was given the formal right to terminate the betrothal and upset the arranged marriage, and neither side had the right to “strike with a forfeit”. Legislative prescriptions 1696-1704 about public festivities introduced the obligation to participate in the celebrations and festivities of all Russians, including "female".

Gradually, among the nobility, a different system of values, worldview, aesthetic ideas took shape, which was fundamentally different from the values ​​and worldview of most representatives of other estates.

Education

On January 14, 1700, a school of mathematical and navigational sciences was opened in Moscow. In 1701-1721, artillery, engineering and medical schools were opened in Moscow, an engineering school and a naval academy in St. Petersburg, mining schools under the Olonets and Ural factories. In 1705, the first gymnasium in Russia was opened. The goals of mass education were to be served by digital schools in provincial towns, created by decree of 1714, called upon "to teach children of all ranks to read and write, numbers and geometry." It was supposed to create two such schools in each province, where education was supposed to be free. Garrison schools were opened for soldiers' children, and a network of theological schools was established to train priests in 1721.

According to the Hanoverian Weber, during the reign of Peter several thousand Russians were sent to study abroad.

Peter's decrees introduced compulsory education for nobles and clergy, but a similar measure for the urban population met with fierce resistance and was canceled. Peter's attempt to create an all-estate primary school failed (the creation of a network of schools ceased after his death, most of the digital schools under his successors were redesigned into class schools for the training of the clergy), but nevertheless, during his reign, the foundations were laid for the spread of education in Russia.

He managed to bring the Russian state out of the shadows - thanks to his reforms, Russia became one of the leading powers in the arena of world life. This happened after the introduction of changes that concerned almost all aspects of life (especially

First of all, they touched upon the transformation of the central administration. As a result, the Boyar Duma was abolished and replaced by the Near Office, which in 1708 was renamed the Council of Ministers.

The next item on the list of reforms was the creation (in 1711), which became the highest government institution. He took part in legislative, administrative and judicial cases.

Reforms of Peter the Great in 1718-1720s. cumbersome and clumsy laws were abolished and boards were introduced - initially there were 11 of them: the Board of Foreign Affairs, which was in charge of foreign policy; The military college that ruled all ground forces countries; Admiralty Board, which ordered navy; The Berg Collegium was engaged in the mining industry; The College of Justice subjugated the civil and criminal courts, and so on.

It was also important which was signed in 1714 by Peter the Great. The reforms were as follows: according to this document, the estates of the nobles were now equal to the boyar estates, and the introduction of this decree was aimed at destroying the boundaries between the clan and noble nobility. Moreover, now there was no difference between boyar and noble land. A little later, in 1722, Peter adopted the Table of Ranks, which finally erased the boundaries between the new and old aristocracy and completely equalized them.

In 1708, in order to strengthen the apparatus of power and increase its influence, the Regional Reform was introduced: the country was divided into eight provinces. Its logical conclusion was management: there were more and more more cities, and accordingly, the population of the country grew (by the end of the reign of Peter the Great, an average of 350 thousand people lived in large towns). And the composition of the urban population was complex: the main part were small artisans, townspeople, merchants and entrepreneurs.

Under Peter the Great, the process of transforming the church was completely completed - the reforms of Peter the Great turned it into an important state institution, subordinate to the organs of the highest secular power. After the death of Patriarch Adrian, the tsar forbade the election of a new patriarch, referring to the unexpected outbreak of the Northern War. He was appointed head of the patriarchal throne. After the Northern War, Peter abolished the patriarchate altogether. The management of all church affairs and issues was entrusted to the Theological College, after which it was renamed the Most Holy Government Synod, which completely turned the church into a powerful support for Russian absolutism.

But the great transformations and reforms of Peter the Great brought with them many problems, the main of which were the tightening of serfdom and the development of bureaucracy.

August 18, 1682 on Russian throne 10-year-old Peter I entered. We remember this ruler as a great reformer. It is up to you to decide negatively or positively about his innovations. We recall the 7 most ambitious reforms of Peter I.

Church is not a state

“The Church is not another state,” Peter I believed, and therefore his church reform was aimed at weakening the political power of the church. Before her only church court could judge the clergy (even in criminal cases), and the timid attempts of the predecessors of Peter I to change this met with a stiff rebuff. Along with other classes, the clergy after the reform had to obey the common law for all. Only monks were to live in monasteries, only the sick were to live in almshouses, and everyone else was ordered to be evicted from there.
Peter I is known for tolerance towards other confessions. Under him, foreigners were allowed to freely profess their faith and the marriages of Christians of different denominations. “The Lord gave kings power over the nations, but Christ alone has power over the conscience of the people,” Peter believed. With opponents of the Church, he ordered the bishops to be "meek and reasonable." On the other hand, Peter introduced penalties for those who went to confession less than once a year or misbehaved in the temple during the service.

Bath and beard tax

Large-scale projects for the development of the army, the construction of the fleet required huge financial investments. In order to provide them, Peter I tightened the country's tax system. Now taxes were collected not by household (after all, the peasants immediately began to enclose several households with one fence), but by heart. There were up to 30 different taxes: on fishing, on baths, mills, on confessing the Old Believers and wearing a beard, and even on oak logs for coffins. Beards were ordered to be "chopped down to the very neck", and for those who wore them for a fee, a special token-receipt, the "bearded sign", was introduced. Salt, alcohol, tar, chalk, fish oil could now only be traded by the state. Under Peter, the main monetary unit was not money, but a penny, the weight and composition of the coins were changed, and the fiat ruble ceased to exist. Treasury revenues increased several times, however, due to the impoverishment of the people and not for long.

Army for life

To win the Northern War of 1700-1721, it was necessary to modernize the army. In 1705, each court had to give one recruit for life service. This applied to all estates, except for the nobility. These recruits formed the army and navy. In the military regulations of Peter I, for the first time, not the moral and religious content of criminal acts, but a contradiction to the will of the state, was put in the first place. Peter managed to create the most powerful regular army and navy, which had not been in Russia until now. By the end of his reign, the number of regular ground forces there were 210 thousand, irregular - 110 thousand, and more than 30 thousand people served in the navy.

"Extra" 5508 years

Peter I "cancelled" 5508 years, changing the tradition of chronology: instead of counting the years "from the creation of Adam", Russia began to count the years "from the birth of Christ." The use of the Julian calendar and the celebration of the New Year on January 1 are also Peter's innovations. He also introduced the use of modern Arabic numerals, replacing them with the old numbers - letters Slavic alphabet with titles. The inscription of letters was simplified, the letters "xi" and "psi" "dropped out" of the alphabet. For secular books, their own font was now supposed - civil, and liturgical and spiritual books were left with a half charter.
In 1703, the first Russian printed newspaper, Vedomosti, began to appear, and in 1719, the first museum in Russian history, the Kunstkamera with a public library, began to operate.
Under Peter, the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences (1701), the Medical and Surgical School (1707) - the future Military Medical Academy, the Naval Academy (1715), the Engineering and Artillery Schools (1719), schools of translators at the colleges.

Learning through strength

All nobles and clergy were now to be educated. The success of a noble career now depended directly on this. Under Peter, new schools were created: garrison schools for the children of soldiers, spiritual schools for the children of priests. Moreover, in each province there should have been digital schools with free education for all classes. Such schools were necessarily supplied with primers in Slavic and Latin, as well as alphabets, psalters, books of hours and arithmetics. The education of the clergy was compulsory, those who opposed it were threatened with military service and taxes, and those who did not complete their studies could not marry. But due to the coercive nature and harsh teaching methods (beating with batogs and chaining), such schools did not last long.

A slave is better than a serf

“Less meanness, more zeal for service and loyalty to me and the state - this honor is characteristic of the tsar ...” - these are the words of Peter I. As a result of this royal position, there were some changes in the relationship between the tsar and the people, which were a wonder in Russia. For example, in petitions it was no longer allowed to humiliate yourself with the signatures "Grishka" or "Mitka", but it was necessary to put your full name. It was not necessary to take off your hat in the strong Russian frost, passing by the royal residence. It was not supposed to kneel before the king, and the address “slave” was replaced by “slave”, which was not derogatory in those days and was associated with “God's servant”.
There is more freedom for young people who want to get married. The forced marriage of a girl was abolished by three decrees, and the betrothal and wedding now had to be separated in time so that the bride and groom "could recognize each other." Complaints that one of them annulled the engagement were not accepted - because now it became their right.

Prerequisites for the reforms of Peter the Great

Peter accepted Russia as a backward country, located on the outskirts of Europe. Muscovy did not have access to the sea, with the exception of the White, regular army, navy, developed industry, trade, the state administration system was antediluvian and inefficient, there were no higher educational institutions (the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy was opened in Moscow only in 1687), book printing , theater, painting, libraries, not only the people, but many members of the elite: boyars, nobles, did not know the letter. Science did not develop. Serfdom ruled.

Public Administration Reform

- Peter replaced the orders, which did not have clear responsibilities, with collegiums, the prototype of future ministries

• College of Foreign Affairs
• Collegium military
• Maritime College
• College for commercial affairs
• College of Justice...

The boards consisted of several officials, the eldest was called the chairman or president. All of them were subordinate to the Governor-General, who was a member of the Senate. There were 12 boards in total.
- In March 1711, Peter created the Governing Senate. At first its function was to govern the country in the absence of the king, then it became a permanent institution. The Senate consisted of presidents of colleges and senators - people appointed by the king.
- In January 1722, Peter issued a "table of ranks" with 14 class ranks from State Chancellor (first rank) to collegiate registrar (fourteenth)
- Peter reorganized the secret police system. Since 1718, the Preobrazhensky Prikaz, which was in charge of political crimes, was transformed into the Secret Investigative Office

Church reform of Peter

Peter abolished the patriarchate, a church organization practically independent of the state, and instead created the Holy Synod, all members of which were appointed by the tsar, thereby eliminating the autonomy of the clergy. Peter pursued a policy of religious tolerance, facilitating the existence of the Old Believers and allowing foreigners to freely profess their faith.

Administrative reform of Peter

Russia was divided into provinces, provinces were divided into provinces, provinces into counties.
Provinces:

• Moscow
• Ingrian
• Kyiv
• Smolensk
• Azov
• Kazanskaya
• Arkhangelsk
• Siberian
• Riga
• Astrakhan
• Nizhny Novgorod

Military reform of Peter

Peter replaced the irregular and noble militia with a standing regular army, manned by recruits, recruited one from each of the 20 peasant or petty-bourgeois households in the Great Russian provinces. He built a powerful navy, he wrote the military charter himself, taking the Swedish one as a basis.

Peter turned Russia into one of the strongest maritime powers in the world, with 48 linear and 788 galley and other ships

Economic reform of Peter

The modern army could not exist without a state supply system. To supply the army and navy with weapons, uniforms, food, consumables, it was necessary to create a powerful industrial production. By the end of Peter's reign, about 230 factories and plants operated in Russia. Factories focused on the production of glass products, gunpowder, paper, canvas, linen, cloth, paints, ropes, even hats were created, the metallurgical, sawmilling, and leather industries were organized. In order for the products of Russian craftsmen to be competitive in the market, high customs duties were introduced on European goods. Encouraging entrepreneurial activity, Peter widely used the issuance of loans to create new manufactories and trading companies. The largest enterprises that arose in the era of Peter's reforms were those created in Moscow, St. Petersburg, the Urals, Tula, Astrakhan, Arkhangelsk, Samara

• Admiralty shipyard
• Arsenal
• Gunpowder factories
• Metallurgical plants
• Linen production
• Production of potash, sulfur, saltpeter

By the end of the reign of Peter I, Russia had 233 factories, including more than 90 large manufactories built during his reign. During the first quarter of the 18th century, 386 different ships were built at the shipyards of St. Petersburg and Arkhangelsk, at the beginning of the century, about 150 thousand pounds of pig iron were smelted in Russia, in 1725 - more than 800 thousand pounds, Russia caught up with England in iron smelting

Peter's reform in education

The army and navy needed qualified specialists. Therefore, Peter paid great attention to their preparation. During his reign were organized in Moscow and St. Petersburg

• School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences
• artillery school
• engineering school
• medical school
• Marine Academy
• mining schools at the Olonets and Ural factories
• Digital schools for "children of every rank"
• Garrison schools for children of soldiers
• spiritual schools
• Academy of Sciences (opened a few months after the death of the emperor)

Reforms of Peter in the field of culture

• Publication of the first Russian newspaper "Sankt-Peterburgskie Vedomosti"
• Ban on boyars wearing beards
• Establishment of the first Russian museum - Kunskamera
• Requirement for nobility to wear European dress
• Creation of assemblies where the nobles were to appear together with their wives
• Creation of new printing houses and translation into Russian of many European books

Reforms of Peter the Great. Chronology

• 1690 - The first guards regiments Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky
• 1693 - Creation of a shipyard in Arkhangelsk
• 1696 - Creation of a shipyard in Voronezh
• 1696 - Decree on the establishment of an arms factory in Tobolsk
• 1698 - Decree banning the wearing of beards and ordering the nobles to wear European clothes
• 1699 - Dissolution of the archery army
• 1699 - creation of commercial and industrial enterprises enjoying a monopoly
• 1699, December 15 - Decree on the reform of the calendar. New Year starts on January 1st
• 1700 - Creation of the Government Senate
• 1701 - Decree forbidding kneeling at the sight of the sovereign and taking off his hat in winter, passing by his palace
• 1701 - Opening of the school of mathematical and navigational sciences in Moscow
• 1703, January - the first Russian newspaper is published in Moscow

• 1704 - Replacement of the Boyar Duma with a council of ministers - the Council of Chiefs of Orders
• 1705 - First recruitment decree
• 1708 November - Administrative Reform
• 1710, January 18 - decree on the official introduction of the Russian civil alphabet instead of Church Slavonic
• 1710 - Foundation of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra in St. Petersburg
• 1711 - instead of the Boyar Duma, a Senate of 9 members and a chief secretary was created. Monetary reform: coinage of gold, silver and copper coins
• 1712 - Transfer of the capital from Moscow to St. Petersburg
• 1712 - Decree on the creation of horse breeding farms in the Kazan, Azov and Kyiv provinces
• 1714, February - Decree on the opening of digital schools for the children of clerks and priests
• 1714, March 23 - Decree on majorate (single inheritance)
• 1714 - Foundation of the State Library in St. Petersburg
• 1715 - Creation of shelters for the poor in all cities of Russia
• 1715 - Order of the merchant college to organize the training of Russian merchants abroad
• 1715 - Decree to encourage the cultivation of flax, hemp, tobacco, mulberries for silkworms
• 1716 - Census of all dissenters for double taxation
• 1716, March 30 - Adoption of military regulations
• 1717 - The introduction of free trade in grain, the annulment of some privileges for foreign merchants
• 1718 - Replacement of Orders by Colleges
• 1718 - Judicial reform. tax reform
• 1718 - Beginning of the census (lasted until 1721)
• 1719, November 26 - Decree on the establishment of assemblies - free meetings for fun and business
• 1719 - Creation of an engineering school, the establishment of the Berg College to manage the mining industry
• 1720 - Adopted the Charter of the Sea
• 1721, January 14 - Decree on the creation of the Theological College (future Holy Synod)

Background and features of the reforms of Peter 1

Scheme characteristics Peter's reforms

Economic reforms of Peter 1

State administrative reforms of Peter 1

Scheme of authorities and administration

Military reforms of Peter 1

Social reforms of Peter 1

During the implementation of Peter's reforms, there were changes in the situation social groups and in the social estate structure of Russian society:

Reforms of Peter 1 in the spiritual sphere

The transformation of the state and society as a result of Peter's reforms

_______________

The source of information: History in tables and diagrams. / Edition 2e, St. Petersburg: 2013.