Who played a decisive role in the palace coups. Russian guard

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The role of the guard in the era of palace coups

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"The role of the guard in the era of palace coups"

1. Introduction

2. Causes and driving forces of palace coups

- Causes of coups

- The main driving force of palace coups

- Coup mechanism

- Conclusions

3. Conclusion

4. Source

1. Introduction

The era of palace coups is one of the most interesting pages of history Russian state. The struggle of strong personalities, behind-the-scenes intrigues, high and low passions - everything can be found here.

When there is no law, the political question is usually decided by the ruling power. Such a force in Russian palace coups of the last century, there was a privileged part of the regular army created by Peter, two guards regiments - Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky., To which two others were added during the reign of Anna - the infantry Izmailovsky and Horse Guards. The Guard took an active part in all difficulties; arising from the question of succession to the throne, not a single almost change on the throne in the aforementioned 38 years did not do without the decisive intervention of the guard.

2. Causes and driving forces of palace coups

- Causes of coups

In the XVIII century. a situation arose in which palace coups became the simplest, and sometimes the only way to resolve contradictions within the ruling circles. It would be logical to look for the reasons for the formation of these conditions in the activities and state transformations of Peter the Great, immediately preceding the era of palace coups.

Peter I the Great died on January 28, 1725, leaving no legitimate successors. He was too consistent and sober-minded ruler not to realize before his death what he was dooming Russia to. In agony, the emperor, trying to draw up a will, "took a pen, wrote a few words, but they could not be made out." “He himself noticed that he was not writing clearly, and therefore he shouted to call Princess Anna to him, whom he wanted to dictate. They run after her; she hurries to go, but when she comes to bed, he has already lost his language and consciousness, which never returned to him. In such a situation, the enthronement of any sovereign can be regarded as a coup. Approximate "were only waiting for a minute when the monarch expires to get down to business" Peter was aware of the possibility of a dynastic crisis long before his death. The sovereign was married twice: to Evdokia Lopukhina (1692-1689) and Marta Skavronskaya, later Catherine I Alekseevna (1712-1725). From both marriages he had male children: Alexei Petrovich and Petr Petrovich. However, the father outlived both sons.

Alexey Petrovich had the greatest rights to the throne, being born in a marriage with a representative of a Russian aristocratic family. However, "Peter's legitimate heir did not share his political views, did not accept his reforms." After an unsuccessful attempt to escape abroad, Alexei Petrovich abdicated. He was sentenced to death, which, in accordance with the official version, did not have time to carry out, and the prince died a natural death.

Three years before the death of the prince, Ekaterina Alekseevna had a son, Peter. Although the child appeared when his parents were already married, the offspring of the Livonian "portomoi", the undivorced wife of a Swedish trumpeter soldier, had fewer rights to the throne than his half-brother. But the child died at the age of three.

The male line of the Romanovs has not yet ceased. The same year of Peter Petrovich was the son of Tsarevich Alexei, Peter Alekseevich. But Peter I could not allow the accession to the throne of the son of the prince he had tortured and decided to take a radical step.

On February 5, 1822, the emperor issued the "Charter on the Succession to the Throne." The sovereign did not hide the main reason for the appearance of the "charter": the position of the heir, Tsarevich Alexei, threatened the existence of the Russian state. The content of the document is presented in a few final lines: "... It is always in the will of the ruling sovereign, to whom he wants, he will determine the inheritance"

Thus, after the death of Peter I the Great, the traditional order of succession in the direct male line came into conflict with the principles declared by the “Charter of Succession” of 1722. As a result, a dynastic crisis developed, which was resolved by the first palace coup. The same contradiction will cause other palace coups.

The reforms of Peter the Great created not only political, but also social conditions for palace coups. The upper social strata suffered. In the decree on single inheritance of 1714, the difference between the estates of boyars and nobles, between the legal status of an estate and an estate, was eliminated. The boyar class ceased to exist: "... all immovable things, that is, ancestral, served and purchased estates and estates ...". As a result, the traditional confrontation between the boyar oligarchy and the noble service class was eliminated. The state could no longer use these contradictions, it was faced with a consolidated privileged class, which had to be reckoned with. This estate became the nobility. Of course, within the framework of the new estate, an upper layer quickly emerged, which can be conditionally called the noble aristocracy. Part of it was made up of people from the former boyars. However, they represented only one of the parties of the new socio-political elite, and after the defeat of the Dolgoruky and Golitsyn families, it practically ceased to exist.

The tendency to suppress the boyar opposition originated in the oprichnina of Ivan IV the Terrible. In the year of accession to the throne of Peter and Ivan Alekseevich, localism was finally abolished, the procedure for holding positions “according to the fatherland”, i.e. according to origin. The final stage falls on 1722, when the building of the Russian "regular state" was crowned with the publication of the "Table of Ranks".

As a result of the reforms of Peter the Great, the nobility became the only politically active estate. Palace coups and conspiracies that preceded them were prepared and carried out by the nobles. The nobles made up the parties, the nobles wove intrigues, the nobles were officers of the guards regiments and made up the majority of the guards themselves. The main contradictions in the nobility ran along the watershed between the local nobility and the noble aristocracy. The first saw the source of prosperity and social growth in the strong absolutist power of the emperor. The latter gravitated towards the establishment of a limited oligarchic monarchy.

- The main driving force of palace coups

The main driving force behind the palace coups of the XVIII century. became a guard. The first guards regiments, Preobrazhensky and Semyonovsky, were transformed from the amusing regiments of the young Tsarevich Peter. The guard demonstrated its effectiveness already in the battle of Narva (1700), putting up stubborn resistance to the Swedish troops, while the rest of the Russian army fled in disarray. The guard became the core of the new army, the source of staff recruitment. The majority in the guards regiments were noblemen, the very ones who were now obliged to begin their service from the lower military ranks. The Guards were also entrusted with non-military tasks, for which qualified performers were required. “The guards conducted the first census, went abroad with responsible assignments, collected taxes, were appointed auditors and investigators, and sometimes a simple sergeant or officer was vested with greater powers than a governor or field marshal.” HELL. Menshikov, Prince. Dolgoruky, V.N. Tatishchev, M.M. Golitsyn, B.K. Minich, the brothers Razumovsky and Shuvalov served in the guards regiments, or commanded them. The Guard became a special non-estate corporation, which was characterized by rare unity, discipline and an exaggerated idea of ​​​​its role in court life. The guards were quartered in the capital, and, therefore, they were the force that could be quickly used as part of a palace coup. They were not just a toy in the hands of the parties, they themselves sought to realize their corporate interests. Serving at court, the guards were aware of all the events in government circles, reverence towards the authorities was alien to them.

Thus, during the reign of Peter the Great, elite paramilitary units were created, always located in close proximity to the center of political events.

By the end of the first quarter of the XVIII century. in Russia, a politically active consolidated class was formed - the nobility, the elite metropolitan paramilitary units - the guard, and a political oligarchy torn by contradictions. All these factors became, respectively, the social base, the driving forces and the organizational component of palace coups.

- Coup mechanism

Palace coups of the 18th century. had a significant number of similar features, which allows us to speak about a certain mechanism for their implementation.

An indispensable condition for a palace coup was political instability. At the head of the palace coup was always one or another political group. Court parties have always existed, however, the aggravation of the conflict between them and their rigid opposition to each other were usually clear signs of an approaching coup. In 1725, the "chicks of Petrov's nest" enthroned the sovereign's wife, thus defeating the aristocratic opposition. Extraordinary gain A.D. Menshikov under Catherine I marks the beginning of the period of temporary workers. The Golitsyn-Dolgoruky party takes revenge by deposing the “semi-power ruler” in 1727. When Anna Ioannovna came to the throne, the “supervisors”, putting forward conditions, entered into a confrontation with the rest of the noble mass, which was headed by S.A. Saltykov and A. M. Cherkassky. In the struggle against I. Biron in 1741, the party of A.I. Osterman. National-oriented parties of Elizabeth and Catherine II in 1741 and 1762 overthrew rulers associated with Russophobic politics. The paradox is that, unlike Peter III, there was not a drop of Russian blood in the veins of his wife. P.A. party conspiracy Palena in 1801, which objectively expressed the protest of society against the inconsistency of state policy, ended in regicide. The struggle of the court parties reflected the contradictions within the politically active public. Among them, firstly, one can note the struggle of aristocratic parties against groups of unborn nobles (coups of 1725, 1727, 1730). Secondly, we discover the confrontation between national parties and groups that, according to public opinion, pursued an anti-national policy (coups of 1740, 1741, 1762). Finally, one can single out the struggle of the noble parties for their privileges, which was most clearly manifested in the coup of 1801.

The palace coup was always preceded by a preparatory, conspiratorial stage. The conspiracy of the "Old Russian Party" against A.D. Menshikov could only be drawn up during his protracted and dangerous illness. In 1730 D.M. Golitsyn and V.L. Dolgoruky in deep secrecy made up "conditions", and upon the arrival of Anna Ioannovna "gatherings of the guards began", "hundreds of landowners-nobles gathered in the houses of princes Trubetskoy, Baryatinsky and Cherkassky." Almost the same situation was repeated in 1741, when “the Ruler decided to explain herself to the opponent in private” about the conspiracy being prepared by the latter. The deposition of Peter III in 1762 was clearly planned, and the preparations were carried out both in the guards and at the court, much attention was paid to the formation of public opinion. Vice-Chancellor N.P. Panin, St. Petersburg Governor-General P.A. Palen, the Zubov brothers (Catherine's favorites) and several commanders of the guards regiments - these are the main participants in the conspiracy of 1801.

For most palace coups, the main driving force was the guard. In 1725, according to one version: Prince Menshikov went with a company directly to the imperial palace, broke down the doors of the room where the senators and generals were, and declared Catherine the Empress and the legitimate Russian Empress. 1730, it was the guards who said the decisive word in favor of the autocracy of Anna Ioannovna. During the coups of 1741 and 1762. pretenders to the throne themselves led the rebellious guards regiments. The coup of 1801 was largely due to the emperor's preference for the "Gatchins" in comparison with the guards regiments. Anna Ioannovna added Izmailovsky and Horse Guards to the two Peter's regiments, and Biron tried to reduce the percentage of nobles in the guards by recruiting commoners. However, neither these nor other measures could stop the arbitrariness of the guard, which continued to "make governments."

Usually the conspiracy matured at the top, among the noble aristocracy. The guard was an instrument of noble groups, an instrument for enthroning the desired figure. Housing in the capital, she was always "at hand". A significant part of the guards regiments were nobles, i.e. the guard was close to the conspirators socially. The guards were quite homogeneous, so the situation when one part fights against another was unthinkable for the 18th century. The guards regiment attracted to the side of the conspirators automatically determined the position of the entire guard (loyal or passive). And, finally, there was no alternative to the guards, since they were the most trained, prepared and disciplined military units, susceptible to agitation and having a long tradition and experience in carrying out armed coups.

During palace coups, the government side usually behaved extremely passively, giving all the initiative into the hands of the rebels. During the events of 1725, only the president of the Military Collegium, Prince. Repnin was indignant at the actions of the guards, who were taken out of the barracks without his order. In 1762 B.K. Minich tried to organize the resistance of the troops, including the Kronstadt garrison, and even mobilize the peasants, but Peter III himself behaved passively and pretty soon came to the new empress with an expression of humility.

In conditions of political instability, a conspiracy arose, which was implemented in the capital of one of the noble groups with the help of the guard. The success of the coup was largely due to the decisiveness of the actions of the rebels and the passivity of the opposite side. After the power phase of the coup, the stage of legitimization of power began. The fate of the defeated opponent was usually unenviable, and the cruelty in deciding his fate increased throughout the entire “era of palace coups”.

Short description

The era of palace coups is one of the most interesting pages in the history of the Russian state. The struggle of strong personalities, behind-the-scenes intrigues, high and low passions - everything can be found here.
When there is no law, the political question is usually decided by the ruling power. Such a force in the Russian palace coups of the last century was the privileged part of the regular army created by Peter, two guards regiments - Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky., To which two others were added during the reign of Anna - the infantry Izmailovsky and Horse Guards. The Guard took an active part in all difficulties; arising from the question of succession to the throne, not a single almost change on the throne in the aforementioned 38 years did not do without the decisive intervention of the guard.

The era of palace coups began in Russia, with the death of Peter I. In a short period of time, a large number of rulers visited the Russian throne. home historical reason the era of palace coups in Russia - the decree of Peter I "On the succession to the throne." Peter changed the order of transfer of power, and now the Emperor himself could appoint his successor. But Peter I did not have time to bequeath the throne to anyone. On January 28, 1725, Peter Alekseevich died. From that moment, in Russia, the "Era of palace coups" began.

The Russian throne became the subject of confrontation between various political clans. A significant role in the struggle between representatives of the noble noble families the guard began to play. The transfer of power from one autocrat to another, in the era of palace coups, was carried out with great ease. The fact is that these coups did not change political system in the state, only changed the ruler. With the change of ruler, there was also a regrouping of forces at the court. Some families of nobles, from the ruling ones, went into the "opposition" and waited for the right moment for the next coup. Others moved from the "opposition" to the class of the ruling elite, and by all means tried to maintain their influence.

After the death of Peter I, Catherine I became the Russian Empress, and she ruled from 1725 to 1727. In fact, all power during this period was in the hands of Alexander Danilovich Menshikov. The situation did not change in the first few months of the reign of Peter II. Later, Menshikov was exiled, and the Supreme Privy Council, represented by the Dolgoruky and Golitsyn clan, began to play a key role at court. Peter II ruled from 1727 to 1730. The next ruler of Russia during the era of palace coups was Anna Ioannovna. She ruled for exactly ten years, from 1730 to 1740. These years were marked by the dominance of foreigners, adventurers and very dubious personalities in the Russian Empire. Treasury and bureaucracy flourished. From 1740 to 1741, power over Russian society was in the hands of Ivan Antonovich and his mother Anna Leopoldovna, who was proclaimed regent for the infant emperor.

Among Russian society, dissatisfaction with the dominance of the Germans grew, and under this note, the daughter of Peter I, Elizabeth Petrovna, ascended the throne during the coup. The reign of Elizabeth Petrovna was a breath of fresh air, a triumph of Russian national identity, after the humiliating policy of Anna Ioannovna. The nephew of the Empress became the heir of Elizabeth Petrovna - Peter III Fedorovich. He ruled from 1761 to 1762. He entered Russian history as an emperor - a tyrant who stole Russia's victory in the Seven Years' War. In the summer of 1762, the Russian throne was occupied by Catherine II, the wife of Peter III.

The guards again played a big role in this palace coup. Catherine II was succeeded by Paul I. Pavel Petrovich was the son of Catherine and Peter III. Paul I issued a new decree on succession to the throne, according to which power passed from the father to the eldest son. The era of palace coups in Russia ended with the death of Paul I, who was killed by conspirators. The new Emperor of Russia was his son Alexander I.

Introduction

According to most historians, the reasons for palace coups are as follows:

Departing from the national political tradition, according to which the throne passed only to the direct heirs of the tsar, Peter himself prepared a crisis of power (by not implementing the decree on the succession to the throne in 1722, without appointing himself an heir);

A large number of direct and indirect heirs claimed the Russian throne after the death of Peter;

The existing corporate interests of the nobility and tribal nobility manifested themselves in their entirety.

Speaking about the era of palace coups, it should be emphasized that they were not state, that is, they pursued the goals of radical changes political power and state structure(the events of 1730 were an exception)

When analyzing the era of palace coups, it is important to pay attention to the following points.

Firstly, the initiators of the coups were various palace groups that sought to elevate their protege to the throne.

Secondly, the most important consequence of the coups was the strengthening of the economic and political positions of the nobility.

Thirdly, the guards were the driving force behind the coups.

Indeed, the guard, a privileged part of the regular army created by Peter (these are the famous Semyonovsky and Preobrazhensky regiments, in the 30s two new ones, Izmailovsky and Horse Guards, were added to them) was a decisive force. Her participation decided the outcome of the case: on whose side the guard, that group won. The guard was not only a privileged part of the Russian army, it was a representative of the whole class (nobles), from whose midst it was almost exclusively formed and whose interests it represented.

In general, it would be most correct to assess the time of palace coups as a period of development of the noble empire from the formations of Peter the Great to a new major modernization of the country under Catherine 2. In the second quarter - the middle of the 18th century, there were no major reforms the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna is estimated as a period of counter-reforms).

power struggle

Dying, Peter did not leave an heir, having only time to write with a weakening hand: “Give everything ...”. The opinion of the leaders about his successor was divided. "Chicks of Petrov's Nest" (A.D. Menshikov, P.A. Tolstoy, I.I. Buturlin, P.I. Yaguzhinsky and others) spoke for his second wife Ekaterina, and representatives of the noble nobility (D.M. Golitsyn , V.V. Dolgoruky and others) defended the candidacy of their grandson - Peter Alekseevich. The outcome of the dispute was decided by the guards, who supported the empress.

The accession of Catherine 1 (1725-1727) led to a sharp strengthening of the position of Menshikov, who became the de facto ruler of the country. Attempts to somewhat curb his lust for power and greed with the help of the Supreme Privy Council (VTS) created under the Empress, to which the first three colleges, as well as the Senate, were subordinate, did not lead to anything. Moreover, the temporary worker decided to strengthen his position by marrying his daughter to Peter's young grandson. P. Tolstoy, who opposed this plan, ended up in prison.

In May 1727, Catherine I died and, according to her will, 12-year-old Peter II (1727-1730) became emperor under the regency of the military-technical cooperation. Menshikov's influence at court increased, and he even received the coveted rank of generalissimo.

But, pushing away old allies and not acquiring new ones among the noble nobility, he soon lost influence on the young emperor and in September 1727 was arrested and exiled with his whole family to Berezovo, where he soon died.

A significant role in discrediting the personality of Menshikov in the eyes of the young emperor was played by the Dolgoruky, as well as a member of the military-technical cooperation, the tutor of the tsar, nominated for this position by Menshikov himself - A.I. Osterman is a clever diplomat who, depending on the alignment of forces and the political situation, was able to change his views, allies and patrons. The overthrow of Menshikov was, in essence, an actual palace coup, because the composition of the military-technical cooperation has changed. In which aristocratic families began to prevail (Dolgoruky and Golitsyn), and A.I. began to play a key role. Osterman; the regency of the MTC was put an end to, Peter II declared himself a full-fledged ruler, who was surrounded by new favorites; a course was outlined aimed at revising the reforms of Peter I.

Soon the court left St. Petersburg and moved to Moscow, which attracted the emperor by the presence of richer hunting grounds. The sister of the tsar's favorite, Ekaterina Dolgorukaya, was betrothed to Peter II, but while preparing for the wedding, he died of smallpox. And again the question arose about the heir to the throne, because with the death of Peter II, the male line of the Romanovs was cut short, and he did not have time to appoint a successor.

In conditions political crisis and timelessness, the military-technical cooperation, which by that time consisted of 8 people (5 seats belonged to the Dolgoruky and Golitsyn), decided to invite the niece of Peter I, the Duchess of Courland Anna Ioannovna, to the throne. It was also extremely important that she had no supporters and no connections in Russia.

As a result, this made it possible, beckoning with an invitation to the brilliant St. Petersburg throne, to impose their own conditions and get her consent to limit the power of the monarch.

The reign of Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740)

From the very beginning of her reign, Anna Ioannovna tried to erase even the memory of "conditions" from the consciousness of her subjects. She liquidated the military-technical cooperation, creating instead the Cabinet of Ministers headed by Osterman.

Gradually, Anna went to meet the most urgent requirements of the Russian nobility: their service life was limited to 25 years; that part of the Decree on Uniform Succession, which limited the right of the nobles to dispose of the estate when it was inherited, was canceled; easier to get an officer's rank. Not trusting the Russian nobility and not having the desire, and even the ability to delve into state affairs herself, Anna Ioannovna surrounded herself with people from the Baltic states. The key role at court passed into the hands of her favorite E. Biron.

Some historians call the period of Anna Ioannovna's reign "Bironism", believing that its main feature was the dominance of the Germans, who neglected the interests of the country, demonstrated contempt for everything Russian and pursued a policy of arbitrariness in relation to the Russian nobility. After the death of Anna Ioannovna in 1740, according to her will, the Russian throne was inherited by the great-grandson of Ivan Alekseevich, the son of Anna Leopoldovna and Anton Ulrich of Braunshveisky - Ivan Antonovich. Anna's favorite E.I. was appointed regent until he came of age. Biron, who was arrested less than a month later by the guards on the orders of Field Marshal B.K. Minikhin.

His mother, Anna Leopoldovna, was proclaimed regent for the royal child. The unsinkable A.I. began to play the leading role with her. Osterman, who survived five reigns and all temporary workers.

On November 25, 1741, the tsar who never ruled was overthrown by Elizaveta Petrovna with the help of the guards. Taking advantage of the weakness of the government and her popularity, Elizabeth, the daughter of Peter I, dressed in a man's dress, appeared in the barracks of the Preobrazhensky Regiment with the words: "Guys, you know whose daughter I am, follow me. Do you swear to die for me?" - asked the future empress and, having received an affirmative answer, led them to the Winter Palace. On the night of November 25, 1741, the grenadier company of the Preobrazhensky Regiment made a palace coup in favor of Elizabeth - the daughter of Peter I - (1741-1761)

Despite the similarity of this coup with similar palace coups in Russia in the 18th century. (apical character, strike force guard), he had a number distinctive features. The striking force of the coup on November 25 was not just the guards, but the lower guards - people from the taxable estates, expressing the patriotic sentiments of the broad sections of the capital's population. The coup had a pronounced anti-German, patriotic character. Wide sections of Russian society, condemning the favoritism of the German temporary workers, turned their sympathies towards Peter's daughter, the Russian heiress.

A feature of the palace coup on November 25 was the fact that the Franco-Swedish diplomacy tried to actively interfere in the internal affairs of Russia and, for offering help to Elizabeth in the struggle for the throne, to obtain from her certain political and territorial concessions, which meant a voluntary rejection of the conquests of Peter I.

Empress Elizaveta Petrovna reigned for twenty years, from 1741 to 1761. The most legitimate of all the successors of Peter I, raised to the throne with the help of the guards, she, as V.O. Klyuchevsky, "inherited the energy of her father, built palaces in twenty-four hours and traveled from Moscow to St. Petersburg in two days, peaceful and carefree, she took Berlin and defeated the first strategist of that time, Frederick the Great ... her courtyard turned into a theater foyer - - everyone was talking about the French comedy, the Italian opera, but the doors did not close, the windows blew, the water flowed along the walls - such a “gilded poverty”.

The core of her policy was the expansion and strengthening of the rights and privileges of the nobility. The landowners now had the right to exile recalcitrant peasants to Siberia and dispose of not only land, but also the person and property of serfs. Under Elizabeth Petrovna, the Senate, the Chief Magistrate, and the Collegia were restored in their rights. In 1755 Moscow University was opened - the first in Russia.

An indicator of the increased influence of Russia on international life was its active participation in the all-European conflict of the second half of the 18th century. - in the Seven Years' War 1756 - 1763.

Russia entered the war in 1757. In the very first battle near the village of Gross-Egersdorf on August 19, 1757, Russian troops inflicted a serious defeat on the Prussian troops. At the beginning of 1758, Russian troops captured Koenigsberg. The population East Prussia swore allegiance to the Empress of Russia - Elizabeth. The culmination of the military campaign of 1760 was the capture of Berlin on September 28 by the Russian army under the command of Chernyshov. (Frederick II was on the verge of death, but he was saved by a sharp turn in Russian foreign policy caused by the accession to the throne of Peter III, who immediately broke off the military alliance with Austria, stopped military operations against Prussia, and even offered Frederick military assistance).

Elizabeth Petrovna's successor was her nephew Karl-Peter-Ulrich - Duke of Holstein - the son of Elizabeth Petrovna's older sister - Anna, and therefore on the mother's side - the grandson of Peter I. He ascended the throne under the name of Peter III (1761-1762) February 18, 1762 The Manifesto was published on the award of "liberty and freedom to the entire Russian noble nobility", i.e. for exemption from compulsory service. The "Manifesto", which removed the age-old duty from the class, was received with enthusiasm by the nobility.

Peter III issued Decrees on the abolition of the Secret Chancellery, on the permission to return to Russia to schismatics who had fled abroad with a prohibition to prosecute for a split. However, soon the policy of Peter III aroused discontent in society, restored the metropolitan society against him.

The refusal of Peter III from all conquests during the victorious Seven Years' War with Prussia (1755-1762), which was waged by Elizaveta Petrovna, caused particular dissatisfaction among the officers. A conspiracy to overthrow Peter III matured in the guard.

As a result of the last palace coup in the 18th century, carried out on June 28, 1762, the wife of Peter III, who became Empress Catherine II (1762-1796), was elevated to the Russian throne. During the palace coup, Catherine was supported by influential representatives of the aristocracy: Count K. G. Razumovsky, educator of Paul I N. I. Panin, Prosecutor General I. A. Glebov, Princess E. R. Dashkova, and many guards officers. Catherine, like Peter, whom she idolized, surrounded herself with devoted people. She generously rewarded her associates and favorites.

An attempt by Peter III to enter into negotiations did not lead to anything, and he was forced to personally sign the act of "spontaneous" oath abdication sent by Catherine.

Thus ended the era of "palace coups".

MOU Russian Classical Gymnasium

Examination paper

in history

"Palace Revolutions"

and strengthening the positions of the aristocracy

and guards: causes and consequences

students of 9 "A" class

Zhuravleva Daria

History teacher Fokin A.V.

Saratov - 2007

Introduction

We live in a time when the movement into which our entire country has come is acutely felt. Unbeknownst to ourselves, we have lost the feeling of soporific peace and now we peer anxiously at the path ahead.

On this way to the future, which suddenly became so vague, unclear, and therefore alarming, we more often than before look back - to our past, because we felt ourselves in a single stream of time, rushing from the infinity of history to the infinity of the future. It has become so important for us to know our past precisely in order to understand the present day and guess the contours of the day to come.

The time of the first post-Petrine reigns, which will be discussed further, is often called timelessness - so strikingly the twenties - sixties of the 18th century are not similar to the era of grandiose Peter's reforms that preceded them, as well as to the "golden age" of Catherine II that began after them.

My work is devoted to the study of the "epoch of palace coups" of 1725 - 1762. and, above all, the reasons for the appearance of palace coups themselves in the history of the Russian autocratic monarchy after the transformations of Peter I. In my work, I examine in detail the events associated with the succession to the throne in the period from 1725 to 1762. The origin, forms of manifestation and development of palace coups as a special way to resolve contradictions within the ruling elites and their conflicts with the imperial power. I trace the fate of the main characters and participants in these events throughout the era, as well as the role and place in the palace coups of the guard as a special noble group that took part in the state administration system.

The main goal of my research is to study the regularities of the emergence and development of palace coups in Russian political history. I tried to establish the causes of a series of palace coups in the Russian statehood.

"Reviewing the annals Russian history XVIII century, we notice with amazement the miraculous transformations of happiness. The accession of each sovereign overthrows the predecessors exalted in power and with an imperious hand tries to exalt the confidants of the new sovereign. Seeing cruel examples of how all businessmen, statesmen, each in his turn, either perished or fell into insignificance, all minds, naturally, were seized with involuntary fear, all talent and noble ambition had to disappear in the darkness of the unknown, ”- so figuratively described the author, unknown to us, a whole strip in the life of the country, which followed the reforms of Peter the Great. From 1725 to 1762 on the Russian throne, seven emperors and empresses, the heirs of Peter I, were replaced, whose “ascension” and reign were accompanied by large and small palace “revolutions”.

With a light hand, V.O. Klyuchevsky, the name "the era of palace coups" was firmly entrenched in this period. This concept is the key to my work.

Contemporaries of the very "epoch of palace coups" called them "great and rare deed", "enterprise", "change". An unknown Russian memoirist used several words at once: “conspiracy”, “bold” or “daring enterprise”, “joining the board”, “happy event”, “change”. Historian M.M. Shcherbatov preferred to talk about the “fall” in relation to the nobles, and defined the coup of 1762 as “indignation”.

The term “revolution” (meaning “serious changes”) also appeared to refer to the phenomenon. Apparently, such a concept has become the most used in Russia: many writers characterized the events of 1762 in this way - N. Rul'er, A.R. Vorontsov, A.T. Bolotov, G.R. Derzhavin. However, this word did not enter the Russian language of the 18th century. Dictionary Russian Academy(edited by Dashkova) and other dictionaries of that time do not contain it.

Catherine II in every possible way avoided any definition of the coup she had committed. But in a letter in Russian (July 10, 1764) to Nikita Ivanovich Panin, she described V. Mirovich's failed attempt to elevate Ivan Antonovich to the throne as a "desperate and reckless coup."

CM. Solovyov first used the concept of "palace coup" in relation to all known coups of 1725 - 1762. But, apparently, he did not betray him much importance and used in parallel such designations as “conspiracy”, “uprising”, “overthrow”, “coup in the government” even in relation to the same event of 1762. Klyuchevsky used the term "palace coup" in relation to all armed attempts to take the throne in 1725 - 1762, but at the same time he defined the events of 1730 as a "movement", and the accession of Elizabeth Petrovna as a "guards coup". In modern scientific literature there is also no common understanding and definition of the concept of interest to us.

The domestic "epoch of palace coups" remains to this day " dark period" or even "historiographical black hole"; therefore, I believe that the topic I have chosen is relevant in our time and requires careful consideration and study in order to fill all the gaps in the study of Russian history.

In the first chapter of my work, I consider the period of palace coups from 1725 to 1730. During these 5 years, three rulers have changed in Russia - Catherine I, Peter II, and Anna Ioannovna, the niece of Peter I.

The last Russian tsar and the first Russian emperor, Peter I, died on January 28, 1725. His death plunged all his entourage not only into deep sorrow, but also into great confusion: the late emperor did not leave any will. He never used his own succession decree of 1722, which affirmed the right of the sovereign to appoint an heir at his discretion.

According to published in 1775. the memoirs of Genning - Friedrich von Bassevich, “in one of those moments when death before the final blow usually lets his victim breathe a little, the emperor came to his senses and expressed a desire to write. But his heavy hand drew letters that could not be made out, and after his death, they managed to read only the first two words from what was written: “Give everything ...”. He himself noticed that he was not writing clearly, and therefore he shouted to call Princess Anna to him, whom he wanted to dictate. They run after her; she hurries to go, but when she comes to his bed, he has already lost his language and consciousness, which no longer returned to him.

The choice of heirs was extensive: except for the young Peter, the son of the deceased Tsarevich Alexei and the German princess Charlotte, all were women: the widow of the deceased emperor Ekaterina Alekseevna and her two daughters from Peter - married Anna and Elizabeth. In addition, three nieces of the emperor belonged to the royal house: Anna, Catherine and Praskovya - the daughters of Peter I's elder brother, Ivan, with whom he formally shared the throne for 14 years (1682 - 1696).

The issue of succession to the throne was resolved thanks to the active actions of His Serene Highness Prince A.D. Menshikov, whose enormous influence on state affairs could only be preserved under the reign of Catherine, who favored him.

Detailed memories of the development of the intrigue were left by G.F. Bassevich, who was a minister at the court of the Duke of Holstein, the groom of Tsarina Anna Petrovna. Although Bassevich clearly tried to embellish Ekaterina and Menshikov, the minister's notes give a very clear picture. historical events winters of 1725

According to Bassevich, “Dejected by grief and forgetting everything in the world, the Empress did not leave him (Peter) at his head for three nights in a row. Meanwhile, while she was drowning in tears there, a conspiracy was secretly formed with the aim of concluding her with her daughters in a monastery, enthroning Grand Duke Peter Alekseevich and restoring the old order, canceled by the emperor and still dear not only to ordinary people, but also to greater parts of the nobles.

The last three days Peter was unconscious. The nobles were waiting for the moment when he expired in order to start discussing the issue of the fate of the throne.

In the meantime, Prosecutor General P.I. Yaguzhinsky, informed of the conspiracy, appeared in disguise to his friend Count Bassevich and told him: “Hurry to take care of your safety if you don’t want to have the honor of showing off on the gallows next to his lordship Prince Menshikov. The death of the Empress and her family is inevitable if the blow is not removed on the same night.

Count Bassevich hastened to convey this warning to the empress. Catherine ordered Bassevich to consult with Menshikov immediately.

At that time, the imperial guard consisted of two regiments, the chiefs of which were Menshikov and General I.I. Buturlin.

Menshikov immediately sent workers to the senior officers of the regiments and to many other persons whose assistance was needed. He ordered them to come quietly to the palace and at the same time ordered that the treasury be placed in the fortress. Menshikov and Bassevich managed to enlist the support of all those they counted on.

On the morning of January 28, 1725, the emperor died, and senators, generals and nobles immediately gathered in the palace.

Bassevich approached Yaguzhinsky, thanked him for the warning and warned against rash acts. Yaguzhinsky conveyed this message to Chancellor Count Golovkin. The news quickly spread among those present. Convinced of this, Bassevich gave a sign and outside the windows there was a beat of drums from both guards regiments.

At that moment, the Empress appeared in the hall. After her speech, Menshikov answered on behalf of everyone that such an important matter requires mature reflection, and asked Her Imperial Majesty to allow the dignitaries to confer. The meeting retired to another hall, the doors of which were locked, and when the dignitaries returned to the empress, Menshikov proclaimed: “We recognize you as our most merciful empress and sovereign and dedicate our property and our lives to you.”

She answered in the most gracious terms, and the soldiers and officers shouted: “Long live Empress Catherine!”, While Menshikov threw money from the window in handfuls. Thus, Catherine took possession of the scepter, which she was so worthy of.

In the spring of 1727, the Empress fell seriously ill. His Serene Highness Prince A.D. Menshikov had to choose which of the possible heirs to bet on. He knew that if he did not enlist the favor of the heir or heiress, then his days were numbered. If the throne goes to one of the daughters of Peter and Catherine - Anna or Elizabeth, then the importance of Princess Anna's husband, the Duke of Holstein, will incredibly increase at court. The relationship between the duke and Menshikov was such that the brightest should not have expected anything good for himself from such a change. In the event that the throne passes to the young Peter, Menshikov was threatened with revenge from the emperor for participating in the massacre of his father, Tsarevich Alexei. But Peter's grandson was only in his twelfth year, which allowed Menshikov to hope to bring the future tsar under his influence. The Most Serene Prince surrounded Peter with attention, settled him in his palace and began preparations for his betrothal to his daughter Maria.

On May 6, 1927, Catherine I died, already in the afternoon the guards headquarters and chief officers were called to the palace, and the soldiers were ordered not to leave their apartments and wait for orderlies. By evening, both regiments stood around the palace "in the meadow" and immediately spent the night.

On the morning of May 7, in the presence of the highest officials of the empire, Menshikov announced Catherine's will; Secretary of the Supreme Privy Council Vasily Stepanov announced the document according to which the throne passed to Peter II. But until the age of majority, the emperor was not supposed to ascend the throne, for this purpose official guardians were appointed in the person of Anna, Elizabeth, the Duke of Holstein and members of the Supreme Privy Council.

The will not only introduced a regency council under the emperor, but also canceled the Peter's law on succession to the throne: in the event of the death of Peter II, the crown passed to his sister and daughters of Peter I, Anna and Elizabeth. The announcement of the will ended with an oath to the new emperor of the civil and military officials present, as well as the regiments of the guard, who shouted “Vivat” to Peter who came out to them.

The accession of Peter II was not formally a coup; Menshikov managed to snatch legal sanction for this act. However, Lefort, in his report on the events of that day, wrote about the various moods of the highest officials of the state, among whom there were many opponents of Menshikov. Immediately, rumors began to circulate that Menshikov had poisoned the Empress; this opinion was reflected in the documents of the archive of the prince himself.

On August 12, 1727, Lefort reported: “Menshikov has reached the extreme limits, his stinginess has reached the extreme. He placed himself in such a way that the king could neither see nor hear him. Once the tsar sent 500 chervonets to ask Menshikov. Menshikov was curious to know their use. The king replied that he needed them, and, having received them, he gave them to his sister. Upon learning of this, Menshikov got excited, like a demoniac, and took the money from the Grand Duchess. Here is a new method to make you fall in love with yourself. God knows what desires they make for a happy liberation.”

From a letter from Lefort to August II dated August 30, 1727: “The name day of the Grand Duchess passed in a dispute between the tsar and Menshikov. As soon as the latter wanted to talk to him, he turned his back on him. The king maintains his power. He said to one of his favorites, after several searches on the part of Menshikov, to which he did not answer, "Look, am I not beginning to reason with him."

Events developed rapidly, and already on September 7, fresh news was ready for King Augustus: “Annoyed that the monarch had more insight than he would like to see in order to force the tsar to come to Oranienbaum, where he did not go, Menshikov came to spend the night in Peterhof.

The next day, the Supreme Privy Council ordered all the things of the tsar to be brought from the Menshikov house and the guard to be removed ...

Regarding Menshikov's desire to leave for Ukraine; I am rather of the opinion that he will not be overlooked, and even more so, he will not be entrusted with commanding ... This coup is the cause of universal joy here, not excluding even his most faithful favorites.

The next day the emperor returned to Petersburg. General Saltykov was sent to Menshikov with the announcement that he had been arrested. As soon as Menshikov arrived in Ranenburg, he was given a pile of papers with accusations against him. He was sentenced to exile in Berezov, the most remote place in Siberia. There he himself cut down the house and attached a chapel to it. November 12, 1729 he died.

Just a year later, in the winter of 1730, Peter II fell seriously ill. On the night of January 18-19, he, rushing about in delirium, shouted: "Harness the sleigh - I'm going to my sister!" Those were his last words. The sister he was going to visit had died shortly before.

Peter II did not have an undisputed heir. The fate of the throne was to be decided by the Supreme Privy Council, whose composition underwent changes: after the exile of Tolstoy and the disgrace of Menshikov, the Dolgorukis entered the Council, and after the death of Apraksin, Golitsyn and V.V. Dolgoruky.

In total, there were four contenders for the throne - the daughter of Peter I Elizabeth, the son of her late sister Anna, and two nieces of Peter I - Catherine and Anna. Nobody considered Elizabeth and the future Peter III as possible heirs; Catherine Ivanovna was married to the Duke of Mecklenburg and therefore preference was given to Anna Ivanovna, Dowager Duchess of Courland.

The main reason why preference was given to the Duchess of Courland was that she was at that time in Mitau, this remoteness made it possible to arrange a republican system of government.

1) The Empress will govern in accordance with the conclusions of the Supreme Council.

2) She will neither declare war nor make peace.

3) She will not impose new taxes, nor hand out important positions.

4) Will not execute nobles without clear evidence of a crime.

5) Will not confiscate property from anyone.

6) Will not dispose of state lands, nor alienate them.

7) He will not marry and will not choose a new successor for himself without an agreement on these subjects of the Supreme Council.

The meeting appointed three persons to announce to the Empress that she was called to the throne. The deputies were: Prince V.L. Dolgoruky, Prince Mikhail Golitsin and Lieutenant General Leontiev. The deputies were able to propose to the empress that she sign the above-mentioned articles and not take her favorite, the chamber cadet Biron, with her to Moscow.

Anna signed the terms and left for Moscow. Meanwhile, in Moscow, the gentry expressed dissatisfaction with the usurpers - the leaders. The nobility was a force, because many nobles gathered in Moscow to attend the coronation. The leaders were forced to cede to others the right to submit their opinions on new forms of government.

On February 10, Empress Anna Ioannovna drove up to Moscow. The turning point has arrived. The empress declared herself colonel of the Preobrazhensky regiment and captain of the cavalry guards. Thus, she violated one of the main clauses of the conditions that she signed and swore to fulfill.

On the night of February 24-25, the palace was surrounded by guard companies under the command of S.A. Saltykov. In the morning the empress was going to receive petitions from the nobility. By 10 o'clock in the morning, military and civilian officials began to gather in the palace. Prince Cherkassky reported to the Empress that the nobility was asking for an audience. When Anna entered the reception hall, there were about two hundred people there. Prince V.L. Dolgoruky stood next to the Empress. On the other side stood General Saltykov. The petition was submitted to the Empress by Field Marshal Prince Trubetskoy. After the petition, which spoke about the illegal actions and deceit of the Verkhovnikovs, was read out, there was general confusion, a noise arose. Anna wrote on the petition: "To be according to this." After that, she ordered the gentry to confer in the next hall, without leaving the palace, and present her opinion to her that very day. When everyone gathered again in the audience hall, a petition was read out about the restoration of autocracy.

Anna asked if the members of the Supreme Privy Council agreed that she accept the offer of the people. The leaders, surrounded by the guards, did not dare to object. By order of Anna, the conditions signed by her in Mitava were brought, and General Saltykov tore them up.

Strengthening the power inherited by her, Anna Ioannovna abolished the Supreme Privy Council, restored the Senate in its former meaning, and on October 18, 1731, on the initiative of Osterman, the Cabinet of Ministers was formed. Cabinet ministers were: Prince A.M. Cherkassky, Count G.I. Golovkin and A.I. Osterman, already promoted from baron to earl.

1730 - 1740 in Russian history they were called "Bironism".

E.I. Biron came from poor and humble nobles. In 1727 he became Anna Ioanovna's favorite. When members of the Supreme Privy Council sent conditions to the future empress, they specifically stipulated a ban on her favorite from entering Russia, but he arrived in Russia immediately after the break in conditions and took the post of chief chamberlain.

Possessing great influence on the empress, Biron intervened in almost all matters, at court he provided patronage to immigrants from Germany and Courland, severely persecuted all his opponents, from the most noble to the most inconspicuous.

Summing up, it can be noted that the first three coups took place without bloodshed, but, starting from the very first, it became clear that the guards would play the main role in the entire era of palace coups.

In the second chapter of my work, I consider the last four palace coups of the 18th century, during the reigns of Ivan VI, Elizabeth Petrovna and Peter III.

On October 5, 1740, Empress Anna Ioannovna fell seriously ill, and once again the issue of succession to the throne was not an easy one. Being childless, Anna intended to leave the crown to the offspring of her older sister Catherine. On December 7, 1718, Catherine and her husband, the Duke of Mecklenburg, Karl Leopold, had a daughter. She was named Elizabeth-Christina. She was later baptized Orthodox rite and named Anna in honor of her aunt, the Empress.

On July 3, 1739, Anna married Anton Ulrich, Prince of Brunswick-Bevern-Lüneburg. On August 12, 1740, their son was born, named Ivan. Empress Anna Ioannovna became his godmother.

On October 16, 1740, Anna Ioannovna died. Power passed to the new baby emperor and his regent, Biron, who did not enjoy the sympathy of many dignitaries of the state. The guards were also dissatisfied and openly called for his overthrow, calling regents under Ivan either the mother or father of the emperor. Anton Ulrich and Anna Leopoldovna were of the same opinion, but preferred to remain silent. The initiator and executor of the palace coup was Biron's main rival, Burchard Christopher Munnich. The coup took place on the night of November 9, 1740.

From Manstein's notes: “80 people, together with the field marshal, went to the Summer Palace, where the regent still lived. About 200 paces from this house the detachment stopped; the field marshal sent Manstein to the officers who were on guard at the regent to announce to them the intentions of Princess Anna; they were as accommodating as the rest, and even offered to help arrest the duke if they were needed. Then the field marshal ordered the same lieutenant colonel Manstein to stand with one officer at the head of a detachment of 20 people, enter the palace, arrest the duke and, in case of the slightest resistance on his part, kill him without mercy.

Biron, his close relatives and several of his associates, primarily A.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin, was arrested and taken to Shlisselburg. Thus, Biron's regency at the head of the Russian Empire lasted only 22 days.

The Russian guards again became the decisive force in the next palace coup. Minich on the same day proclaimed his mother Anna Leopoldovna as the regent-regent of Emperor Ivan VI.

Biron was judged by a special commission: the overthrown temporary worker was sentenced to death penalty, and his closest assistant Bestuzhev-Ryumin to quartering. But the sentence was not carried out. Anna Leopoldovna, who was proclaimed the ruler of Russia, pardoned the convicts, replacing their death penalty with life imprisonment. Deprived of all ranks, titles and huge estates, Biron was exiled to the town of Pelm in the north of the Tobolsk province. Bestuzhev-Ryumin was exiled to the Poshekhonsky village of his father without the right to leave.

Governing body " German party” in Russia could not be long: she turned against herself all strata of society. In the autumn of 1741, a conspiracy arose in favor of the youngest daughter of Peter I, Elizabeth. main role the guardsmen played in it again. The French ambassador Marquis Chétardie also actively participated in the conspiracy. By that time, a so-called small courtyard had formed around Elizabeth, consisting of people personally devoted to her. Among them were the noble brothers Shuvalov, M.I. Vorontsov, the chamber junker of the princesses A.G. Razumovsky and life surgeon I.G. Lestok.

The guards treated Elizabeth very well. Already in 1737, the government of Anna Ivanovna executed the ensign of the Preobrazhensky regiment A. Baryatinsky for the intention to raise "a man with three hundred friends" for the sake of Elizabeth.

From a letter to De la Chetardie J.-J. Amelo dated January 6, 1741: “And regarding the case that I overlooked to tell you and about which I heard from Princess Elizabeth herself, it is as follows: Field Marshal Count Munnich, having come to her with wishes of happiness in New Year, was extremely alarmed when he saw that the entrance, the stairs and the hall were filled entirely with guards soldiers, familiarly calling this princess their godfather; for more than a quarter of an hour he was unable to come to his senses in the presence of Princess Elizabeth, without seeing or hearing anything.

Apparently, the Empress Anna Leopoldovna also experienced no less difficult feelings, which explains her superstitious interpretation of one insignificant episode, which the historian A.F. Busching: “... the ruler Anna had a certain secret premonition that the Grand Duchess Elizabeth would rule over her; because once during her regency visiting her, she stumbled and fell at the feet of Elizabeth, and this circumstance made an impression in her heart that she told her court ladies (of which one told me about this) she said: I, of course, will have to be destroyed before Grand Duchess Elizabeth."

The guards were a reliable tool for the accession of Elizabeth, while the intrigues of foreign powers were not the cause of the coup, but served as an impetus for its implementation.

The popularity of Elizabeth among the people and among the guards began to disturb the Empress Anna Ioannovna and her entourage. The real threat to Elizabeth arose when the court "German party" became aware of her trusting relationship with the French ambassador. The ruler Anna Leopoldovna hesitated in choosing a punishment for the princess.

On November 24, 1741, at the suggestion of Osterman, the guards regiments were sent to Finland to conduct military operations against the Swedes. Before the performance, the soldiers of the grenadier company of the Preobrazhensky Regiment warned the princess that she would be left alone, defenseless among the enemies. The French ambassador Chétardie gave her the same warning through Lestocq. Frightened by the possible imprisonment in a monastery, Elizabeth finally decided to act.

At the head of a detachment of 300 guards, Elizabeth moved to the Winter Palace. On the last leg of the journey, so as not to make a fuss, she got out of the sleigh and walked to the palace on foot. She walked slowly and began to fall behind, so the guards put her on their shoulders and carried her into the Winter Palace. The palace guards immediately joined the conspirators. Everything happened without a single shot being fired. The arrested Braunschweig family, along with members of the government, was taken to the Elisabeth Palace near the Champ de Mars.

By morning, the manifesto on the accession to the throne was ready. The guards and officials swore allegiance, and under the cries of welcome from the guards and salutes from the Peter and Paul Fortress, a new reign began.

« State criminals» Osterman, Minikh, Levenvold and Golovkin were initially sentenced to death, but then sent to Siberian exile: Osterman to Berezov, where Menshikov had previously died, Minikh to Pelym, to replace Biron. The family of the deposed Emperor Ivan Antonovich - to the Russian north. Biron was returning from exile to a new place of residence - to Yaroslavl. Golovkin was sent to the Yakut winter hut Germang.

In the second half of the 50s, Elizaveta Petrovna began to get sick more often, and her state of health sometimes seemed threatening. The courtiers began to seriously think about the future. Grand Duke Pyotr Fedorovich, who had been considered the official heir to Elizabeth for 10 years, had an indisputable right to the throne.

Peter III owes his ascension to the Russian throne to two great personalities in the history of the Russian state - his own aunt Elizabeth Petrovna and Peter the Great, who issued the "Decree on Succession to the Throne".

The new autocrat was born on February 10, 1728 in the capital of Schleswig-Holstein, the city of Kiel. His father was Duke Karl Friedrich, his mother - eldest daughter Peter I Anna. The boy was named Karl-Peter-Ulrich. His fate was predetermined a few years before his birth. According to his father, he was the nephew of the Swedish king Charles XII. Therefore, the infant could really claim royal throne Sweden.

He could also count on the Russian imperial throne. His parents, in a marriage contract concluded in 1724, renounced any claims to reign in Russia. However, Peter I reserved the right to name them "one of the princes born of God's blessing from this marriage."

At the age of fourteen, Karl Peter Ulrich was brought to Russia in January 1742. His childhood was difficult. The boy lost his mother at the age of three months, his father at the age of eleven and fell into bad hands. His teachers were rude, intimidated and severely punished Peter. Upon arrival in Russia, he surprised everyone with his physical and mental underdevelopment. The heir to the Russian throne found friends among the servants and, as it seemed to many, stopped in his development. At the age of seventeen, he was married to the sixteen-year-old Anhalt-Zerbst princess Sophia Augusta Frederick, named Ekaterina Alekseevna in Orthodoxy.

In contrast to her husband, who treated her new homeland with disdain and hostility, Catherine from the very first days took up the study of the Russian language and Russian customs, although she spoke with a strong accent until the end of her life. At the rite of conversion to the Orthodox faith, she pronounced her confession in Russian so clearly that Elizaveta Petrovna even shed a tear.

Elizaveta Petrovna died on December 25, 1761. Passage of the throne to Peter III passed calmly. However, the tension with which the heir waited for the outcome of events is noticeable in the story of the Danish diplomat A. Schumacher, who described the amazing “deed of the emperor in relation to the chamberlain I. I. Shuvalov. He charged him with the fact that immediately after the death of the empress, he introduced the palace guards and recommended them as their future emperor. As if it wasn’t clear by itself that the grandson of Peter I and for many years the official heir to the throne should take power after Empress Elizabeth!

Having ascended the throne, Peter, contrary to the interests of Russia, abruptly changed course foreign policy. On the very first day of his reign, he sent a letter to Frederick II, in which he announced his intention to establish "eternal friendship" with the Prussian king. On March 16, Russia and Prussia signed an armistice, and on May 6, a peace treaty.

Also, the new Russian emperor started a war with Denmark. General Rumyantsev, on the orders of Peter III, began to prepare troops for a campaign in order to punish the old offenders of the emperor's ancestors from the Holstein house. The planting of the Prussian order began in the Russian army. Many relatives of Peter III received high posts in the Russian army. Minich and Lestok were returned from exile, but Bestuzhev was not granted a pardon. The Shuvalov brothers, who were promoted to field marshals, also held on to power.

Peter III carried out many reforms and decrees, however, they did not bring him the desired popularity even among the nobles. The soul of the next coup was the smart and decisive wife of the emperor - Ekaterina Alekseevna. Most of the nobles turned out to be on her side, but they were only capable of moral support. Only the noble guards could start and successfully complete the palace coup. Catherine understood this and acted very prudently. She received the support of the guards through the Orlov brothers and her closest confidante Ekaterina Dashkova.

There were five Orlov brothers - Ivan, Grigory, Alexei, Fedor and Vladimir. The main role in the conspiracy was played by Grigory and Alexei.

The palace coup was accelerated by the emperor himself. He openly spoke about his intention to divorce his wife and marry Elizaveta Vorontsova. During a ceremonial dinner in the Winter Palace, the autocrat, who was excessively tipsy, in the presence of everyone foreign ambassadors called Ekaterina Alekseevna a fool and ordered her to be arrested. Surrounding with difficulty managed to persuade him not to do this.

The conspirators had to act ahead of schedule. On June 27, Captain Passek was arrested in the Preobrazhensky Regiment. This event was the signal for a palace coup. On June 28, at 6 o'clock in the morning, Alexei Orlov informed Ekaterina that Passek had been arrested. The conspirators immediately went to the barracks of the Izmailovsky regiment, raised on alarm. Colonel of the Izmailovites Kirill Razumovsky, together with the guards, swore allegiance to the new empress. After that, Catherine with the guards proceeded to the location of the Semenovsky Guards Regiment.

Then, in the Kazan Cathedral, Archbishop D. Sechenev served a prayer service and solemnly declared Catherine the autocratic empress of all Russia.

When the empress was carried in her arms to the Winter Palace and seated on the throne, the Senate and the Synod were already waiting for her. Nikita Panin presented Catherine with a hastily compiled Imperial Manifesto for her signature, and the Empress signed it without reading it.

The conspirators were in a hurry to bring the matter to an end. Orders followed one after another: Admiral Talyzin was ordered to urgently go to Kronstadt and persuade the sea fortress to complete obedience to Catherine II; Vice-Admiral Polyansky - to swear to the new sovereign the crews of the ships of the Russian fleet and the entire personnel of the Admiralty; lieutenant general Panin - to immediately go to General Rumyantsev and take command of the Russian corps from him, intended for military operations against the Kingdom of Denmark and return with troops to Russia; Anshef General Chernyshev - to stop the performance of the Russian army on the side of the Prussian King Frederick II against Austria in the Seven Years' War and return home with the troops. After that, a campaign of troops of the capital's garrison loyal to Catherine was announced against Peterhof. A huge military column left Petersburg at ten o'clock in the evening.

At lunchtime on June 28, Peter III discovered his wife was missing. Suspecting something was wrong, Peter decided to sail to Kronstadt and take refuge in a sea fortress. Sailing to Kronstadt, he saw the commander of the troops, General Talyzin, and decided to return to Oranienbaum and enter into negotiations with Catherine.

At this time, Catherine was in the Sergius Hermitage, where she was met by Major General Izmailov. He announced that the emperor intended to abdicate the throne. The Empress and her followers were not against such a completion of the coup. The text of the renunciation was compiled by chamberlain Grigory Teplov and Peter III signed it without objection.

The palace coup was a complete success: the monarch abdicated, there was no bloodshed. On June 30, 1762, Empress Catherine II solemnly ascended the throne of the Russian Empire. It is this moment that historians consider the end of the palace coups, since during the "golden age" of Catherine II, the stabilization of Russia's development began, the great transformations of Peter I continued, and the country reached new level organizations.

palace coup russia guard

Conclusion

The period of palace coups in the 18th century ended with the accession of Catherine II, already the eighth autocrat with the imperial title. But, despite such a frequent change of rulers, the Russian Empire continued to develop, each ruler introduced something new into the country's governance system. However, this period is called the “era of palace coups” not because the rulers changed so often. More importantly, almost every change of power was accompanied by turmoil, unrest and exile. Thousands of people fearfully awaited the onset of a new reign - they were not sure of the future.

For a long time, historians have been thinking about the reasons for such a “nervous” political life countries. It is no secret for everyone familiar with this era that the fate of the throne depended primarily on who the guards would follow. It was the mood of the Guard that determined the success of the coup or the failure of the rebellion. Many years of service at the court led to the fact that the guards felt their involvement in everything that happened in the palace. But why were the coups carried out by the guards, and not by the lackeys?

The fact is that the guard was a close-knit, well-trained military association with established traditions, which provided it with unity, discipline and coordination of actions at crucial moments in history, unlike corporations of officials, lackeys and courtiers. All this gave the guards a special, exaggerated idea of ​​their role in the life of the country.

Political scientists also note in modern Russian reality the trends of “reconstruction of the traditional for Russia political organization» - concentration and single-handedness of power; the determining role of "personal relationships, personal and group informal ties" in the formation and functioning of new public institutions. The Russian bureaucracy persists with a misconception about the legitimacy and the limits of its rights.

If these tendencies prevail, the history of palace coups in Russia has a future; the concept itself has already become firmly established in modern political language and widely used in the media. Undoubtedly, this is a very exciting story to study, but, as V.O. Klyuchevsky, “there is too much of the past in our present; it would be desirable to have around us less history».

List of used literature

1) A.V. Shishov "Century of Catherine". M., 1998. "Ripol Classic".

2) N.Ya. Eidelman "The Edge of Ages". St. Petersburg, 1992. Ex-libris.

3) I.V. Kurukin "The era of "yard storms". Essays on the political history of post-Petrine Russia. Ryazan, 2003. Private publisher Tribunsky.

4) M.A. Fighters "With a sword and a torch". M., 1991. "Contemporary".

5) E.V. Anisimov "Timelessness and temporary workers". St. Petersburg, 1991. " Fiction».

6) V.V. Yezhov, The Most Famous Conspiracies and Coups in Russia. M., 2002. Veche.

7) N.N. Molchanov Diplomacy of Peter the Great. M., 1991. "International Relations".

8) N.I. Pavlenko "Chicks of Petrov's Nest". M., 1998. "Thought".

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Russian guard. History of formation and traditions Russian Guard

The Russian Guard is the color and pride of the Russian Armed Forces, the personification of invincible military power, mass heroism and military prowess. Its fighting traditions serve as an example of fidelity to military duty and the Fatherland to soldiers.

History and traditions of the Imperial Guard

"Guard" in translation from Italian - protection, guards, selected privileged part of the troops. It arose with the birth of slave-owning states, when special guards (bodyguards) appeared under monarchs and military leaders. For example, in ancient Greece it was called the “sacred detachment”, in ancient Persia it was a 10,000-strong corps of “immortals”, in the army of Alexander the Great it was a 6-thousandth corps, which included heavy infantry (gyraspists) and heavy cavalry (hetaera). AT Ancient Rome Gaius Marius had a cohort of Praetorians.

In the Middle Ages, special detachments of selected warriors existed in many armies. They had the commanders of Byzantium, Charlemagne, Genghis Khan and others.

The term "guard" first appeared in the XII century in Lombardy (Italy). Initially, it denoted a selected military detachment guarding the state banner. With the creation of permanent armies, the guard was divided into palace (to protect the monarch) and military (elite units of the army). It existed in almost all the states of Europe - in France, Italy, Prussia, England and others.

The Russian Guard (Russian Imperial Life Guard) existed from 1721 to March 1917. It was created by Peter I in 1696-1700 on the basis of the Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky "amusing" regiments. Own baptism of fire the Russian guards received in the Battle of Narva in 1700, where they saved the Russian army from complete annihilation. For this feat, the officers of the regiments were awarded a badge with the inscription "1700 November 19". Peter I ordered the guardsmen to wear red stockings instead of green as a sign that they fought knee-deep in blood.

In the XVIII century, the Russian Guard participated in all the wars of the Russian Empire. Guards regiments trained officers for the entire army and were staffed almost exclusively by noblemen, for whom military service was mandatory. From the mid-30s of the 18th century, the rank and file of the guard also began to be replenished with recruits from taxable estates, and after the release of the manifesto on liberties to the nobility in 1762, this method became the main one. The social composition of the guard provided it with great political influence. The support of the guard predetermined the success of all the palace coups of that time. Being an elite part of the Russian army, the guard enjoyed great privileges. For example, according to the Table of Ranks of 1722, guard officers had two ranks of seniority over army officers. With the formation of the Young Guard in 1813, its officers received a seniority of one rank. This arrangement continued until the end of the 19th century, when Alexander III curtailed the privileges of the guard.

In the 19th century, the guard in full force participated in all the wars that Russia waged with Napoleon. She especially distinguished herself in Austerlitz (1805) and Borodino (1812) battles, in the battles of Kulm (1813) and Gorny Dubnyak (1877).

At the beginning of the 20th century, individual parts of the guard took part in the Chinese campaign (1900) and Russo-Japanese War(1904 -1905). To the first world war(1914 - 1918) Guard troops successfully operated in the Battle of Galicia, Warsaw-Ivangorod, in Lodz some operations. In the summer of 1916, as part of the Special Army, the Guards participated in the Brusilov breakthrough.

During the First World War, significant changes took place in the organization of the guard. In connection with serious losses in the personnel, representatives of the peasantry and the working class began to be called in to replenish it. The masses of soldiers of the guard bore the hardships of the war on a par with the entire Russian army and ceased to be a stronghold of tsarism. This seriously influenced the political mood among the guards. As a result, after the victory of the February Revolution of 1917 and the abdication of the king from the throne, the guards did not even make an attempt to intervene in the course of events. The Provisional Government retained it by abolishing the prefix "Lab" and the name "Imperial". After the conclusion of the Brest peace in 1918 and the demobilization of the old tsarist army, the guard was disbanded.

During the revolution of 1917, the Red Guard appeared in many large cities of Russia. It was recruited from workers on a voluntary basis on a territorial basis (by factories) and was the main force of the Land of Soviets. At the beginning of 1918, on the basis of the Red Guard detachments, the first units and formations of the Workers 'and Peasants' Red Army were formed, many of whose fighters and commanders later became; prominent Soviet military leaders. After the introduction on July 10, 1918 of the mandatory military service The Red Guard as a form of organization of the armed forces was gradually abolished.

The military uniform of the guards has always been a symbol of honor, dignity, discipline, and the expression "honor of uniform" was identical to the concept of "honor deserved on the battlefield." After all, they, the guardsmen, were the only ones in the Russian army who were granted not only red stockings, but also a white piping. It was considered to belong to the sailors and reminded the guards infantry of its valiant participation in the naval battles of Peter I. In memory of the Narva Victoria of 1704, officers of the Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky regiments wore special badges.

It should be noted that when new models of weapons were introduced into the army, they first of all entered the guards. So, in the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. the guards regiments were already armed with the improved Berdan No. 2 rifle, while the army units were still armed with old rifles.

Holy guards guarded the honor of their regiment, its ancient traditions. The name of the regiment was emblazoned on the battle banner and was a source of special pride for all personnel. The assignment of a name to the regiment in memory of military merit was considered an outstanding event. The first duty of every guard was to protect military banner shelf. These and other glorious traditions of the Russian Guard were continued by the Soviet Guard.

History and traditions of the Soviet and Russian guards

The Soviet Guard was not born in a thunder of salutes and honors. The first guard formations arose during the Battle of Smolensk in 1941 - at a time of mortal danger for the Fatherland, at the most difficult, most difficult stage of the Great Patriotic War, when our army, in unfavorable conditions for itself, stubbornly, at the cost of incredible efforts and great sacrifices, held back the sudden, treacherous, a subtly prepared enemy invasion. There, near Yelnya, as a result of a counterattack by the Western and Reserve fronts, a large enemy grouping was defeated for the first time, and the city was liberated.

On September 18, 1941, the People's Commissar of Defense of the USSR issued Order No. 308, which noted the special military prowess of the 100th, 127th, 153rd and 161st rifle divisions, which showed mass heroism in the battles for the Motherland, examples of courage, courage, discipline, organization, high military skill of the personnel. By this order, distinguished formations, commanded respectively by Major General I.N. Russiyanov, colonels A.Z. Akimenko, N.A. Hagen, P.F. Moskvitin, were renamed the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th Guards Rifle Divisions. At the same time, by decision of the Headquarters of the Supreme High Command, the formation of guards mortar units was begun.

One of the first in the Red Army on November 18, 1941, the legendary 316th Rifle Division under the command of Major General Ivan Vasilyevich Panfilov received the title of 8th Guards, courageously fighting the Nazi invaders on the outskirts of Moscow in the Volokolamsk direction. 28 Panfilov heroes performed an unprecedented feat at the Dubosekovo junction, stopping the advance of 50 enemy tanks. And the words of political instructor V.G. Klochkova: "Russia is great, but there is nowhere to retreat - Moscow is behind!" have become synonymous with courage, heroism and resilience.

The Soviet Guard grew irresistibly stronger and matured in all branches of the Armed Forces and combat arms. The name "Guards" was given to units, ships, formations and associations that distinguished themselves in battles and battles of the Great Patriotic War, as well as newly formed in special states. During the four years of the Great Patriotic War, the honorary title of "Guards" was awarded to 11 combined arms and 6 tank armies, dozens of rifle, cavalry, tank, mechanized, aviation corps, divisions and separate units, 18 warships.

The Guards of the Great Patriotic War is a galaxy of heroes whose names will never fade. Among them, Yuri Vasilievich Smirnov, junior commander of the Red Army, who accomplished a heroic deed as part of the 77th Guards rifle regiment 26th Guards rifle division forever enrolled in his lists. On the night of June 24, 1944, while being part of a tank landing during a breakthrough of enemy defenses in the Orsha direction in the battle for the village of Shalashino, he was seriously wounded and captured by the enemy. During the interrogation, despite the cruel torture, the courageous warrior did not give out military secrets to the enemy. The embittered Nazis crucified him on the wall of the dugout, and pierced his body with bayonets. For his courage, loyalty to soldier's duty, military oath and heroism, he was awarded the title of Hero Soviet Union.

The guardsmen were full cavaliers of the Order of Glory, Heroes of the Soviet Union Guards Senior Lieutenant Ivan Grigorievich Drachenko and Guards Sergeant Pavel Khristoforovich Dubinda. I.G. Drachenko, a talented air attack fighter, named Air Admiral Nelson after losing one eye, fought as part of the 140th Guards Assault Aviation Regiment of the 8th Guards Assault Aviation Division. P.H. Dubinda fought after escaping from captivity, first as a squad leader, then as a platoon commander of the 293rd Guards Rifle Regiment of the 96th Guards Rifle Division on the 1st and 3rd Belorussian fronts.

All of them revived and increased the best fighting traditions of the Russian Guard. In the feats of arms of their ancestors, our guards served lofty examples stamina and fearlessness, loyalty to his people. For successful actions, many guards units (ships), formations, associations were repeatedly noted in the orders of the Supreme Commander-in-Chief, were awarded state awards, awarded honorary titles for capturing cities, forcing rivers.

For the military personnel of the guards units in May 1942, the badge "Guard" was established. In the Navy until 1943, they were served by a rectangular plate (gilded for commanding officers and silvered for privates) with an orange moire ribbon, with black longitudinal stripes. The sailors and foremen of the guard ships wore a moire ribbon on their peakless caps. For all military personnel of the guards units, ships and formations, distinctive military ranks were established, which were formed by adding the word “guard” before the corresponding military rank, they were given an increased salary.

On June 11, 1943, a model of the Guards Red Banner was established, which became the sign combat distinction parts. The Regulations on the Guards Red Banners said: "The Guards Red Banner obliges all personnel of the guards armies and corps to be a model for all other units and formations of the Red Army." The ceremony of presenting the Guards Banners included new tradition- the oath of the personnel to the Guards Banner. Not knowing fear, the guards fought heroically under their banners.

The creation of the Soviet guard became one of the important events in the field of military development. It played a huge role in strengthening the combat capability of the army and navy. Guards regiments, ships, divisions, corps and armies inflicted crushing blows on the enemy, served as a model of selfless devotion to the Motherland, unshakable will to win, stamina and perseverance. The Soviet Guards were sent to the most difficult sectors of the front and everywhere they carried out combat missions with honor. No wonder they said during the war: “Where the guards advance, the enemy cannot resist. Where the guard is defending, the enemy cannot pass.

People of high duty - such were the front-line guardsmen. Such aspire to be those who are entrusted to serve in the guard in our days. With their military work, they continue the glorious traditions of previous generations of guardsmen and make a worthy contribution to strengthening the might of the Russian Armed Forces.

AT Peaceful time the transformation of military units and formations into guards is not carried out. In order to preserve combat traditions, the guard ranks of units, ships, formations and associations, when re-formed, are transferred to new military units with direct succession in terms of personnel.

So, in October 1986, he returned to his homeland, exemplarily fulfilling his international duty in Afghanistan, the Guards Motorized Rifle Order-bearing Regiment, in which the Hero of the Soviet Union, Senior Lieutenant N.M. served as a company commander. Akramov. During the Great Patriotic War, the soldiers of the regiment as part of the famous 13th Guards Rifle Division, commanded by General A.I. Rodimtsev, stood to death in Stalingrad, participated in Battle of Kursk, crossing the Dnieper, distinguished themselves during the liberation of the Polish city of Czestochowa and celebrated Victory Day in Prague.

The children and grandchildren of the front-line soldiers had a chance to provide international assistance to the Afghan people. The military work of the young guardsmen was not easy. During their stay in the Republic of Afghanistan, the soldiers of the regiment, guarding the columns carrying fuel and food to the cities and villages, removed and destroyed more than two thousand dushman mines and land mines. Many soldiers, sergeants and officers of the unit were awarded Soviet and Afghan orders and medals.

Soldiers-guards showed examples of courage and heroism in the performance of international duty in Afghanistan. At a critical moment, they deliberately sacrificed themselves in order to save the subordinates entrusted to them. So, saving the life of the soldiers of the company, Guards Senior Sergeant Alexander Grigorievich Mironenko and two of his subordinates entered into battle with the dushmans. The moment came when the cartridges ran out. Twice wounded, Alexander lay with a grenade in his hand behind a stone. He waited for the spooks to come closer. With the last grenade, he blew himself up and his enemies. For this feat, accomplished on February 29, 1980, the deputy platoon commander of the reconnaissance company of the guards airborne regiment A.G. Mironenko was posthumously awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union. He is forever enrolled in the lists of the guards military unit.

But will we ever forget about the feat of the contemporaries of the 6th company of the 104th Guards Airborne Regiment near Ulus-Kert? It is inscribed like a golden line in the recent history of the Armed Forces of Russia, in the centuries-old annals of its guards.

In the battles for the freedom and independence of the Motherland, guards fighting traditions have developed, which have been helping commanders to educate courageous and skillful fighters for decades, and the guards of the Armed Forces Russian Federation is the successor and continuer of the fighting traditions of its predecessors.

Guards units and ships are true laboratories of combat experience: creative daring, tireless search for new methods of combat, effective use of weapons - this is what always distinguishes the guards. To serve under the banner of the Russian Guard is both a great honor and a great responsibility.

The traditions of the Russian Guard, its unfading glory are the legacy and property of every soldier, of all our units and ships. To serve in the Guards today means to have the highest combat qualifications, masterfully master equipment and weapons. The covenant of front-line guardsmen - to keep gunpowder dry, to be ready at any moment to join the battle and fight heroically for the freedom and independence of the Fatherland - should be the main one for the current defenders of the Fatherland.

In preparation for the lesson, it is necessary to familiarize yourself with the materials on this topic that were published on the pages of Orientir in previous years, and prepare a selection of literature. The lesson will be much more interesting if it is held in a museum or a room military glory units, to invite veteran guardsmen to speak.

In introductory remarks it is necessary to emphasize the important role of the guard throughout military history Russia, the importance of its contribution to the country's defense capability.

When considering issues, it is necessary to dwell in detail on the main stages in the development and formation of the Russian Guard, its combat traditions from Peter the Great to the present day.

Saturation and completeness of the presentation of the material will give the display of distinctive badges "Guard" for military personnel ground forces and
Navy, photographs with samples of military uniforms of guards units, showing fragments of art and documentaries, telling about the courage and heroism of the soldiers-guards, who multiplied the combat traditions of the Russian guard.

1. Military encyclopedia. In 8 vols. T. 2. M., 1994. - S. 366 - 368.

2. Vasiliev N. Born in battles. M., 1966.

3. Kuzmichev A. Soviet Guard. M., 1969.

4. Sinkelev A., Samosvat D. The history of the formation of the Russian Guard // Landmark. - 2008 - No. 5.

Lieutenant colonel
Dmitry SAMOSVAT
candidate pedagogical sciences Lieutenant colonel
Alexey KURSHEV