Armed forces of Italy to the beginning of the invasion of Ethiopia. Italian army: under the "umbrella" of the United States Armament of the Italian army

Italian air force structure. Italy has a very rich aviation history - suffice it to say that it was the Italians who first used aircraft for military purposes (in 1911 in Libya during the Italo-Turkish war). Currently, the Italian Air Force - Aeronautica Militare - is one of the three main branches of the country's armed forces.
The Italian Air Force has about 470 aircraft and helicopters and approximately 43 thousand people serve.

Emblem and identification mark of the Italian Air Force

The motto of the Air Force is "Virtute Siderum Tenus" ("with courage to the stars"). In organizational terms, the Air Force consists of the Air Squadron Command, the Support Command, the Aviation Schools Command, the Air Operations Command and two commands of the aviation districts 1st in Milan and 3rd in Baria.
Italian air force structure, command of the air squadron (COMANDO DELLA SQUADRA AEREA).
Almost all aviation units are subordinate to this Command, with the exception of training ones.

Basic organizational units

• - stormo (Stormo - letters, "flock"), roughly corresponding to the regiment;
• - gruppo (Gruppo) - analogue of the squadron;
• - Squadriglia - corresponds to the link.

The most modern combat vehicles are the Typhoon fighters, which are armed with three stormos (air regiments): the 4th in Grosseto (9th and 20th training battle groups), 36th in Gioia del Colle (10th and 12th gr) and 37th in Trapani (18th gr).

Italian Air Force multirole fighter Eurofighter "Typhoon" photo, two have refueling probes, and the first does not

Attack aviation is represented by Tornado fighter-bombers, which are in service with the 6th stormo in Gedi (102nd combat training, 154th and 156th groups), as well as the 50th stormo in Piacenza (155th group specializing in reconnaissance and electronic warfare).
Lighter AMX fighter-bombers are available in the 32nd stormo in Amendol (13th and 101st combat training groups, as well as the 28th unmanned aerial vehicles) and the 51st stormo in Istrana (103rd and 132nd i intelligence). The 41st stormo is deployed in Sigonella, which includes the 88th group with base patrol aircraft. Most of the transport workers have been consolidated into the 46th air brigade (Pisa), which includes the 2nd and 50th groups with medium C-130J aircraft, as well as the 98th with light C-27J. The 14th stormo (Pratica di Mare) includes tanker aircraft KS-767 and light transport R.180, the 31st (Ciampino) - aircraft for the transport of dignitaries. The 15th Stormo, headquartered in Cervia, combines helicopters assigned to five search and rescue centers located at various airfields.

"Tornado" IDS of the 6th regiment of the Italian Air Force. Afghanistan, 2008

Ground air defense is provided by the 2nd stormo (700th and 701st groups with the Spada air defense system), the 1st special forces brigade and the 313th aerobatic team "Frekke Tricolori" ("Three-color arrows") are also subordinate to the command of the air squadron, serving on MB.339PAN aircraft.

Italian aerobatics Frecce tricolori

Aerobatic team of the Italian Air Force "Frecce tricolori". RIAT International Airshow Gloucestershire 2013

at the Flugtag air show in Germany in 88, on a collision course, one plane rams a group, damaging two. As a result of the disaster, about 400 people were injured, 70 died

Italian air force structure aviation school command.
Future military pilots undergo initial training in the 70th stormo (Latina), which includes the 207th group with SF.260EA propeller-driven aircraft. Basic and advanced training is provided by the 61st stormo in Lecce. Its 213th group is equipped with MB.339A jets, and the 212th - MB.339CD with more modern on-board equipment.

High-speed check-in Lamborghini and fighter-bomber Tornado on a 3-kilometer segment. Leading in the initial stretch, Lamborghini still lost, Tornado's 38,000 l / s played their part, he crossed the finish line at a speed of more than 750 km / h, and a sports car of more than 300

For the training of helicopter pilots, the 72nd Stormo (Frosignone) serves with the 208th Group (NH 500E helicopters), which also provides training for flight personnel for army and naval aviation. The Support Command includes various ground units (supply, repair, etc.), and the Air Operations Command includes two radar groups (12 radar posts).
Modernization
The Italian Air Force is currently completing the purchase of the last of the 87 ordered Typhoon fighters.

Italian Air Force AMX during a training flight. Air force base Nellis, 2009

Tornado and AMX aircraft are undergoing modernization, and in the future they will be replaced by fifth-generation F-35 Lightning II fighter-bombers.
It is planned to purchase 90 of these aircraft: 60 F-35A and 30 F-35 (including 15 for naval aviation), but this number is likely to be revised down.

In the near future, the Air Force will include two AWACS G.550 aircraft purchased in Israel as an "offset" for the supply of training M.346 "Master" to this country. The latter were also bought by Italy itself - so far in relatively small quantities (15 units). Obsolete base patrol aircraft "Atlantic" are being replaced by ATR 72ASW machines, created on the basis of passenger ones. The command pays great attention to updating the fleet of search and rescue helicopters.

heavy helicopter AW101, plans to increase the fleet by 15 machines

To replace light vehicles AB 212, deliveries of AW 139 helicopters began, and HH-3F, starting in 2014, will be replaced by heavier AW 101 (15 units ordered).
Aircraft and helicopter fleet of Italians.
Multirole fighters

"Typhoon" F-200 (VTF-2000 - 60/11 (+ 25 ordered)
Fighter-bombers

• Tornado IDS/ECR - 60/15
• AMX/AMX-ET - 43/12

Basic patrol aircraft

• "Atlantic" - 4
• ATR72ASW-1 (+4 ordered)

Electronic reconnaissance aircraft

• G.222-3

Tankers

• KS-767 - 4

Transport aircraft

• C-130J/C-130J-30/KC-130J - 5/10/6
• C-27J-12
• A319-3
• "Falcon" 900 - 5
• Falcon 50-2
• R.180-14

• SF.260-30
• MB.339A/PAN/CD - 34/18/29
• М.346-3 (+12 ordered)

Helicopters

• NH500E-49
• AB 212 - 33
• AW139-3 (+17 on order)
• HH-3F-21

Unmanned aerial vehicles

Unmanned aerial vehicles RQ-1B-6

• RQ-1B-6
• MQ-9A - 6

In September, while spending my next vacation in Italy, I was lucky enough to discover Rome, where I was already for the fourth time, from a new perspective. It turns out that in this city roads are also blocked for the passage of motorcades of officials who wanted to lay wreaths at the eternal flame, they can also cordon off the central square for a military parade, naturally, creating traffic jams, attractions are closed for tourists, and they also rehearse drills right on the streets of the city .

I witnessed two small (by our standards) military parades at once over several days, which made it possible to take a closer look at different types of parade and everyday uniforms of different branches of the Italian Armed Forces. Well, at the same time compare our and Italian military fashion. Unfortunately, no matter how much I tried to google, I did not find a single guide or article on the types of forms, therefore my conclusions will be intuitive and based only on external signs. Do not judge strictly:)

In general, the armed forces of Italy consist of four branches of service: land, naval, air force and carabinieri corps.

We saw the first mini-parade next to the Quirinal Palace, which now serves as the residence of the President of Italy. Probably, in our realities, it would be something like demonstration performances by the Presidential Regiment.
To the sounds of a military band, boys and girls dressed in the same way marched in front of the palace and descended into underground catacombs castle, passing along the neighboring street.

Military Band of the Presidential Regiment. The musicians left first.

At the head of the formation are handsome guys with the flag of the country. The length of the beard and the shape of the shave, apparently, are not determined by the charter. The color of the uniform, by the way, indicates that these are ordinary ground troops, but the fact that they serve in the Presidential Palace clearly cancels their usualness.

It is very strange that men and women have exactly the same cut of trousers and shirts.
And at the same time, the uniform sits objectively better on men. Each fighter not only has a machine gun, but also a solid dagger for potential close combat.

One of them noticed me... :)

The second parade was already taking place near the famous Vittoriano monument. In order to hold this parade for about an hour or an hour and a half, traffic was blocked along one of the central squares of Rome - Piazza Venezia. Naturally, solid traffic jams formed on all adjacent streets and alleys, because this intersection is one of the most intense traffic in Rome.

Here, by the way, Piazza Venezia.

On a hot September afternoon, to the sound of a military band, several detachments of different branches of the military came out of the Vittoriano building. And to the sounds of a military band again, the soldiers beautifully marched exactly to the center of the square. No one has started taking pictures yet, I ran like crazy along the newly blocked roadway and took pictures of people in unusual uniforms.

Judging by the range of uniforms, red and black, the honorary carabinieri were the first to march. And actually the question arose, why are fur hats in Italy?

"Love the girls of simple romantics, brave pilots and sailors..." :)
So, snow-white sailors ...

I can assume that those very brave pilots followed them ...
Check out the vintage boots.

And then there were some very strange guys. I really can’t imagine what kind of military service this is.
Their captain had a mop on his head. No, really, a mop, these are now sold in all hardware stores. And the guys in the ranks had dust collectors attached to their heads ...

Maybe it's the fighters for purity?? But anyway, they are great!!

The higher ranks were visibly worried: probably due to the fact that the servicemen were not dressed for the weather, it was about 35 degrees outside, and someone buttoned up and wearing a hat would surely faint.

A guard of honor was beautifully lined up on the stairs. It is immediately clear that it is not necessary for everyone to be in perfect physical shape: there is a boy with cheeks;)

Unfortunately, there was no way to get closer to them. Crowds of tourists with very gentle movements tried to disperse very nice policemen on different sides of the street.

Well, the less pretty representatives of Italian law enforcement agencies looked with tension in the direction where their colleagues were rapidly gaining popularity points and catching the languid sighs of tourists;)

Well, after a while there were those because of whom all this "cheese-boron". Naturally, it was a cortege with darkened windows (Yes, yes, there are such in Italy too). He was accompanied by carabinieri on motorcycles. This one right out of "Terminator 2" got out.

These guys moved in sync.

Well, here powers of the world this came out of the machines. And went to accept the parade.

And here is the actual reason for the transport collapse in the very center of Rome. As you know, it is on the Vittoriano that the monument of the Eternal Flame is located.

After the Italian anthem played, the military received the command "at ease", and the official guys quickly retreated.

After that, everyone sharply got together and, to the beat of a military drum, everyone marched in the same direction from where they had appeared. In total, one of the central squares of the city was blocked for about 40-50 minutes. As soon as the platoons began to leave the square, traffic began to open

First came the military band.

Blue - the traditional color of the sky - belongs to the Air Force without division into positions.

White - sailors.

Well, in the end, people in marsh-colored uniforms passed. And I'm confused about the colors again.

Well, apart from this entire collection of uniforms of employees in the Eternal City is the clothes of the representative of the local traffic police, the traffic controller and his snow-white gloves. In particularly difficult moments, for example, during the morning rush hour, there are several such traffic controllers at once at each intersection on Venice Square. They stand on a high bedside table, but often because of the buses that drive around Rome no worse than mopeds, it is not visible.

These are the guys you can meet on the streets of Rome. The Swiss Guard of the Vatican stands apart, but that's another story.

The armed forces of Italy are: Navy, Army, Carabinieri, Air Force. The Italian Armed Forces also include the Financial Police Corps (Guardia di Finanza), the Military Corps of the Italian Red Cross, the Volunteer Nurses, the Military Corps of the Italian Armed Forces, the Sovereign Order of Malta and the Military Ordinariate.

Annually, 1.7% of GDP is allocated for army spending, which is 20.7 billion US dollars.

Since 1999, compulsory military service has been abolished, and Italy has completely switched to a contract army. Now, the Italian Armed Forces consist only of voluntary mercenary soldiers with special knowledge in military affairs. Also, the Italian army consists of female personnel, which has already become a complementary part of the Italian Armed Forces, where women are not only involved in logistics, but also enter the active forces, taking part in the hostilities in which Italian troops participate abroad.

Military parade. Photo italyproject.ru

Compulsory military service was legalized during the reign of Napoleon, in 1802, although historians argue about this. Some argue that the author of this idea was Nicolo Machiavelli, who lived three hundred years before the famous French emperor.

It should also be noted that, according to Article 52 of the Italian Constitution, every citizen is obliged to defend his Fatherland. This is his sacred duty to the country and society. Therefore, in the event of the outbreak of hostilities or in any other extreme situations threatening the integrity of the country and the tranquility of its citizens, compulsory military service may be renewed. The combat-ready population, according to the Constitution of the country, includes the male population aged 15 to 49 years.

After the army has become professional, a soldier can sign a contract for a period of five years, and then extend it for one or two years (such a contract can be signed twice). The wages of contract soldiers are several times higher than the amount paid to conscripts. According to 2006 data, young people serving in the army under a contract received 1,000 euros, while soldiers carrying a mandatory military service earning 90 euros a month.

Italian police. Photo crimso.msk.ru

At the end of their service life, military personnel are dismissed and can be hired by the police, civil defense, fire departments and security organizations. It is also worth noting the fact that the military reform in Italy gives good prospects for women who can now serve in various branches of the military and hold different posts and positions.

The armed forces of Germany were built in accordance with its aggressive policy and military doctrine. The desire of the fascist leadership to create powerful strike forces in the shortest possible time determined the unusually fast, feverish pace of construction of the land army, air force and navy.

After 1935, when the Nazis officially abandoned all the restrictions imposed by the military articles of the Treaty of Versailles and introduced universal military service, the number of Wehrmacht, its armament and equipment with the latest technology increased many times over. With the capture of Austria and the Sudetenland, the pace of armaments began to grow. At a meeting on October 14, 1938, Goering announced: “Hitler instructed me to create a gigantic weapons program, before which all previous achievements will fade. I received from the Führer the task of increasing armaments without limit. I ordered the construction to be carried out as quickly as possible air force and increase them five times against the existing ones ”(1381) . Such a scale of military construction allowed fascist Germany to significantly outstrip other capitalist countries in preparing for war.

In accordance with the main provisions of the military doctrine, the Wehrmacht was created as an instrument of lightning and total war. At the same time, highly mobile troops with a large strike force should have received maximum development. Since in the early stages of the struggle for world domination the Nazis sought to crush all the major powers of the European continent in fleeting campaigns, special attention was paid to the construction of the land army and air force.

The land army was traditionally considered the main branch of the armed forces of Germany, despite the separation of the air force into an independent branch, which received especially rapid development. The ground forces, operating with the support of aviation, were entrusted with the main tasks of defeating the enemy's armed forces and securing the occupied territory.

The scope and pace of construction of the German land army is evidenced by the data in Table 13.

Most of the ground forces were infantry. In the personnel army of the first half of 1939, out of 51 divisions, there were 35 infantry, 3 mountain rifle, 4 motorized, 5 tank and 4 light divisions. In addition, there were 2 separate tank and 1 cavalry brigades (1382).

The infantry division included 3 infantry regiments, an artillery regiment armed with 36 field howitzers of 105 mm caliber and 12 howitzers of 150 mm caliber, an anti-tank artillery battalion (36 anti-tank guns and 12 anti-aircraft machine guns), an engineer battalion, a communications battalion, a field reserve battalion, rear services. The mountain rifle division consisted of 2 - 3 mountain rifle regiments, an artillery regiment, which was armed with 16 mountain

Table 13. Growth in the number of formations and units of the German ground forces (1383)

guns with a caliber of 75 or 105 mm and 8 heavy howitzers with a caliber of 150 mm, an anti-tank artillery battalion (24 anti-tank guns), a sapper battalion, a communications battalion, a mountain rifle reserve battalion, rear services (1384).

Despite the fact that motorized, light and armored divisions (brigades) accounted for 26 percent total divisions of the Wehrmacht (1385), it was they who were assigned the main tasks in waging a maneuverable fleeting offensive war. They had priority in manning and armament. The personnel of these troops were selected from technically trained conscripts devoted to fascism. These were, first of all, qualified mechanics, drivers, locksmiths, fitters. The main reserve for replenishing the personnel of motorized and tank formations was the motorized organizations of the Hitler Youth and the National Socialist Automobile Corps.

The Nazis paid special attention to the motorization of the army. Thus, in the infantry divisions, heavy artillery, anti-tank gun units, machine-gun battalions, sapper units and communications units were motorized. In general, by the beginning of the war, the German land army was 40 percent motorized (1386).

A motorized infantry division differed from an ordinary infantry division by the complete motorization of all units and subunits, as well as by the presence of a reconnaissance battalion, which consisted of a squadron of armored vehicles and a motorcycle rifle squadron. There was no field reserve battalion in it.

The tank division had a tank brigade (324 tanks), a motorized brigade, an artillery regiment, a motorcycle infantry battalion, a motorized reconnaissance battalion, an anti-tank battalion, a sapper battalion, a communications battalion, as well as rear services (1387).

Panzer divisions on the eve of the war were armed to a large extent with light tanks T-I and T-II, which, even during the Italo-German intervention in Spain, were easily hit by anti-tank artillery fire. The T-I tank was armed only with machine guns, the T-II - a light (20-mm) cannon and a machine gun. In 1936 - 1937. the Wehrmacht began to receive more powerful T-III tanks and T-IV, and in 1938 - 1939. their mass production began (1388). Nevertheless, on the eve of the war with Poland, the armored forces were equipped mainly with light tanks. As of September 1, 1939, there were 3,195 tanks in the Wehrmacht, of which 1,445 were of the T-I type, 1,223 were of the T-II type, 98 were of the T-III, 211 were of the T-IV type, 3 were flamethrower and 215 were command tanks (1,389).

Organizationally, tanks were not dispersed among infantry formations, most of them were concentrated mainly in tank divisions, for the management of which there was a special headquarters subordinate to the commander of the armored forces. For the duration of the war, it was planned to create tank corps intended for an offensive in the main directions.

Infantry divisions were equipped with quite modern weapons for that time, in particular the MG-34 machine gun, which had light weight and high rate of fire. By the beginning of the war, the troops received 50-mm and 81-mm mortars. The universal weapons of the divisional artillery were 75-mm guns, 105-mm and 150-mm howitzers.

The weak link was anti-tank artillery. 37-mm anti-tank guns were intended to fight tanks, which, however, could not cope with heavy and well-armored medium tanks. At the same time, there were few field guns in the Wehrmacht ground forces: 90 percent of the field artillery were howitzers (1390), of little use for fighting tanks. 105-mm guns were available only in tank divisions. The Wehrmacht was also armed with heavy artillery systems on mechanical traction and railway platforms (1391). Equipping the troops with heavy and super-heavy artillery reflected the desire of the German monopolists to supply the most expensive systems with a greater metal content.

By the beginning of the war, the troops had only prototypes of self-propelled artillery mounts, a small number of anti-tank rifles appeared, designed to deal with armored targets at close range. From the autumn of 1939, automatic weapons began to arrive (1392).

As of September 1, 1939, the Wehrmacht land army had 2,770 thousand rifles and carbines, 126,800 machine guns, 11,200 anti-tank guns, 4,624 81-mm mortars, 2,933 75-mm guns, 4,845 105-mm howitzers, 2,049 150-mm howitzers , 410 heavy 150 mm guns and 22 210 mm mortars 1. This number does not include weapons captured in Czechoslovakia.

In March 1939, the mobilization plan for 1939/40 (1393) was adopted, which formed the basis for the deployment of ground forces, with which Germany entered the Second World War. According to this plan, 103 formations were to be mobilized: 86 infantry (including 35 of the first wave, 16 of the second wave, 20 of the third wave, 14 of the fourth wave and 1 landwehr division), 3 mountain rifle, 4 motorized, 4 light infantry, 5 tank divisions and 1 cavalry brigade (1394). The term "wave" did not mean any sequence in the conduct of mobilization, but reflected the qualitative state of the units. The infantry divisions of the first wave are personnel divisions, the most trained formations; the divisions of the first wave also included tank, light and motorized formations. The rest were mainly formed by reservists of various categories.

By the beginning of the war, the ground forces of Germany (field troops, troops of the garrisons of the border and fortified regions, as well as construction troops) numbered over 2.7 million people, and the reserve army - about 1 million people (1395). The officer corps consisted of 70,524 officers, of which 21,768 were regular officers and 48,756 were from the reserve (1396). The ground forces have largely completed their rearmament program. They were equipped with new models of weapons, while the armies of other capitalist states were armed with relatively obsolete weapons. The ground forces of the Wehrmacht had not only a large number, but, most importantly, a larger specific gravity tank and motorized formations, a more modern organization and a high level of combat training. Non-commissioned officers were carefully selected and trained, possessed of high professional qualities.

The air force of fascist Germany consisted mainly of bomber aircraft; the share of fighters on the eve of the war was significantly lower than in other countries. Fighters were widely involved in direct support of the ground forces. The air defense of the imperial regions, primarily the Ruhr and the industrial regions of Central Germany, was supposed to be provided mainly by anti-aircraft artillery, which was organizationally part of the Air Force.

In 1935 - 1936 plans for the construction of the Luftwaffe provided for the creation a large number four-engine long-range bombers. However, by 1937 the situation had changed: priority was given to medium-range bombers capable of working closely with ground forces. Some bourgeois historians, including Hilgruber, try to interpret this as evidence that Hitler did not intend to lead big war, but sought to achieve his political goals in small local wars (1397) . In reality, this circumstance confirms the steadfast adherence of the fascist leadership to the blitzkrieg doctrine in the construction of the Air Force. Being unable to simultaneously solve in full all the political, strategic and military-economic tasks arising from them, it postponed the construction of a powerful strategic aviation for later dates. The development of the Wehrmacht air force in the prewar years is characterized by the data in Table 14.

Table 14. Growth in the number of formations and units of the German air force (1398)

The main tactical unit of the Air Force was considered a squadron (10 aircraft), consisting of three units. Squadrons were combined into air groups (30 - 40 aircraft), which, two or three, were reduced to squadrons, which since 1938 were part of air divisions and air fleets.

The program for building the air force of fascist Germany changed several times. The last, tenth program, adopted on November 7, 1938, provided for by the spring of 1942 to have in the Air Force ready for action: 8 thousand bombers, 2 thousand dive bombers, 3 thousand fighter-bombers, the same number of fighters, 250 attack aircraft, 750 reconnaissance aircraft, 2500 naval aviation aircraft, 500 transport aircraft, in total - 20 thousand aircraft (1399).

In fact, by the beginning of the war, fascist Germany had 4093 aircraft (of which 3646 were in full combat readiness), including 1176 Xe-111, Do-17, Yu-88 bombers, 366 Yu-87 dive bombers, 408 Me-109 fighter-bombers , Me-110, 771 fighters (mainly Me-109E, Me-109D and a small part of Arado), 40 Xe-123 attack aircraft, 613 reconnaissance aircraft Do-17, Xsh-126, Xe-46, Xe-45, 552 transport Yu-52 and 167 seaplanes Xe-60, Xe-59, Xe-115, Do-18 (1400).

By the beginning of the war, after mobilization, anti-aircraft artillery had: 1217 anti-aircraft batteries, in which there were 2600 88-mm and 105-mm guns designed to deal with high-flying targets, and 6700 20- and 37-mm guns to destroy low-flying and diving aircraft . In addition, the anti-aircraft artillery was armed with 188 searchlight batteries (1700 searchlights with a diameter of 150 centimeters and 1300 searchlights with a diameter of 60 centimeters) (1401).

Regarding the paratroopers of the Wehrmacht in the bourgeois historiography of the Second World War, there is a widespread opinion that is far from true. So, for example, in the book of G. Feuchter it is emphasized that “only the Luftwaffe, even before the start of the Second World War, used this idea on a large scale and then put it into practice in campaigns in Norway, Holland, Crete, etc.” (1402) . In reality, the paratroop troops of the Wehrmacht by the beginning of the war were in the process of formation and were insignificant. The nominally created airborne division consisted of only 4 battalions (1403).

The Air Force had a well-organized communications service. By the autumn of 1939, 16 regiments and 59 Air Force communications battalions (1404) were created without taking into account spare parts.

The initial combat training of recruits called up for the Air Force was carried out in 23 training aviation regiments and 2 naval aviation battalions. Every year 60 thousand people were trained here (1405). For their further education, there were 21 pilot schools, including 3 for naval aviation; 10 schools combat use aviation; 2 aviation technical schools. The Air Force command paid great attention to the training of class pilots, which was widely developed in the last two pre-war years. In June 1939, the Air Force had 8,000 pilots of a higher rank, who had the right to day and night driving any military aircraft (1406). By the beginning of the war, about 25 percent of all pilots had mastered the skill of blind piloting.

The officers were replenished mainly at the expense of oberfanejunkers, who graduated from special air force educational institutions. Officers were trained in four air force schools and two academies: air force and military technical.

In August 1939, there were 373 thousand people in the Air Force, including in aviation and airborne troops- 208 thousand people (of which 20 thousand flight personnel), in anti-aircraft artillery - 107 thousand people and in the signal troops - 58 thousand people. The number of officers in the Air Force increased from 12 thousand in June 1939 to 15 thousand in August of the same year (1407). The German Air Force had a large number of combat aircraft of the latest types. The flight crew had proper training, and part of it had combat experience.

At the Nuremberg trials, Kesselring, the former chief of the general staff of the Luftwaffe, testified: “Everything was done in order to make the German air force in regard to its aircrew, fighting qualities of aircraft, anti-aircraft artillery, air communications service, etc., the most formidable fleet in the world. This effort led to the fact that at the beginning of the war or, at the latest, in 1940, we had an exceptionally high-quality fleet, even if there was no uniform standard form ”(1408) . This statement to some extent reflected the actual state of affairs. Goering's air armadas played a significant role in the offensive operations of the German armed forces in 1939-1940.

However, there were also significant miscalculations in the construction of the Air Force. The Nazis failed to create a strong strategic aviation. Aviation was increasingly focused on operational-tactical interaction with the ground forces, which corresponded to the concept of blitzkrieg. In addition, the Luftwaffe was not sufficiently trained to support the actions of the navy on a large scale, since the number of naval aviation was small. The short range of naval aviation and the absence of aircraft carriers did not allow it to be used to fight on remote (over 500 km) sea lanes. The order of subordination and control of naval aviation did not ensure close interaction with the navy. Goering resolutely rejected proposals for the direct subordination of this aviation to the fleet.

The German navy entered the Second World War less prepared than the land army and air force. And it's not just that at the first stage, the main efforts of the "Third Reich" were directed to creating the most powerful forces for waging war in land theaters. The main factor was the incorrect assessment by the state leadership and the naval command of Germany of the real capabilities of the country in the construction of the fleet, the role of various classes of naval ships, as well as naval aviation in a future war.

This was reflected in the development in late 1938 of a large program to build a large "balanced" navy, called Plan Z.

According to this plan, by 1948 it was planned to build and have in the fleet 10 heavy warships (battleships with a displacement of 50 - 54 thousand tons and battlecruisers 29 thousand tons), 12 battleships of 20 thousand tons each, 3 "pocket" cruisers (10 thousand tons each), 4 aircraft carriers, 5 heavy cruisers, 22 light cruisers, 22 reconnaissance (patrol) cruisers, 68 destroyers (in including squadrons), 249 submarines, 10 minelayers, 75 torpedo boats and 227 other special-purpose military vessels (1409) . In January 1939, Hitler approved this plan and demanded that it be carried out within six years, that is, in 1944 (1410), while declaring the development of the Navy a top priority for military development (1411).

Plan Z was based on the deep-rooted belief among the German naval high command that war at sea was decided by the surface fleet, primarily the battleship and cruising fleet. Therefore, in the first place, surface ships were built, and in the second - submarines. It was envisaged that the naval forces in quantity, quality and firepower should surpass the English fleet. But to achieve this, there was not enough money or time. In terms of total displacement, the German navy was 7 times inferior to the English, and almost 3 times to the French (1412). Admiral Doenitz noted: “In the summer of 1939, we did not even have approximately sufficient naval forces with which we could confront England in the decisive theater of military operations - in Atlantic Ocean» (1413) .

By the beginning of the Second World War, the naval forces of Nazi Germany numbered 159,557 personnel and had 107 warships with a total displacement of over 350 thousand tons, including 86 of the newest ships with a displacement of 250 thousand tons, built between 1933 and 1939 Out of 107 warships, there were 2 battleships, 2 heavy and 3 "pocket" cruisers, 6 light cruisers, 22 destroyers, 15 destroyers, 57 submarines (1414) in service. In addition, another 35 ships were built (with a total displacement of 225 thousand tons) (1415), of which 1 aircraft carrier, 2 battleships, 3 heavy cruisers, 1 destroyer, 19 destroyers, 9 submarines (1416). “As a result,” Soviet Admiral V. A. Alafuzov rightly notes, “the German fleet, being in its qualitative composition (in terms of classes and types of ships) a surface fleet called upon to fight to achieve dominance at sea, in its quantitative composition did not correspond to this appointment. It also did not correspond to the tasks of submarine warfare (a total of 57 submarines), which was put forward as a means of defeating England by supporters of a strong submarine fleet, led by Doenitz ”(1417) . Nevertheless, the English navy was not prepared to fight even with the small number of submarines that Germany had at the start of the war.

The leadership of each of the three branches of the armed forces that existed in fascist Germany was carried out by their commanders-in-chief, who had their own general staffs. The commanders-in-chief of the ground forces were Colonel-General Fritsch (until 1938) and Colonel-General Brauchitsch (from the beginning of 1938), the air force - Reichsmarschall Goering, the navy - Admiral Raeder. Until February 1938, the leadership of the Wehrmacht was carried out by the Minister of War, Field Marshal Blomberg, who, in agreement with the Fuhrer, gave general instructions regarding the construction of the armed forces and their preparation for war.

In order to create a supreme military governing body that would fully meet the conditions of total war, and to concentrate all power in one hand, Hitler on February 4, 1938, took over not only formally, but also in fact, the functions of the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Wehrmacht (1418) . The Ministry of War was abolished, and its functions were transferred to the newly created Supreme High Command, whose chief of staff was Colonel General Keitel.

The design bureau was intended to coordinate the actions of all types of armed forces, civil administration and economic bodies. It combined the functions of the War Ministry, the Wehrmacht General Staff and Hitler's personal headquarters as Supreme Commander.

Within the framework of the Design Bureau, an operational leadership headquarters was created, designed to deal with issues of strategic and operational leadership, to coordinate the activities of the general staffs of the three branches of the armed forces. The Chief of Staff, General Jodl, was given the right to report directly to the Fuhrer.

As a result of the measures taken in February 1938, the most aggressive circles of the generals assumed the leading role in the preparations for the war; they began to determine the strategy of German militarism and the pace of military preparations.

In August 1939, wartime states were fully introduced. The main command and the general staff of the ground forces were divided into two parts. One - the main one - began to lead the army in the field and formed a headquarters (Das Oberkommando des Heeres - OKX), the other was entrusted with the leadership of the newly created reserve army, as well as the production of weapons, the mobilization and training of human and material reserves.

All the construction of the Wehrmacht took place under the direct supervision of the Nazi elite. Hitler argued that the party and the Wehrmacht were the two pillars that carried National Socialist Germany. The brochure, strongly recommended by the commander-in-chief of the Wehrmacht and Minister of War Field Marshal Blomberg, said: every “soldier is a National Socialist, although he does not have a party card. The new Wehrmacht, which owes its existence and freedom to National Socialism, is bound to it for life and death” (1419).

In the six pre-war years, the Reichswehr from a small professional land army, which, according to the Treaty of Versailles, was forbidden to have tanks, heavy artillery, aircraft, anti-tank guns, turned into the most powerful army in the capitalist world.

The personnel of the Wehrmacht, especially the officer corps, were overwhelmingly infected with Nazi ideology, zealously carried out the will of the ruling classes of Nazi Germany and obediently followed the Fuhrer.

Speaking in the Reichstag on September 1, 1939, Hitler declared: “For more than 6 years I have been busy building the German armed forces. During this period, more than 90 billion Reichsmarks were spent on the creation of the armed forces, and now our armed forces are the best in the world in terms of the quantity and quality of their weapons. They are also much better now than they were in 1914" (1420).

The fascist bosses of the "Third Reich" believed that the German armed forces were ready to carry out the program they had planned, and were arrogantly confident in the successful outcome of the war.

Armed Forces of Italy

were completed on the basis of universal military service with a term of active service of 1.5 years. By the beginning of World War II, there were 8.8 million men aged 18 to 55 in the country, including about 7.2 million fit for military service. The mobilization capabilities of Italy were limited by a relatively small population.

The militarization of the Italian population received legal formalization in the law "On the Organization of the Nation for War" of February 8, 1925, issued shortly after the Nazis came to power. The law established not only the general principles of mobilization, but also the functions of individual departments, as well as the structure of the state apparatus in war conditions. These provisions were then developed in the law of May 8, 1931 "On Military Discipline", which provided for the personal participation of all citizens in national defense. In another law - "On the militarization of the Italian nation", adopted on December 31, 1934, military training was established from the moment the child went to school, and must continue for as long as the citizen is able to own weapons.

The armed forces consisted of three branches (ground forces, air force and navy) and national security troops. Total in Italian army in the summer of 1939 there were 1,753 thousand people. Formally, the head of the armed forces was the king. However, in reality, power belonged to the military, aviation and naval ministries, which were headed by Mussolini. He was directly subordinated to the General Staff, the head of which had the rank of Deputy Minister. In this position, for almost 15 years (1925 - 1940), Mussolini kept Marshal Badoglio, whose functions included coordinating the activities of all branches of the armed forces, and in fact he was content with the role of technical adviser to the head of government. Along with the ministries, there was an interdepartmental body - the supreme council of national defense, reduced to the role of an advisory body (1421).

The ground forces, the most numerous branch of the armed forces, consisted of the army located in the metropolis and the colonial troops. By mid-April 1939, there were 450 thousand people in the army of the metropolis in peacetime states - 67 understaffed divisions (including 58 infantry, 2 tank, 2 motorized and 5 mountain rifle divisions), combined into 22 corps and 5 armies (1422) . According to the mobilization plan, the ground forces were to have 88 divisions. Additionally, it was planned to form a tank and 12 special motorized divisions for operations in Africa.

The infantry division consisted of two infantry and artillery regiments, a mortar battalion, a company of anti-tank guns, a legion of fascist militia, support and maintenance units. In total, the division had 12,979 people, 34 field artillery guns (65 mm and 100 mm), 126 45 mm and 30 81 mm mortars, 8 47 mm anti-tank and 8 20 mm anti-aircraft guns (1423).

Part tank division included tank, bersalier, artillery regiments, parts of support and maintenance. It consisted of 7439 people, 184 light tanks armed with 37-mm cannons, 24 75-mm field artillery guns on a mechanized tractor, 8 47-mm anti-tank and 16 20-mm anti-aircraft guns, 581 vehicles, 1170 motorcycles and 48 tractors (1424) .

The motorized division had two motorized, Bersaglier and artillery regiments, a mortar battalion, as well as units and subunits of support and maintenance. In total, the division had 10,500 people, 24 75-mm and 100-mm field artillery guns, 56 45-mm and 12 81-mm mortars, 24 47-mm anti-tank and 16 20-mm anti-aircraft guns, 581 vehicles, 1,170 motorcycles and 48 tractors (1425).

The mountain rifle division in organizational and staffing terms differed slightly from the infantry. In its composition, it had 14,786 people, 24 75-mm mountain guns, 54 45-mm and 24 81-mm mortars (1426).

The rank and file of the colonial troops of Italy was recruited from the local population on a voluntary basis, sergeants and officers - at the expense of the Italians. Before the war, these troops numbered about 223 thousand people. Their highest unit was the infantry brigade.

The ground forces of the Italian metropolis were for the most part poorly armed, insufficiently equipped and poorly trained. They were intended mainly for the defense of the Alps. The army did not have modern types of tanks, anti-tank weapons, motor transport; gun production was often limited to obsolete designs. Mussolini gave the order until June 1938 to use emergency funds for the army, but they were only enough to produce new weapons intended for military operations in Spain.

The government invested heavily in the air force. By the beginning of the war in Europe, the Air Force had 2802 aircraft, of which 2132 aircraft were in the army (890 bombers, 691 fighters, 354 reconnaissance aircraft, 197 naval aircraft) (1427). At the same time, only about 1690 aircraft, of which 200 were of obsolete brands, were ready to participate in hostilities (1428).

According to its tactical and technical data, the Italian fighter aircraft lagged behind the British and German ones, and the bomber aircraft, although not inferior to them, had weaker weapons.

The supreme body of the Air Force was the ministry, to which all combat units, territorial aviation formations and institutions (aviation districts, bases, and others) were subordinate. The highest formation of the air force was a squadron, consisting of two or three divisions and one or two brigades. The division had three or four regiments, the brigade - two or three regiments. The regiment included two or three groups, and the group - two or three squadrons. According to the states, the squadron had nine to ten aircraft (1429).

Preparing to conquer maritime dominance, Italy maintained a large navy, which, after Great Britain and France, ranked third in Europe in terms of the number of surface warships, and first in the world in terms of submarines. By the beginning of World War II, the Italian fleet had 4 battleships, 22 cruisers, 128 destroyers and destroyers, 105 submarines (1430).

The Navy was headed by a ministry that had a naval general staff as the governing body for all surface and submarine forces of the fleet, naval districts and bases.

In terms of combat qualities, Italian battleships and cruisers were inferior to English and French ones, and were poorly equipped with the latest technical equipment. The battleships were predominantly outdated designs, the cruisers had a number of design flaws. In terms of the number of destroyers, the Italian navies outnumbered the English and French fleets in the Mediterranean, but the latter had almost all ships of this class with a larger displacement and larger-caliber artillery.

Most of the Italian submarines were small boats, with low combat capability and maneuverability, slow sinking, with a lot of noise from the mechanisms. Submarines did not have traceless torpedoes. The fleet was not prepared for night battles. But its most significant shortcomings were the poor training of command personnel, the absence of carrier-based aircraft (except for 20 shipborne aircraft), and a chronic lack of fuel. All this led to the fact that the Italian fleet was ill-prepared to fight on the Mediterranean communications, protect its sea communications and defend the coast, which was its main task.

The national security troops included the fascist militia, military police(Carabinieri), border and customs troops, special police (railway, port, forest protection, road) and marines. The fascist militia consisted of individual legions, blackshirt battalions, and air defense and coastal defense troops of the country.

By the beginning of the war in Europe, the air defense forces had 22 legions of anti-aircraft artillery of the fascist militia, 4 separate anti-aircraft regiment(64 76-mm guns and 32 machine guns each) and 3 divisions (16 76-mm guns and 8 machine guns each) in the ground forces; they were intended for air defense of large metropolitan cities and beyond (Tripoli and Benghazi).

To organize the air defense of the country, its entire territory was divided into 28 zones, for the management of which 15 commands were created. The latter were directly subordinate to the Deputy Chief of the General Staff for Territorial Defense, who was also the commander of the air defense.

By the beginning of the Second World War, the Italian armed forces were stationed in various parts of the Mediterranean. In the metropolis there were 48 divisions (2nd and 4th armies) and most of the air force. The main forces of the fleet were based in the ports and naval bases of the Apennine Peninsula (Taranto, Naples, Brindisi, Bari, Spezia and others), the islands of Sicily (Messina, Augusta, Syracuse, Palermo) and the islands of Sardinia (Cagliari). In Libya, on the border with Tunisia, Algeria and Egypt, the 5th and 10th armies were deployed, numbering 12 divisions and 315 combat aircraft. In the ports of Tobruk and Tripoli (Libya), 12 destroyers and destroyers, 3 escort ships and 9 submarines were based. One division was stationed on the Dodecanese Islands, 6 destroyers, 20 torpedo boats and 8 submarines were based on their ports. Large groupings of Italian troops from the mother country and colonies were in Albania and Ethiopia.

In general, the armed forces of Italy were not ready for war. The combat training and morale of the army did not meet the requirements of fighting a strong enemy. The widespread propaganda of the strength and power of Italy, the imposition of fascist ideology, calls for the creation of a "great Roman empire" and assurances that this goal could be achieved did not arouse enthusiasm among the people and the armed forces.

Japanese Armed Forces

headed by the emperor, who led them through the headquarters - the highest military body of the country. Created in November 1937 and under the control of the emperor, the headquarters had broad powers and had the right to make decisions on the most important issues of an operational and strategic nature without approval from the government and even without its knowledge (1431) . However, it was a "weakly coordinated body", because "the department of the army and the department of the navy strove to act independently" (1432) .

The land forces were headed by the minister of war and the chief of the general staff of the army, and the navy by the minister of the sea and chief of the naval general staff. Under the commander-in-chief (emperor) there were advisory bodies: the council of marshals and the supreme military council. The main task of the Supreme Military Council was to harmonize the requirements of the army and navy. The main mobilization body was the Council of National Resources (chaired by the Prime Minister), which was in charge of the country's comprehensive preparation for war.

At the end of March 1939, the ground forces, which consisted of army groups, armies, formations and units, numbered 1240 thousand people (1433). The highest tactical unit was the division. In 1937 - 1939 their number increased from 30 (including 6 reserve ones) to 41 (1434). Divisions were divided into three types: "A-I" - two-brigade composition (staffing 29,400 people, 148 guns, 81 tanks); regimental strength - reinforced ("A") (24,600 people, 102 guns and 7 tanks) and ordinary (13 - 16 thousand people, 75 guns) (1435). The bulk of the ground forces fighting in China (25 divisions). 7 divisions were stationed in the metropolis and Korea. In addition, there were 10 training divisions in Japan. In 1939, the Kwantung Army included 3 armies (9 reinforced infantry divisions, an aviation division, a cavalry brigade, 13 border guard detachments and other separate units) with a total strength of more than 300 thousand people (excluding local formations) (1436) .

In 1937 - 1939 firepower ground forces has increased significantly, primarily due to the equipping of infantry units and subunits with new and modernized artillery and small arms. Instead of the obsolete 72-mm mortars and 37-mm cannons of the 1922 model, 70-mm howitzer cannons were put into service. In addition to the batteries of regimental artillery, armed with a 75-mm cannon of the “41” model, anti-tank batteries equipped with new 37-mm rapid-fire cannons were included in the infantry regiments. The artillery regiments of the infantry divisions were armed with modernized 75-mm cannons of the "38" model and 105-mm howitzers of the "91" (1437) model. By 1939, there were more than 2 thousand tanks in the tank troops, of which about half were obsolete designs (1438).

During the same period, the number of squadrons of aviation of the ground forces increased from 54 to 91 (44 thousand people, about 1 thousand aircraft). The air forces of the army were consolidated into aviation divisions, brigades and detachments, which were armed with single-seat fighters of the "95" and "96" types (speed 380 km / h), reconnaissance aircraft "94", single-engine and twin-engine light bombers "93" , medium bombers "93" and "97" (speed 220 and 474 km / h) with a bomb load of 500 to 1000 kg (1439).

According to the field regulations adopted at the end of 1938, special attention was paid to training troops in offensive combat operations. The main blow was recommended to be applied to the flanks, joints, unprotected areas, areas where the enemy’s weak military units were located and where he did not expect an attack (1440).

When working out questions of organizing defense, much attention was paid to anti-tank defense. To combat tanks, it was planned to create anti-tank assault groups armed with bundles of grenades, mines, poles with explosive charges, the use of heavy machine guns, rapid-fire anti-tank guns, regimental and divisional artillery guns, the creation of minefields, pit traps, etc. (1441) . Ground forces were mainly trained in combat operations in difficult conditions: at night, in the mountains, forests, jungles, settlements {1442} .

The flight personnel of the Army Air Forces were trained in four aviation schools. During the training of pilots, long group, night and high-altitude flights, as well as blind flights in difficult meteorological conditions, were widely practiced. Each pilot had an average of 150 flight hours per year.

In the autumn of 1939, the Japanese naval forces included: the combined fleet, which consisted of the 1st and 2nd fleets; the fleet of the Chinese front, which included the 3rd, 4th and 5th fleets; training fleet; a guard squadron guarding eight naval bases; training flotilla; auxiliary service flotilla and reserve flotilla (1443).

The Japanese command paid special attention to the construction of battleships with super-large caliber guns, considering this as a guarantee of victory in a naval war. Of the ten battleships, two had main artillery with a caliber of 406 mm and eight with a caliber of 356 mm. In November 1937, the super-powerful battleship Yamato with a displacement of 69,100 tons, armed with 460 mm (1444) caliber guns, was laid down in Kobe.

A large role was assigned to the development of the aircraft carrier fleet. Two aircraft carriers (Kaga and Akagi) were converted from a battleship and a battlecruiser, and Ryujo, Hosho, Soryu and Hiryu were rebuilt (1445).

Waging war in China and preparing for the expansion of aggression, the Japanese militarists took every measure to commission new warships. In 1937, 3 heavy cruisers, an aircraft carrier and 19 other warships were launched, in 1938 - 16 ships, in 1939 - 23 ships.

In three years, the fleet was replenished with 62 warships with a total displacement of 154,994 tons (1446). At the end of 1939, the Navy had 10 battleships, 6 aircraft carriers with 396 aircraft, 35 cruisers, 121 destroyers, 56 submarines (1447).

The Japanese navy had a whole system of naval bases that ensured the deployment of aggression against Soviet Union, European colonial powers and the United States of America.

In connection with the preparations for an attack on the USSR, naval bases were built on the coast of Korea - Rasin, Seishin, Yuki, for air and naval forces strongholds were created on the Kuril Islands and fortifications on both banks of the La Perouse Strait - on the island of Ieso and South Sakhalin. At the same time, naval bases were built on the mandated islands (Marian, Caroline and Marshall) (1448).

Relying on a wide network of bases, the Japanese naval command launched an intensified training of personnel for war. In 1938 - 1939. especially intensively worked out the issues of conducting combat operations against the Soviet Pacific Fleet and the US Navy in the area of ​​the Philippine Islands and the island of Guam.

By 1939, Japan completed the creation of an annular air defense system, which had a three-zone structure. The depth of the entire defense system in coastal areas reached 160-170 km. The air defense forces were armed with modern stationary and mobile anti-aircraft guns, interceptor fighters, anti-aircraft machine guns, barrage balloons (1449).

Giving great importance indoctrination of military personnel, the command of the Japanese armed forces maintained a special propaganda apparatus. It instilled in its personnel a monarchist-militarist ideology, which had an anti-communist orientation. Soldiers and officers were brought up in the spirit of boundless loyalty and devotion to the emperor and unquestioning obedience to elders (1450).

The idea of ​​pan-Asianism was one of the main foundations of chauvinist propaganda. The idea of ​​the “great mission” of Japan to liberate the peoples of the yellow race from the oppression of the whites, to establish “paradise and prosperity” in the East, was inspired everywhere, “ eternal peace”, etc. As a rule, religious dogmas about the divine origin of Japan and its emperor, the veneration of ancestors and the deification of heroes were widely used in propaganda. In general, the Japanese militaristic circles managed to create a loyal and obedient army, ready to carry out any order.

Thus, although the top military-political leadership planned to complete the training of the armed forces in 1941-1942. (1451), however, by the beginning of the Second World War, Japan had significant military power.

On the eve of the war, the armed forces of the main countries of the fascist bloc were far from equal. While the Wehrmacht had modern military equipment and in terms of armament, combat training of troops, training of officers and non-commissioned officers surpassed the ground armies and aviation of France, England, especially Poland, the armed forces of fascist Italy lagged behind in all these indicators not only from their own main ally, but also from the main opponents. The Japanese army and navy were distinguished by good combat training of personnel, which during the course of the war to a certain extent could compensate for the lag in some types of weapons from the main enemy in the Pacific Ocean - the United States.

On the basis of the fascist-militarist regime in Germany, Italy and Japan, the maximum militarization of all spheres of public life and the training of mass armed forces were carried out.