The largest water bodies in the world list. water body

Nomination "Natural local history"

Research project on the topic:

Water natural objectscity ​​of Urzhum

Completed by students of grades 11 a and 9 b

KOGOAU "Gymnasium of Urzhum"

Feofilatova Anastasia and

Lelekova Julia

Head teacher of geography

KOGOAU "Gymnasium of Urzhum"

Busygina Olga Gennadievna

Urzhum, 2011

Introduction.

1. General physical and geographical characteristics of the study area.

1.1 Geographical location.

1.2. Geological structure and relief.

1.3.Climatic conditions.

1.4. Hydrographic network.

1.5. Soils.

1.6. Flora and fauna.

2. Characteristics of water bodies.

2.1. Kabanovsky pond.

2.1.1. Geographical position.

2.1.2. The main morphometric parameters of the pond.

2.1.3. Hydrochemical research.

2.1.4. Soils.

2.1.5. Plants and animals.

2.1.6. Assessment of area contamination with solid waste.

2.2. Kuntavka river.

2.2.1. Geographical position.

2.2.2. The main morphometric parameters of the pond.

2.2.3. Hydrochemical research.

2.2.4. Soils.

2.2.5. Plants and animals.

2.2.6. Assessment of area contamination with solid waste.

2.3. Popovsky Pond.

2.3.1. Geographical position.

2.3.2. The main morphometric parameters of the pond.

2.3.3. Hydrochemical research.

2.3.4. Soils.

2.3.5. Plants and animals.

2.3.6. Assessment of area contamination with solid waste.

2.4. Springs in the village of Popovka.

2.4.1. Spring No. 1 (Transparent).

2.4.2. Spring No. 2 (Spring).

2.4.3. Spring No. 3 (The Hermit).

2.4.4. Spring No. 4 (Forest).

2.4.5. Spring No. 5 (Economic).

2.5. Springs of the village of Kotelki.

2.5.1. Spring No. 1 (Mudny).

2.5.2. Spring No. 2 and No. 3 (Handy).

3. Conclusion.

Bibliographic list.

Introduction.

The hydrographic network of the Urzhum region is well developed. This is due to both climatic and hydrogeological conditions. Therefore, the territory of the region is rich in surface and underground waters.

Climatic conditions favor significant surface runoff. Within the city of Urzhum, the following rivers flow: Urzhumka, Shinerka, Kuntavka. The main type of food is snow and rain. Annual rainfall in Urzhum is 534 mm. In addition to surface feeding, groundwater is of great importance in the life of rivers. Which is closely related to the hydrogeological conditions of the area. There are aquifers in Quaternary deposits. They are confined to river valleys and ravine-gully systems. In the Quaternary sediments, one aquifer is observed with a slope towards the river. Tertiary deposits in the area are either anhydrous or low water.

Snow cover plays an important role in the annual runoff. Long winters contribute to the accumulation of snow. And the number of days in a year with stable snow cover reaches 150 days. The average snow depth is 50 cm. The maximum water reserves in the snow are 146 mm.

The expenditure part in the water balance of the region is evaporation, which reaches 400 mm per year.

Thus, it can be said that the district's rivers receive their main food from snowmelt in the spring. The rivers of the region are of the type with predominantly snow feeding, which reaches 65%. In second place is soil nutrition.

Therefore, water flow throughout the year is uneven. Approximately 60-80% of the annual runoff occurs during the spring flood.

The largest outcrops of groundwater are found in the southern part of the city in the area of ​​\u200b\u200b"gray stones", as well as in the area of ​​​​the asphalt plant and the valley of the river. Shinerka.

Problem.

Search and mapping of water bodies in Urzhum.

Topic.

Water natural objects of the city of Urzhum.

Object of study.

Hydrographic network of the city of Urzhum.

Subject of study.

1. Morphometric indicators of water bodies

• 
  Width
• 
  Depth
• 
  Water consumption
• 
  Current speed

3. Vegetation and fauna.

Carrying out a comprehensive study of water bodies in the city of Urzhum.

Tasks.

1. 
   Analyze the literature on the topic.
2. 
   Carry out field work:

• 
  Investigate morphometric indicators of water bodies
• 
  Conduct hydrochemical studies of water bodies
• 
  Determine the land cover in the area of ​​water bodies

1. 
   Put the studied water bodies on the map.
2. 
   To conclude.

The location of water bodies near or on the territory of the city contributes to their anthropogenic pollution.

Methods:

1. 
   Expeditionary
2. 
   Analytical
3. 
   Cartographic
4. 
   Field studies
5. 
   Ratings

1. GENERAL PHYSICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE INVESTIGATED TERRITORY

Before proceeding to the study of inland waters, we got acquainted with the general physical and geographical characteristics of the region.

1.1. Geographical position

Urzhumsky district is located in the eastern part of the East European Plain, located in the southeast Kirov region. It is bordered to the north by Nemsky and Nolinsky districts, to the west by Lebyazhsky, to the southwest by the Republic of Mari El, to the south by Malmyzhsky district, and to the east by Kilmezsky. The area is located mainly on the raised and dissected right bank of the Vyatka River, although part of the territory is located on the wooded lowlands of the left bank of the Vyatka. The study area is located in the central part of the Urzhum region.

1.2. Geological structure and relief

The Urzhum region is located on the rise of the platform-anticlise, the depth of its occurrence is 1800 m. From above, the platform is covered by a sedimentary cover. Across the Kirov region, an uplift stretches - the Vyatka shaft. It is presented as a system of Vyatka dislocations extended over the Kirovo-Kazan aulacogen.

The Urzhum ledge (a structural feature of the crystalline basement) is the eastern part of the Vyatka dislocations, has a size of 90 by 60 km. It is overlain by layers of sedimentary rocks that form a gentle fold - the Urzhum swell, the axis of which stretches almost meridionally along the watershed of the right tributaries of the Vyatka-Urzhumka and the Buya.

The relief of the Urzhum region is flat watershed spaces and gentle slopes, lowlands in river valleys. In the east of the Urzhum swell there is the Shurma trough (Shurma lowland).

The Urzhum uplift (corresponding to the rampart of the same name) is distinguished by its dominant heights of 100-150 meters. The wide, well-developed valleys of the Urzhumka and Buya rivers, as well as their tributaries, are separated by flat watersheds (with heights of 130-180 m), which did not experience glacial processing in the Quaternary.

The valley network of the Urzhum uplift is well developed both in width and depth. The absolute heights of the valley cuts are 65-130 meters. The entire right-bank part of the district is dissected by a dense girder network. The left bank of the Vyatka is a fluvioglacial outwash plain.

The main relief-forming factors are: erosion-accumulative activity of rivers, abrasion and accumulation in lake water bodies and peat formation processes.

1.3. Climatic conditions

The territory of the district belongs to the southeastern agro-climatic region of the southern zone of the region. This zone is well provided with heat, but insufficiently provided with moisture. Average January temperatures are minus 14.2 C; July plus 18.5; the average annual plus 2 C. The annual amount of precipitation is 534 mm. Of these, 420 mm falls on the warm season, 220 mm on the cold. The radiation dryness index of Budyko, calculated from the observed values ​​of the radiation balance and the amount of precipitation, corrected for underestimation with a rain gauge, is 0.97. This value is close to optimal and is characteristic of the boundaries of the forest and forest-steppe zones. However, the increased dryness of the summer season allows us to attribute southern regions areas, starting from Urzhum to arid.

1.4. hydrographic network

The rivers of our region belong to the Caspian Sea basin. Main river Vyatka region. Its length is about 1370 km (within the region 70 km). The largest right tributaries of the Vyatka in the region are the rivers Buy, Urzhumka, Engerderka, Turechka, Kizerka. Left tributaries - Kilmez, Nemda. The lakes of the region are small in area, numerous, one can especially distinguish Lake Shaitan, located in the Buiskaya forest dacha. Shaitan lies in a rounded karst basin.

1.5. Soils.

In connection with the position of the region in the zone of coniferous-broad-leaved forests, the soil cover is a complex of soddy-podzolic, gray forest, soddy and soddy-calcareous soils. Sod-podzolic soils account for 64% of arable land. They are common on flat watersheds of poorly drained interfluves, on watershed slopes composed of rocks that are lighter in mechanical composition under leaching conditions. In terms of their properties, these soils approach light gray forest soils and are close to them in terms of agricultural production indicators.

Soddy-calcareous soils are formed on the eluvium of carbonate Permian rocks. They are common on watershed slopes adjacent to the steep sides of river valleys and asymmetric gullies, and also form on girder slopes. These soils are characteristic of the Urzhum uplift and are found in the Shurma lowland. Their share in the arable land of the region is 6%. Almost continuous plowing caused widespread erosion processes.

1.6. Flora and fauna

The territory of our region is located in the northern zone of coniferous-deciduous forests. The vegetation is peculiar, here there are elements of the flora of the European and Siberian taiga, the European forest-steppe. The area belongs to the sparsely forested area, its forest cover is 35%. The most common are spruce (23%) and pine (25%) forests. Small-leaved forests of birch and aspen are widely represented (40%). There are broad-leaved tree species: linden, oak, elm. Shrubs are not uncommon in the area: buckthorn, hazel, hawthorn, wild rose. The region is also rich in wildlife. There are: wolf, bear, wild boar, squirrel, fox, muskrat, badger, mole, weasel, otter, hare. Of the game birds you can meet: capercaillie, hazel grouse, black grouse, partridge. There are beavers on the rivers of the region. Rivers and lakes are rich in fish.

2. Characteristics of water bodies.

2.1. Kabanovsky pond.

2.1.1. Geographical position

The pond is located north of the city in the village of Kabanovshchina. It is located in the river valley. Kuntavka is of anthropogenic origin. From the south it adjoins the village of Kabanovshchina, in the east it is limited by a bypass road.

2.1.2. The main morphometric parameters of the pond.

When examining the lake, we measured the length and width, determined the transparency, took water samples for chemical analysis, and described the aquatic and coastal biota. During office processing of the results, the relative transparency, the surface area of ​​the water surface, and the volume of the water mass were calculated.

Maximum depth 12 m

Lake length 700 m

Maximum width 140 m

Surface area = 700m *140m /2 =49000m

The volume of water mass \u003d 49000m 2 * 12m \u003d 588000m 3

2.1.3. Hydrochemical studies of the Kabanovsky Pond

The water temperature, measured during the study of the lake on June 15, 2010, was +18°C on the surface, +15°C at a depth of 1 meter. Such a change in temperature with depth indicates direct temperature stratification. Chemical analysis of water was carried out in the laboratory of the gymnasium.

Organoleptic indicators of water.

Putrid (at a temperature of 60 gr.)

• 
  From the side - a noticeable pale yellowish, from above - slightly yellowish.

• 
  Slightly yellowish (with a water column height of 10 cm), yellowish (with a water column height of 20 cm.)

• 
  Good.

The indicator (litmus) showed that pH = 6.

• 
  After the addition of silver nitrate, there was no turbidity and sediment in the water. So there are no chlorides.

• 
  After adding hydrochloric acid and barium chloride to the water, a slight turbidity appeared. Hence, the concentration of sulfates is 10 mg/l.

• 
  After adding bleach, the "pharmacy" smell did not appear. So no chlorophenols.

• 
  Lead paper was placed in the water, which did not darken. This means that hydrogen sulfide and salts are absent.

• 
  After adding hydrochloric acid, potassium thiocyanate, hydrogen peroxide to water, its color did not change. This means that the concentration of iron is less than 0.05 mg / l.

• 
  After adding the Griess reagent to the water and heating to 70 gr. The color of the solution turned slightly pink. This means that the MPC for nitrites is 0.003 mg/l.

• 
  After adding Nessler's reagent to water, the color of the solution became slightly yellow. This means that MPC is 0.25 mg/l.

• 
  After adding sulfuric acid and potassium permanganate to the water, the color of the solution became pale pink. So, the oxidizability is 8 mg/l.

• 
  50 ml of water was evaporated and disulfophenolic acid, distilled water and a 10% ammonia solution were added. The color of the solution became slightly yellow. This means that the MPC for nitrates is 3 mg/l.

Owater quality assessment by biotic index

Object of study: Kabanovsky pond.

Were found.

This is due to the fact that a small anthropogenic impact is produced.

2.1.4. Soils

On the northeastern shore of the lake, we laid and described a soil section. Exploring it, four soil horizons were identified:

Ao - turf, 3 cm;

A - humus-accumulative, 19 cm;

It was established that the soil on the shore of the pond is soddy medium-thick, loamy.

2.1.5. Plants and animals.

Plants and animals are closely related to aquatic environment habitats and form a single whole - hydrobiocenosis.

Floristic list

• 
  Chastuha plantain (Alisma plantago-aquatica);

• 
  Horsetail (Equisetum);
• 
  Chicory (Cichorium);
• 
  Red clover (Trifolium praténse);
• 
  Burdock (Arctium láppa);
• 
  Sedge (Cárex);
• 
  gout (Aegopodium);
• 
  Dandelion (Taraxacum);
• 
  Plantain (Plantago);
• 
  Buttercup caustic (Ranunculus acris);
• 
  Meadow geranium (Geranium pratense);
• 
  Forget-me-not (Myosotis);
• 
  Mouse peas (V. craccaL);
• 
  Horse sorrel (Rúmex confértus);
• 
  Far Eastern Sverbiga (Bunias orientalis).

The species composition of animals: the pond is inhabited by freshwater and bivalve mollusks, larvae of stoneflies, mayflies, folded flies and caddisflies, dragonflies (belladonna and dragonflies are large rocker), leeches.

2.1.6. Local pollution assessmentand solid waste.

The assessment was carried out according to the methodology (Appendix No. 1).

Characteristics of the territory.

Visibility of some pollution, some chemical pollution, dust content, mechanical damage to 5% of plants is possible, slight damage to the grass and soil cover, changes in the species composition of plants characteristic of this type of terrain.

Research results.

Total: 79

40-100 units of garbage - high degree pollution. Conclusion: Kabanovsky pond has the 4th degree of pollution.

2.2. Kuntavka river.

2.2.1. Geographical position

Location of the observation point: flows through the village of Terebilovka, north of the city of Urzhum, flows into the Urzhumka River.

2.2.2. The main morphometric indicators of the river.

Determination of water flow upstream rivers Kuntavka andmeasuring the speed of a river(Appendix No. 2).

Date 09.06.10.

The distance between the upper and lower section is 10 m.

The lowest speed is 0.32 m/s.

Average speed 0.35 m/s.

Measuring the depth of a river.

W1=((0+0.1)/2)*0.75=0.038m2

W2=((0.1+0.15)/2)*0.75=0.094m2

W3=((0.15+0)/2)*0.5=0.038m2

Q=0.17*0.35=0.06m 3 /s

Definitionwater flow of the lower reaches of the Kuntavka River.

Measurement of the speed of the river Kuntavka.

Date 09.06.10.

The distance between the upper and lower section is 7.5 m.

The lowest speed is 0.27 m/s.

Average speed 0.32 m/s.

Measuring the depth of a river.

Intermediate areas: W=((h1+h2)/2)*b

h1,h2-depths at adjacent measurement points.

b is the distance between two adjacent points.

W1=((0+0.2)/2)*0.6=0.06m2

W2=((0.2+0.1)/2)*0.6=0.09m2

W3=((0.1+0)/2)*0.8=0.04m2

W=0.06+0.09+0.04=0.19m2

Calculation of water consumption.

Q(water discharge)=w(river area) v(average water velocity)

water body - a natural or artificial reservoir, watercourse or other object, permanent or temporary concentration of water in which has characteristic forms and features of the water regime.

1. water bodies depending on the characteristics of their regime, physiographic, morphometric and other features, they are divided into:

1) surface water bodies;

2) underground water bodies.

2. Surface water bodies include:

1) seas or their separate parts (straits, bays, including bays, estuaries and others);

2) watercourses (rivers, streams, canals);

3) reservoirs (lakes, ponds, flooded quarries, reservoirs);

4) swamps;

5) natural outlets of groundwater (springs, geysers);

6) glaciers, snowfields.

3. Surface water bodies consist of surface waters and land covered by them within the coastline.

4. The coastline (boundary of a water body) is determined for:

1) the sea - along a constant water level, and in the case of periodic changes in the water level - along the line of maximum ebb;

2) rivers, streams, canals, lakes, flooded quarries - according to the average annual water level during the period when they are not covered with ice;

3) ponds, reservoirs - according to the normal retaining water level;

4) swamps - along the border of a peat deposit at zero depth.

5. Groundwater bodies include: 1) groundwater basins;

2) aquifers.

6. The boundaries of underground water bodies are determined in accordance with the subsoil legislation.

Article 6. Water objects of general use

1. Surface water bodies that are in state or municipal ownership are water bodies for general use, that is, public water bodies, unless otherwise provided by this Code.

2. Every citizen has the right to have access to public water bodies and use them free of charge for personal and household needs, unless otherwise provided by this Code, other federal laws.

3. The use of public water bodies is carried out in accordance with the rules for protecting the life of people at water bodies, approved in the manner determined by the authorized federal executive body, as well as based on the rules established by local governments for the use of water bodies for personal and domestic needs.

4. At public water bodies, the intake (withdrawal) of water resources for the purposes of drinking and household water supply, bathing, the use of small boats, jet skis and other technical means intended for recreation at water bodies, a watering place, as well as other prohibitions in cases provided for by the legislation of the Russian Federation and the legislation of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation.

5. Information on the limitation of water use at public water bodies is provided to citizens by local governments through the media and through special information signs installed along the banks of water bodies. Other means of providing such information may also be used.

6. A strip of land along the shoreline of a public water body (foreshore) is intended for public use. The width of the coastline of public water bodies is twenty meters, with the exception of the coastline of canals, as well as rivers and streams, the length of which from source to mouth is not more than ten kilometers. The width of the coastal strip of canals, as well as rivers and streams, the length of which from the source to the mouth is not more than ten kilometers, is five meters.

7. The coastline of swamps, glaciers, snowfields, natural outlets of groundwater (springs, geysers) and other water bodies provided for by federal laws is not determined.

8. Every citizen has the right to use (without the use of motor vehicles) the coastline of public water bodies for movement and stay near them, including for recreational and sport fishing and mooring of floating facilities.

water body- accumulation of natural waters on earth's surface and in the upper layers of the earth's crust, which have a certain hydrological regime and participate in the water cycle on the planet. Most of the natural waters that make up the Earth's hydrosphere are concentrated in water bodies.

Water body groups

According to the structure, hydrological features and environmental conditions, water bodies on Earth are divided into three groups: watercourses, reservoirs and special water bodies.

Watercourses include water bodies in elongated recesses of the earth's surface with the translational movement of water in channels in the direction of the slope (rivers, streams, canals). Reservoirs are water bodies in depressions of the earth's surface with slow movement of water (oceans, seas, lakes, reservoirs, ponds, swamps). The group of water bodies that do not fit into the concept of watercourses and reservoirs are special water bodies - mountain and cover glaciers and groundwater (for example, groundwater aquifers, artesian basins).

According to the position on the planet, the listed water bodies can also be divided into three groups: surface water bodies on land (rivers, lakes, reservoirs, swamps, glaciers); oceans and seas; underground water bodies.

Water bodies can be permanent and temporary (drying).

Many water bodies have a catchment, which is understood as part of the earth's surface and the thickness of soils, soils and rocks where the water comes from to the water body. All oceans, seas, lakes, rivers have catchment areas. The boundary between adjacent watersheds is called a watershed. There are surface (orographic) and underground watersheds.

A hydrographic network is usually understood as a set of streams and reservoirs within a territory. However, it is more correct to consider the hydrographic network as the totality of all water bodies located on the earth's surface within a given territory (including glaciers). The part of the hydrographic network, represented by watercourses (rivers, streams, canals), is called the channel network, and consisting only of large watercourses - rivers - the river network.

Hydrosphere

The natural waters of the Earth form its hydrosphere. There are no well-established definitions of the term "hydrosphere" and its boundaries yet. Traditionally, the hydrosphere is most often understood as a discontinuous water shell of the globe, located on the surface of the earth's crust and in its thickness, representing the totality of oceans, seas, land water bodies (rivers, lakes, swamps, including snow cover and glaciers), as well as groundwater. In this interpretation, the hydrosphere does not include atmospheric moisture and water in living organisms.

However, there are both narrower and broader interpretations of the term "hydrosphere". In the first case, it is understood only as surface waters located between the atmosphere and the lithosphere, in the second, the concept of the hydrosphere includes all the natural waters of the Earth participating in the global circulation of substances, including groundwater in the upper part of the earth's crust, atmospheric moisture and water in living organisms. Such a broad understanding of the term "hydrosphere" seems to be the most correct. In this case, the hydrosphere is no longer a discontinuous water shell of the Earth, but really the geosphere, which includes not only accumulations of liquid water itself (as well as snow and ice) on the earth's surface, but also waters interconnected with them in the upper part of the lithosphere and the lower part of the atmosphere. With such an interpretation, a new, little-studied geographical problem of "interpenetration" of various geospheres (hydrosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere) arises. Since the waters of the Earth serve both as a habitat for many organisms and as a condition for their existence, the boundaries of the hydrosphere in the broad interpretation of this concept will approximately coincide with the boundaries of the biosphere in the understanding.

Earth's water resources

The water bodies of the Earth contain about 1,388 million km3 of water. This huge volume of water is distributed among different types of water bodies. The World Ocean and its associated seas account for the bulk of the waters of the hydrosphere - 96.4%. Glaciers and snowfields contain 1.86% of all water on the planet. Only 1.78% remains for other water bodies.

Fresh waters are the most valuable. Their volume in the water bodies of the Earth is small - only 36,769 thousand km 3, or 2.65% of all waters on the planet. The bulk of fresh water is concentrated in glaciers and snowfields (70.1% of all fresh water on Earth). In fresh lakes there are 91 thousand km 3 (0.25%), in fresh groundwater - 10,530 thousand km 3 (28.6%). Rivers and reservoirs contain 2.12 and 6.3 thousand km 3 of water, respectively (0.0058% and 0.017% of all fresh water). The swamps contain relatively little water - 11.47 thousand km 3, but the area occupied by swamps on the planet is quite large - 2.682 million km 2 (more than lakes (2.059 million km 2) and much more than reservoirs (0.365 million km 2)).

All natural waters and all water bodies are directly or indirectly connected to each other and are united by the water cycle on Earth, also called the global hydrological cycle.

River runoff is the main component of the global water cycle. It closes the continental and oceanic links of this water cycle. In the river runoff entering the World Ocean, the largest share belongs to the largest river in the world - the Amazon, whose water runoff is on average 7280 km 3 / year, which is at least 18% of the water runoff of all rivers.

Information about the water reserves on Earth and the global water cycle, given in the tables, reflect the average state of the hydrosphere over the past 40–50 years. In fact, with a practically unchanged mass of water in the entire hydrosphere, the amount of water in different water bodies changes as a result of some redistribution of water between them. AT recent decades under the conditions of global warming, the following are noted: firstly, the increasing melting of both sheet and mountain glaciers, and secondly, the gradual degradation permafrost, thirdly, a noticeable rise in the level of the World Ocean. The latter is explained as the receipt melt water sheet glaciers (Antarctica, Greenland, Arctic islands), and thermal expansion of sea waters. For the twentieth century The sea level has risen by about 20 cm.

V.N. Mikhailov, M.V. Mikhailova

Accumulations of natural waters on and also in the upper layer are called water bodies. They have a hydrological regime and participate in the water cycle in nature. The hydrosphere of the planet consists mainly of them.

Groups

Structure, hydrological features and environmental conditions water bodies are divided into three groups: reservoirs, streams and water structures special kind. Watercourses are streams, that is, water located in the recesses of the Earth's surface, where the movement is progressive, downhill. Reservoirs are located where the earth's surface is lowered and the movement of water is slower compared to drains. These are swamps, ponds, reservoirs, lakes, seas, oceans.

Special water bodies are mountain and cover glaciers, as well as all groundwater (artesian basins, aquifers). Reservoirs and drains can be temporary (drying) and permanent. Most water bodies have a catchment - this is that part of the thickness of soils, rocks and soils that give the water they contain to the ocean, sea, lake or river. A watershed is defined along the border of adjacent watersheds, which can be underground or surface (orographic).

hydrographic network

Watercourses and reservoirs in the aggregate, enclosed within a certain territory, are a hydrographic network. However, most often the glaciers located here are not taken into account, and this is wrong. It is necessary to consider absolutely the entire list of water bodies that are on the earth's surface of a given territory as a hydrographic network.

Rivers, streams, canals, being part of the hydrographic network, that is, watercourses, are called the channel network. If only large watercourses are present, that is, rivers, this part of the hydrographic network will be called the river network.

Hydrosphere

The hydrosphere is formed by all the natural waters of the Earth. Neither the concept nor its boundaries have yet been defined. By tradition, it is most often understood as an intermittent water shell of the globe, which is located within the earth's crust, including its thickness, representing the totality of seas and oceans, groundwater and land water resources: glaciers, snow cover, swamps, lakes and rivers . Only atmospheric moisture and water contained in living organisms are not included in the concept of the hydrosphere.

The concept of the hydrosphere is interpreted both broadly and more narrowly. The latter is when the concept of the hydrosphere means only those that are between the atmosphere and the lithosphere, and in the first case, all participants in the global cycle are included: the natural waters of the planet, and underground, the upper part of the earth's crust, and atmospheric moisture, and water found in living organisms. This is closer to the concept of "geosphere", where there is a rather little studied problem of the interpenetration of different geospheres (atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere) - the boundaries of the biosphere, according to Vernadsky.

Earth's water resources

The world's water bodies contain approximately 1,388 million cubic kilometers of water, a huge volume distributed across water bodies of all types. The world ocean and the seas that are associated with it are the main part of the water belonging to the hydrosphere, 96.4 percent total. In second place are glaciers and snowfields: here 1.86 percent of all the waters of the planet. The rest of the water bodies got 1.78%, and this is a huge number of rivers, lakes, swamps.

The most valuable waters are fresh, but there are quite a few of them on the planet: 36,769 thousand cubic kilometers, that is, only 2.65 percent of all planetary water. And most, glaciers and snowfields, which contain more than seventy percent of all fresh water on Earth. Fresh lakes have 91 thousand cubic kilometers of water, a quarter of a percent, fresh groundwater: 10,530 thousand cubic kilometers (28.6%), rivers and reservoirs account for hundredths and thousandths of a percent. There is not much water in the swamps, but their area on the planet is huge - 2,682 million square kilometers, that is, more than lakes, and even more so reservoirs.

Hydrological cycle

Absolutely all objects of aquatic biological resources are connected with each other indirectly or directly, since they are united by the water cycle on the planet (the global hydrological cycle). The main component of the circulation is river runoff, which closes the links of the continental and oceanic cycles. The largest has greatest river world - the Amazon, its water flow is 18% of the flow of all earthly rivers, that is, 7,280 cubic kilometers per year.

With the mass of water in the global hydrosphere unchanged over the past forty-fifty years, the amount of content of individual water bodies often changes as water is redistributed. With global warming, the melting of both sheet and mountain glaciers has intensified, permafrost is disappearing, and the level of the World Ocean has risen noticeably. The glaciers of Greenland, Antarctica, the Arctic islands are gradually melting. Water - natural resource, which is able to renew itself, because it constantly comes from precipitation, which flow with the help of drainage basins into lakes and rivers, form underground reserves, which are the main sources that allow the use of water bodies.

Usage

The same water is used, as a rule, many times and by different users. For example, at first it participates in any technological process, after which it enters, then another user uses the same water. But despite the fact that water is a renewable and reusable source, the use of water bodies does not occur in sufficient volume, since there is no necessary amount of fresh water on the planet.

A particular shortage of water resources occurs, for example, during a drought or other natural phenomena. Rainfall is declining, and they are the main source of renewal of this natural resource. Also, the discharge of sewage pollutes water bodies, due to the construction of dams, dams and other structures, the hydrological regime changes, and human needs always exceed the allowable intake of fresh water. Therefore, the protection of water bodies is a matter of paramount importance.

Legal aspect

The world's waters are, of course, a useful natural resource of the most important ecological and economic importance. Unlike any mineral resources, water is absolutely necessary for the life of mankind. Therefore, it is of particular importance legal regulation regarding water ownership, the use of water bodies, their parts, as well as issues of distribution and protection. Therefore, "water" and "water" are legally different concepts.

Water is nothing more than a combination of oxygen and hydrogen that exists in liquid, gaseous and solid states. Water is absolutely all the water that is in all water bodies, that is, in its natural state and on the surface of the land, and in the bowels, and in any form of relief of the earth's crust. The mode of use of water bodies is regulated by civil law. There is a special water legislation that regulates the use of waters in the natural environment and water bodies - water use. Only the water in the atmosphere and falling out is not isolated and individualized, since it is part of the composition of the soil.

Safety

Safety at water bodies in winter ensures full compliance with the relevant rules. Autumn ice is extremely fragile until stable frosts set in. In the evening and at night, it can withstand some load, and during the day it quickly heats up from melt water, which seeps deep into the ice, making the ice porous and weak, despite the thickness. During this period, it causes injuries and even deaths.

Reservoirs freeze very unevenly, first near the coast, in shallow water, then in the middle. Lakes, ponds, where the water is stagnant, and especially if streams do not flow into the reservoir, there is no riverbed or underwater springs in it, freeze faster. The current always holds back the formation of ice. The safe thickness for a single person is seven centimeters, for a skating rink - at least twelve centimeters, for a pedestrian crossing - from fifteen centimeters, for cars - at least thirty. If a person still fell through the ice, then at a temperature of 24 degrees Celsius, he can stay in the water for up to nine hours without harm to health, but ice at this temperature is a rarity. Usually it is from five to fifteen degrees. In such a situation, a person can survive four hours. If the temperature is up to three degrees, death occurs in fifteen minutes.

Rules of behavior

1. In the dark, you can’t go out on the ice, as well as in case of poor visibility: in snowfall, fog, rain.
2. You can’t beat the ice with your feet, checking it for strength. If at least a little water appears under your feet, you must immediately move back along your trail with sliding steps, distributing the load over a large area (feet shoulder-width apart).
3. Walk the beaten paths.
4. A group of people must cross the body of water, keeping a distance of at least 5 meters.
5. It is necessary to have a twenty-meter strong cord with a blind loop and a load (the load is needed to throw a failed cord, and a loop so that he passes it under the armpits).
6. Parents should not allow children to be unsupervised on water bodies: neither on fishing, nor on a skating rink.
7. AT drunkenness it is better not to approach water bodies, because people in this state react inadequately to danger.

Fishermen take note

1. It is necessary to know the reservoir intended for fishing well: deep and shallow places in order to maintain safety in water bodies.
2. Distinguish signs thin ice, know which water bodies are dangerous, take precautions.
3. The route is determined from the shore.
4. Be careful when descending onto the ice: often it is not very tightly connected to the land, there are cracks and air under the ice.
5. You can not go out on dark areas of ice that have warmed up in the sun.
6. Keep a distance of at least five meters between those walking on the ice.
7. It is better to drag a backpack or a box with tackle and supplies on a rope two to three meters behind.
8. To check each step, the angler must have a pick, with which you need to probe the ice not directly in front of you, but from the side.
9. Other anglers should not be approached closer than three meters.
10. It is forbidden to approach areas where there are algae or driftwood frozen into the ice.
11. Holes at crossings cannot be made (on paths), and it is also forbidden to create several holes around oneself.
12. To rescue, you must have a cord with a load, a long pole or a wide board, something sharp (hook, knife, hook) so that you can catch on the ice.

Water objects can both decorate and enrich human life, and take it away - you need to remember this.

SUBJECT OF HYDROLOGY, RELATION WITH OTHER SCIENCES

Hydrology(literally - the science of water) is engaged in the study of natural waters, phenomena and processes occurring in them, as well as determining the distribution of waters over the earth's surface and in the thickness of soils, the patterns by which these phenomena and processes develop.

Hydrology refers to the complex of sciences that study physical properties Earth, in particular, its hydrosphere. The subject of study of hydrology are water bodies: oceans, seas, rivers, lakes and reservoirs, swamps and accumulations of moisture in the form of snow cover, glaciers, soil and groundwater.

A comprehensive study of hydrological processes should include, on the one hand, the study of waters as an element of the geographical landscape, and, on the other hand, the establishment of physical laws that govern hydrological processes. The waters of the Earth's surface (oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, swamps, glaciers), its air envelope (atmosphere) and those located in the earth's crust are closely interconnected. Therefore, a number of issues related to the activity of water on the globe, is simultaneously considered by hydrology, meteorology, geology, soil science, geomorphology, geography and other sciences that study the atmosphere and lithosphere. In hydrological research, the conclusions of physics, hydraulics and hydrodynamics are widely used. Since the processes taking place in the seas and oceans differ significantly from the processes taking place in rivers, lakes and swamps, this determines the difference in the methods of their research and allows us to distinguish sea ​​hydrology and land hydrology. The hydrology of the sea is more commonly referred to as oceanology or oceanography, keeping the term "hydrology" for land hydrology. Depending on the objects research can be divided into:

1) hydrology of rivers;

2) hydrology of lakes;

3) hydrology of swamps;

4) hydrology of groundwater;

5) hydrology of glaciers.

According to research methods, land hydrology includes:

1) hydrography, giving general description water bodies (geographical position, size, regime, local conditions);

2) hydrometry, which studies methods for determining and measuring the characteristics of water bodies;

3) general hydrology, which studies the physical nature and regularities of hydrological phenomena;

4) engineering hydrology, which develops methods for hydrological forecasts and calculations of the characteristics of the hydrological regime.

Engineering hydrology- section of hydrology:

Dealing with methods of calculation and forecast of hydrological regimes; and

Related to practical application hydrology in solving engineering problems.

FROM THE HISTORY OF HYDROLOGY

The name of the science of water - hydrology - is formed from two Greek words: "hydro" - water and "logos" - knowledge, science.

The first beginnings of hydrology appeared at the dawn of human history, about 6000 years ago, in Ancient Egypt. At a time when on the territory of modern Finland and Karelia, perhaps, in some places the remnants of the ice of the last period of glaciation were still melting, the Egyptian priests carried out the simplest hydrological observations - they noted water levels on the rocks 400 km above Aswan during the periods of the annual floods of the Nile. Later, in ancient Egypt, a whole network (about 30) of "hydrological" posts on the Lower Nile, the so-called nilometers, was created. Some of the nilometers were rich architectural structures: marble wells in the riverbed with a beautifully decorated stone column in the middle, on which the height of the flood was marked. The world's longest series of hydrological observations has been preserved - for 1250 years - on one of these nilometers, located on the island of Roda near Cairo. According to the height of the water level during the flood of the Nile, the priests determined the future harvest and assigned taxes in advance.

However, it took several millennia for hydrology, which began with observations of the Nile flood, to become an independent scientific discipline. An important milestone in the history of the development of hydrology was the end of the 17th century. The French scientist P. Perrot, and after him E. Mariotte, having measured the amount of precipitation and runoff in the Upper Seine basin, established the quantitative ratios of the main elements of the water balance of the river basin - precipitation and runoff, refuting the fantastic ideas that prevailed at that time about the origin of rivers, sources and groundwater. In the same period, the English astronomer E. Halley, based on experiments on measuring evaporation, showed by example mediterranean sea that evaporation from the surface of the sea significantly exceeds the inflow of river water into it, and thus "closed" the scheme of the water cycle on the globe.

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) celebrated in 1974 at the international hydrological conference in Paris the tercentenary of scientific hydrology, coinciding this anniversary with the 300th anniversary of the publication of P. Perrault's book "On the Origin of Springs" (Paris, 1674), in which the author gives the results of his calculations of the water balance.

THE ROLE OF WATER IN NATURE

Water is a universal substance, without which life is impossible, it is an indispensable component of all living things. Plants contain up to 90% water, and in the body of an adult - about 70%. Biologists sometimes joke that water "invented" man as a means of transportation.

Almost all biochemical reactions in every living cell are reactions in aqueous solutions. In solutions (mainly aqueous), most of the technological processes at the enterprises of the chemical industry, in the production of medicines and food products. And in metallurgy, water is extremely important, and not only for cooling. It is no coincidence that hydrometallurgy - the extraction of metals from ores and concentrates using solutions of various reagents - has become an important industry.

Water forms oceans, seas, rivers and lakes. A lot of water is in a gaseous state as vapor in the atmosphere; in the form of huge masses of snow and ice, it lies all year round on the tops of high mountains and in polar countries. Solid water - snow and ice - covers 20% of the land. In the bowels of the earth there is also water that soaks the soil and rocks. The total water reserves on Earth are 1454.3 million cubic meters. km (of which less than 2% refers to fresh water, and 0.3% is available for use). The planet's climate depends on water. Geophysicists say that the Earth would have cooled down long ago and turned into a lifeless piece of stone, if not for water. She has a very high heat capacity.

When heated, it absorbs heat; cooling down, gives it away. Terrestrial water both absorbs and returns a lot of heat and thus "levels" the climate. And the Earth is protected from cosmic cold by those water molecules that are scattered in the atmosphere - in clouds and in the form of vapors.

Natural water is never completely pure. Rainwater is the purest, but it also contains small amounts of various impurities that it captures from the air. The amount of impurities in fresh water is usually in the range from 0.01 to 0.1% (wt.). Sea water contains 3.5% (wt.) dissolved substances, the main mass of which is sodium chloride (table salt).

Surface waters are mainly concentrated in the ocean, with a content of 1 billion 375 million cubic meters. km - about 98% of all water on Earth. The surface of the ocean (water area) is 361 million square meters. km. It is about 2.4 times more area land area, occupying 149 million square meters. km.

WATER BODIES AND THEIR TYPES

WATER OBJECT- a natural or artificial reservoir, stream or other object in which water is permanently or temporarily concentrated.

That is, a water body is a natural or man-made formation with a permanent or temporary accumulation of water. The accumulation of water can be both in landforms and in the bowels.

reservoirs- accumulations of water in depressions of the earth's surface. The basin and the water that fills it is the only natural complex, which is characterized by slow movement of water. This group of water bodies includes oceans, seas, lakes, reservoirs, ponds, swamps.

watercourses- accumulations of water in relatively narrow and shallow recesses of the Earth's surface with the translational movement of water in the direction of the slope of this recess. This group of water bodies includes rivers, streams, canals. They can be permanent (with the flow of water all year round) and temporary (drying, freezing).

Special water bodies - glaciers (moving natural accumulations of ice) and The groundwater .

Water on Earth is in a liquid, solid and vapor state; it is included in aquifers and artesian basins.

Water bodies have catchment - part of the earth's surface or thickness of soils and rocks, from where water flows to a specific water body. The boundary between adjacent watersheds is called watershed . In nature, watersheds usually delimit water bodies on land, mainly river systems.

Each water body belonging to a particular group is characterized by its own characteristics. natural conditions. They change in space and time under the influence of physical and geographical, primarily climatic factors. Regular changes in the state of water bodies that together form the hydrosphere are reflected in it to one degree or another.

Distinguish surface water bodies , consisting of surface waters and lands covered by them within the coastline, and groundwater bodies .

There are also such natural formations of a transitional nature that do not have the features of a water body, but have the “opportunity” harmful effects. An example of such formations are, in particular, "breathing" lakes. The essence of the phenomenon lies in the sudden and rapid (sometimes in one night) appearance and disappearance. big water» in relief depressions, marshy and meadow lowlands (sometimes up to 20 km 2 in area).

"Breathing" lakes are observed in Leningrad region, Prionezhye, in the Novgorod region, the Arkhangelsk region, in the Vologda region, in Dagestan. suddenly appearing near settlements and various communications lakes flood them.

Surface water bodies include: seas, rivers, streams, canals, lakes, flooded quarries, ponds, reservoirs, swamps, glaciers, snowfields, springs, geysers.

Groundwater bodies include groundwater basins, aquifers.

Water bodies are divided into types:

General use - publicly accessible surface water bodies that are in state or municipal ownership (Article 6 of the RF VC).

Specially protected - water bodies (or parts thereof) that have a special environmental, scientific, cultural, as well as aesthetic, recreational and health value. Their list is determined by the legislation on specially protected natural areas(Article 66 of the RF VC).